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LIBRARY  OF  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMLNARY 
PRINCETON,  N.J. 

Purchased  by  the 
Mary  Cheves  Dulles  Fund 


BLi 105 

.GrZl 


CLASSICAL  DICTIONARY  OF  INDIA 


ILLUSTRATIVE    OF    THE 


MYTHOLOGY  PHILOSOPHY 

LITERATURE  ANTIQUITIES  ARTS 

MANNERS  CUSTOMS  &c. 

OF 

THE  HINDUS 


BY  JOHn'gAERETT 

DIRECTOR   OF    PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION    IN    MYSORE 

EDITOR   or   THE    BHAGAVAT   GITA,    IN  SANSKRIT    AND    CANARESE 

PANCHA    TANTRA,    KATHA    MAXJARI,    SHABDA    MANI    DARPANA,    ETC, 


MADRAS 

HIGGINBOTHAM  AND   CO 
1871 


lAll  rig-hts  reserved.] 


Registered  under  Act  XXV  of  1867. 


PRINTED   AT  THE  ASYLUM  PRESS,  BY  WM.   THOMAS — 1871. 


PREFACE. 

No  Student  of  Indian  Literature,  whether  he  has  studied 
it  in  its  ancient  classic  tongue,  the  Sanskrit,  in  which  its 
earliest  and  most  original  works  are  written  ;  or  has  derived 
his  acquaintance  with  it  from  the  scantier  range  of  some 
modern  Indian  vernacular,  but  has  felt  the  difficulties  that 
arise  from  the  frequent  mention  of  mythical  personages, 
places,  and  objects,  whose  very  names  are  so  utterly 
unknown  to  him  that  he  often  even  fails  to  recognise  that 
they  are  proper  names  (oriental  characters  having  no  capital 
letters  to  indicate  this)  while  of  the  facts  concerning  them 
he  has  little  or  no  means  of  information.  Hence  he  has  to 
trust  to  such  information  as  he  can  obtain  from  his  Munshi 
— information  mostly  very  imperfect  and  often  quite 
incorrect.  The  course  of  many  years'  reading  gives  the 
desired  knowledge,  but  it  is  acquired  at  the  cost  of  much 
time,  labour,  and  research — nearly  all  of  which  might  be 
saved  did  any  such  work  exist  for  the  Indian  student,  as 
the  classical  learner  has  long  had  in  his  "  Lempriere,"  and 
now  has  in  the  well-known  and  far  superior  Dictionaries  of 
Dr.  William  Smith. 

The  Universities  in  India  have  placed  the  Sanskrit  and 
some  of  the   vernacular  languages,  in  the  same  position  as 


IV  PREFACE. 


the  Universities  of  Europe  have  assigned  to  the  languages 
of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  A  knowledge  of  ancient 
Hindu  Literature  is  therefore  now  necessary  to  the  attain- 
ment of  University  honours.  At  present  there  is  no  work 
in  existence  in  the  form  of  a  Classical  Dictionary,  designed 
to  afford  direct  aid  to  a  student  in  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  Mythology  and  Antiquities  of  India. 

To  supply  in  some  measure  these  wants  is  the  object  of 
the  present  work.  It  contains  an  account  of  all  the  Hindu 
deities,  and  all  the  mythical  personages  and  objects,  that 
are  likely  to  be  met  with  in  the  study  of  Hindu  Literature, 
whether  Sanskrit  or  vernacular.  The  various  terms  of 
Brahmanical  and  Buddhistical  theology  and  ritual,  and  of 
the  schools  of  Indian  philosophy,  will  be  found  briefly 
explained.  Such  information  as  can  be  obtained  on  the 
subject  of  ancient  Indian  Geography  has  been  given.  It 
may  be  thought  that  many  names  of  comparatively  obscure 
persons  and  places  have  been  included.  But  the  Hindus 
attach  great  importance  to  their  genealogical  lists,  and  the 
present  work  was  intended  to  contain  every  name  occurring 
in  their  ancient  books,  though  nothing  is  recorded  of  them 
but  the  line  or  family  to  which  they  belonged.  No  doubt 
many  names,  some  probably  of  importance,  have  been 
omitted ;  but  this  is  only  what  might  be  expected  in  the 
first  edition  of  a  book  of  this  nature. 

The  work  was  commenced  about  twenty  years  ago,  and 
most  of  the  legends  were  at  first  taken  from  the  vernacular 
writino-s  current  in  Southern  India  :  but  when  the  valuable 


PREFACE. 


work  of  Dr.  John  Mum  *  came  under  the  writer's  notice,  he 
felt  it  his  duty  to  exclude  all  the  traditionary  and  imperfect 
accounts  previously  collected,  and  to  substitute  for  them 
extracts  from  the  authentic  writings  of  the  Hindus,  which 
alone  can  furnish  a  reliable  knowledge  of  their  religion, 
mythology,  and  historical  traditions.  As  however  the 
materials  of  the  work  have  been  picked  up  at  intervals,  and 
put  together  as  opportunities  occurred,  it  is  possible  that 
the  critical  reader  will  discover  many  defects  ;  thouo-h  it  is 
doubtless  very  much  more  trustworthy  than  it  could  have 
been  had  it  been  published  before  the  appearance  of  Dr. 
Muir's  volumes. 

The  writer  has  also  been  greatly  indebted  to  Professor 
Wilson's  Translation  of  the  Vishnu  Purana,  as  well  as  to 
the  Essays  on  Sanskrit  Literature,  and  on  the  Religion  of  the 
Hindus,  of  the  same  distinguished  scholar.  The  editions  of 
the  Mahabharata  and  Ramayana  published  by  Mr.  Talboys 
Wheeler,  have  also  been  laid  under  contribution.  The 
Poetical  Translation  of  the  Ramayana  by  Mr.  Griffith, 
Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  the  Benares  College,  the  '  Idylls 
from  the  Sanskrit,'  and  *  Scenes  from  the  Ramayan'  by  the 
same  author,  have  served  to  enrich  and  enliven  the  volume 
with  many  passages  of  great  beauty  ;  while  Mr.  Griffith's 
own  Notes,  and  others  selected  by  him  from  Schlegel, 
GoRRESio,  and  others,  have  thrown  light  on  several  difficult 
points. 


*  "Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  on  the  Origin  and  History  of  the  People  of 
India,  their  Religion  ^ind  Institutions.  " 


VI  PREFACE. 


Professor  Max  Muller's  History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit 
Literature,  and  his  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  have 
supplied  much  information,  and  many  extracts  of  great 
value  have  been  taken  from  those  works.  The  articles  on 
Hinduism  contributed  by  Professor  Goldstucker  to  the 
English  Cyclopsedia,  and  more  especially  to  Chambers' 
Encyclopaedia,  and  the  few  parts  of  the  Sanskrit  Dictionary 
issued  by  the  same  learned  author,  have  given  to  the  world 
the  fruits  of  great  research,  and  the  writer  has  availed 
himself  of  much  new  matter  in  the  above  publications. 

Many  other  works  might  be  specified  which  have  added 
to  the  interest  and  utility  of  the  present  volume.  Among 
others  the  following  should  not  be  omitted.  Ancient  and 
Mediaeval  India,  by  Mrs.  Manning.  Indian  Epic  Poetry, 
by  Professor  Monier  Williams.  Handbook  of  Sanskrit 
Literature,  by  G.  Small,  M.  A.  Ziegenbalg's  Manual 
of  the  Mythology  of  Southern  India.  Tod's  Annals  and 
Antiquities  of  Eajasthan.  Colebrooke's  Essays,  &c.,  &c. 
A  complete  list  of  the  editions  used  will  be  found  on  another 
page. 

In  the  Prospectus  of  this  work  published  a  year  ago,  the 
writer,  in  acknowledging  that  the  Mythological  legends  of 
India  had  never  commanded  the  attention  accorded  to  those 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  expressed  an  opinion  that  this  has  arisen 
not  only  from  the  extravagant  oriental  imagination  by 
which  they  are  characterized,  but  chielly  from  the  fact  that 
they  have  never  yet  been  studied  by  Europeans  in  youth. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  charm  of  early  Greek 


PREFACE.  VII 


and  Roman  story  belongs  to  the  associations  in  the  midst  of 
which  a  knowledge  of  it  was  first  acquired.  The  interest 
that  educated  Europeans  feel  in  the  classic  tales  of  Greece 
and  Rome  ma}^  be  traced  to  the  familiarity  acquired  with 
them  in  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  amid  scenes  and  circum- 
stances which  stand  out  through  life  as  bright  phases  of  their 
existence. 

The  beauty,  however,  as  well  as  the  value,  of  the  two 
great  Epics  of  India,  is  now  acknowledged.  They  are  no 
longer  regarded  as  worthless  fictions  or  mere  idle  flights  of 
imagination.*  It  is  now  admitted  that  these  two  heroic 
poems,  the  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata,  contain  "  all 
that  we  can  ever  know  of  India's  early  history ;"  and  that 
notwithstanding  their  exaggerations,  they  bring  before  us  a 
state  of  society,  and  a  condition  of  thought  and  feeling, 
through  which  mankind  has  had  to  pass  in  pre- historic 
times.  The  people  who  figured  in  these  early  tales  were 
men  and  women  '  of  like  passions  with  ourselves' — animated 
by  the  same  joys  and  hopes — depressed  by  the  same  sorrows 
and  disappointments.  It  is  consequently  interesting  to 
observe  the  traces  they  have  left  behind  them — "  their  foot- 


*  •'  lu  the  RjCmayaua  all  is  pure  measureless  raving.  Au  imagination 
which  seems  to  combine  the  advantages  of  mania,  superstition,  and  drunken- 
ness, is  put  a-going,  makes  a  set  of  what  it  names  worlds,  of  its  own,  and 
fills  them  with  all  sorts  of  agents ;  gods,  sages,  demi-gods,  monkeys,  and  a 
numberless  diversity  of  fantastic  entities,  at  once  magnified  and  distorted 
to  the  last  transcendent  madness  of  extravagance, — some  additional  monster 
still  striding  and  bellowing  into  the  hurly-burly,  whenever  the  poet  thinks  it 
noh  sufi&ciently  turbulent  and  chaotic." — John  FOSTER,  Eclectic  Review, 
Sept.  1810. 


VIII  PREFACE. 


prints  on  the  sands  of  time" — to  glean  all  we  can  from  the 
records  they  have  left  us  of  what  people  used  to  think  and 
say  and  do  at  a  period  so  remote  as  to  take  our  thoughts  to 
the  very  infancy  of  the  human  race. 

"  Greatly  as  our  times  are  distinguished  by  discover}-  and 
progress,  we  are  yet  continually  reminded,  amidst  its  changes, 
^f  that  world  of  the  Past  out  of  which  the  Present  is  born. 
The  century  which  has  witnessed  such  onward  strides  of 
physical  and  political  science,  has  also  unlocked  the  secrets 
of  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt.  Major  Rawlinson  is  now 
giving  a  voice  to  dumb  inscriptions  upon  Persian  rocks ;  and 
in  the  same  way,  in  India's  mythic  poetry,  we  become  con- 
temporaries with  Greece's  earliest  history.  The  heroic  times 
and  youth  of  the  race  thus  rise  up  in  earth's  later  days,  in 
startling  contrast  with  our  science  and  commerce,  as  if  nature 
would  expressly  teach  us  that  there  lies  a  romance  in  the 
past  which  can  never  grow  obsolete  to  man ;  and  howsoever 
our  civilization  may  change  us,  and  under  all  the  new  develop- 
ments of  the  human  race,  the  memories  of  old  ages  will  still 
survive  and  come  back  to  us,  like  the  stories  of  childhood 
among  the  sterner  realities  of  manhood."* 

Bangalore,        -j  j.  GARRETT. 

August  15,  1871.     J 

•  Westminster  Review,  Vol.  L,  p.  62. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  QUOTED  OR  REFEIJRED  TO  IN  THE 
FOLLOWING  PAGES. 


Adelung's  Historical  Sketch  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  Oxford,  1832. 

Asiatic  Researches,  11  vols.,  London,  1812. 

Ainslie's  Materia  Indica,  2  vols.,  London,  1826. 

Balfour's  Cyclopaedia  of  India,  Madras,  1862.  -^ 

Ballantyne's  Aphorisms  of  the  Sankya  Philosophy.       j    Benares  and 

Ballantyne's  Aphorisms  of  the  Nyaya  Philosophy.        )■    Allahabad, 

Ballantyne's  Lecture  on  the  Vedanta.  |   1849  to  1852. 

Ballantyne's  Tarka  Sangraha.  J 

Ballantyne's  Christianity  and  Hindu  Philosophy,  London,  1 859. 

Ben aees  Magazine,  1851. 

Buchanan's  (F.)  Journey  through  Mysore,  &c.,  3  vols.,  London,  1807. 

Bbande's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature  and  Art,  3  vols.,  London,  1  867 

Bernier's  Travels  in  Lidia,  2  vols.,  8 vo.,  London,  1826. 

Bower's  Chintamani,  Madras,  1868. 

Colebrooke's  (H.  T.)  Miscellaneous  Essays,  2  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  1837. 

Carey's  Ramayana,  Serampore,  1806. 

Cox's  Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations,  2  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  1870. 

Calcutta  Review,  35  volumes. 

Cudworth's  Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,  3  vols.,  8vo,,  London. 

Chambers'  Encyclopaedia,  10  vols. 

Dubois'  Manners  and  Customs  of  People  of  India,  quarto,  London,  1817. 

Duff's  India  and  Indian  Missions,  Edinbur^-h,  1841. 

Elliot's  (H.  M.)  Memoir  of  the  History,  &-c.,  of  the  Races  of  N.  W.  P. 

of  India,  by  Beames,  2  vols.,  1869. 
KLriiiNSTONE's  History  of  India,  2  vols.,  London,  1843. 
Erskine'r  History  of  India,  2  vols.,  1854. 
Elfhinstone's  Caubul,  Account  of.  quarto,  London,  1815. 
Engllsh  Cyclopaedia. 

Forbes'  Oriental  Memoirs,  2  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  1834. 
Frere's  Old  Deccan  Days,  London,  1870. 
Goldstucker's  Sanskrit  Dictionary,  6  parts. 
Grote's  History  of  Greece,  12  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  1846-56. 
Griffith  s  Idylls  from  the  Sanskrit,  London,  1866. 
Griffith's  Scenes  from  the  Ramayan,  Benares,  1870. 
Griffith's  Ramayan  of  Valmiki,  vols.  1  and  11,  Benares,  1870-71. 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED, 


Haug's,  Dr.  Aitareya  Brahmanam  of  the  Rig  Veda,  2  vols.,  Bombay,  1 863. 

Halhed's  Code  of  Gentoo  Laws,  London,  J777. 

Hardy's  (Spence)  Eastern  Monachism,  London,  1850. 

Hardy's  (Spence)  Manual  of  Buddhism. 

Heber's  Journey  through  the  Upper  Provinces  of  India,  3  vols.,  8vo., 

London,  1828. 
Hunter's  Comparative  Dictionary  of  the  Non-Aryan  Languages  of 

India,  quarto,  1869. 
Hunter's  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal,  London,  1868. 
Jones',  (Sir  W.)  Works,  13  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  1807. 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Calcutta,  1835-45. 
Kennedy,  Vans,  Col.,  Researches  into  the  Nature  and  Affinity  of  Ancient 

and  Hindu  Mythology,  London,  1831. 
Marshman's  History  of  India,  3  vols.,  London,  1867. 
Mill's  History  of  India,  by  Wilson,  9  vols.,  London,  1858. 
Manning's,  Mrs.,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  India,  2  vols.,  London,  1869. 
Moor's  Hindu  Pantheon,  London,  1810. 

Muib's  Original  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Origin  and    History  of  the 
People  of  India,  their  Religion  and  Institutions,  London,  1868, 
vol.  i,  2d  edition,  vol.  iii,  2d  edition,  1868,  vol.  iv,  1863,  vol.  v,  1870, 
Muller's  (Max)  History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,  1859. 
Muller's  (Max)  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  3  vols.,  1868-70. 
Muller's  (Max)  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language,  2  vols,,  1866. 
Muller's  (Max)  Rig  Veda  Sanhita,  London,  1869. 
Oriental  Astronomer,    a  complete    System     of   Hindu   Astronomy, 

Jaffna,  1848. 
Sherring's  Sacred  City  of  the  Hindus,  London,  1868. 
Small's  Handbook  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  London,  1866. 
Thomson's  Translation  of  the  Bhagavad-Gita,  Hertford,  1855. 
Ward's  View  of  the  History,  Literature  and  Mythology  of  the  Hindus, 

3  vols.,  London,  1822. 
Wheeler's  History  of  India  from  the  Earliest  Times,  2  vols.,  London, 

1867-69. 
Wilson's  (H.  H.)  Vishnu  Purana,  quarto,  London,  1840. 
Wilson's  Works,  by  Dr.  Rost  and  others,  10  vols.,  London,  1862-70. 
Wilson's  Select  Specimens  of  the  Theatre  of  the  Hindus,   2   vols,, 

London,  1835. 
Wilson's  Sanskrit  and  English  Dictionary,  Calcutta,  1840. 
Williams'  Indian  Epic  Poetry,  London,  1863. 
Williams*  English  and  Sanskrit  Dictionary,  London,  *1851. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

A.  S.  L.  Muller's  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature. 

A.  8p  M,  I.  Mrs.  Manning's  Ancient  and  IVIediseval  India. 

H,  P,  Moor's  H  indu  Pantheon. 

H,  S,  L.  Handbook  of  Sanskrit  Literature, 

/.  E,  P,  Williams'  Indian  Epic  Poetry. 

O.  S.  T.  Muir's  Original  Sanskrit  Texts. 

V,  P,  Wilson's  Vishnu  Purana,  the  quarto  edition 

unless  where  the  8vo.  edition  is  specified. 


ERRATA. 


At  page  218,  line   19,  for   Gleiidovecr's  read   Glendoveers. 

At  page  688,  line  13,  for  assist  read  assert. 

At  page  518,  line     6,  for   Griffiths\  read   Griffith's. 


This  mistake  lias  occurred  several  times  in  connection 
iviili  lliis  name. 


A 

CLASSICAL  DICTIONARY  OF  INDIA, 


^  Akara — The  first  letter  in  the  Sanskrit  and  all  Indian  Alphabets. 
A  name  claimed  by  Krishna  as  the  Supreme  Being,  (Bhagavat 
Gita,  Chapter  X,  verse  33)  similar  to  the  name  Alpha  given  in  the 
Book  of  Revelation  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Clirist. 

Abhasara — The  name  of  the  thirteenth  heaven  of  Buddhism. 

Abhaya — (Fearlessness)  one  of  the  sons  of  Dharma,  see  Vishnu 
Puraua,  p.  55. 

Abhidhana  Chintamani — A  vocabulary  of  the  Jain  doctrines 
written  by  Hemachandra,  and  described  by  Professor  Wilson  as 
one  of  great  utility  that  may  be  relied  on. 

Abhidharmma. — The  third  class  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Buddhists,  which  are  called  in  Pali,  the  language  in  which  they  are 
written,  Pittakattyan,  from  Pittakau,  a  basket  or  chest,  and  tayo, 
three,  the  text  being  divided  into  three  great  classes.  The  Abhi- 
darmma  contain  instructions  which  the  Buddhists  imagine  to  be 
addressed  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  celestial  worlds.  This  is 
accordingly  accounted  the  highest  class  of  sacred  books,  and  the 
expounders  of  it  are  to  be  held  in  the  highest  honor,  for  it  contains 
pre-eminent  truths,  as  the  word  itself  implies.  The  books  of  which 
it  consists  are  not  in  the  form  of  sermons,  but  specify  terms  and 
doctrines,  with  definitions  and  explanations.  The  work  contains 
seven  sections. —  Gardiner. 

Abhijit— A  Yadava  Chief,  V.  P.,  p.  436. 

Abhimani — The  eldest  son  of  Brahma  :  he  was  an  Agui,  and 
by  his  wife  Swaba  had  three  sons  of  surpassing  brilliancy,  Pavaka, 
Pavamana,  and  Siichi.  They  had  forty-five  sous,  who,  with  them- 
selves and  Abhimani,  constitute  the  forty-nine  fires.     Y.  P. 


ABH— ABO 


Abhimana— lu  Hiudu  philosophy  means  *  selfish  conviction.' 
See  Colebrooke's  Essays,  Vol.  I,  p.  242. 

AbhimanyU — l,  A  sou  of  Arjuna  and  Subhadra,  renowned 
for  his  strength  and  valour.  He  was  married  to  Uttara,  the 
daughter  of  Raja  Virata.  He  fought  with  distinguished  valour 
on  the  first  day  of  the  great  war  ;  cutting  down  the  ensign  in 
Bhishma's  chariot.  On  the  second  day  he  slew  a  son  of  Duryod- 
hana,  and  when  attacked  by  the  latter  was  rescued  by  Arjuna.  On 
the  thirteenth  day  of  the  war,  he  was  commanded  by  Yudhishthira 
to  charge  the  Kauravas  who  were  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a 
spider's  web;  he  drove  his  chariot  into  the  enemy's  ranks  and  per- 
formed prodigies  of  valour,  but  was  finally  overpowered  by  six 
warriors  and  slain.  His  posterity  through  the  line  of  his  son 
Favfkshit,  were  the  royal  race  of  the  lunar  line  at  Hastin^ura, 
(old  Delhi)  ;    2,  A  son  of  Chakshusha.     V.  P.,  98. 

Abhiras — l,  An  ancient  race  of  people  inhabiting  the  North-' 
West  of  India :  they  are  mentioned  in  the  Maha  Bharata,  the 
Ramayana,  and  in  the  V.  P.,  but  nothing  is  known  of  their  history  ; 
2,  The  name  of  a  dynasty  referred  to  in  the  V.  P.  supposed  to 
have  reigned  in  Magadha,  b.  c  200. 

Abhutarajasas — A  class  of  gods  of  the  fifth  Manwantara. 
Abhyudaya — Offerings  to  the  progenitors  of  an  individual  and 
of  mankind,  which  form  part  of  a  religious  ceremony  on  an  occasion 
of  rejoicing  or  an  accession  of  prosperity.     See  Vriddi  Sradda. 
Abja — The  father  of  Visala  who  became  incarnate  as  Narayana. 
Aborigines — In  all  the  large  jungles  and  hilly  tracts  of  country 
throughout  India  there  exist  thousands  of  human  beings  in  a  state 
not  very  different  from  that  of  the  Germans  as  described  by  Tacitus 
nearly  two  thousand  years  ago.     These  primitive  races  are  the 
ancient  heritors  of  the  whole  soil,  from  all  the  rich  and  open  parts 
of  which  they  were  expelled  by  the  Hindu. 

These  non- Aryan  races  have  always  been  misrepresented  and 
oppressed.  The  early  Sanscrit  writers  depicted  "  the  forest  tribes 
as  black  noseless  demons,  of  small  stature  and  inarticulate  speech." 
In  the  two  great  epicg  and  in  the  Parana^  they  are  termed 
Rdkshakas. 


ABO  S 

"During  the  struggle  between  the  worn-out  Sanscrit  civilization 
and  the  impetuous  prime  of  Islam,  the  Hindus  discovered  the  value 
of  the  aboriginal  races.  Many  chiefs  of  noble  Aryan  blood  main- 
tained their  independence  by  such  alliances  ;  others  founded  new 
kingdoms  amongst  the  forest  peoples.  To  this  day  some  of  the 
tribes  exhibit  a  black  original  section  living  side  by  side  with  a  fair- 
skinned  composite  kindred,  sprung  from  the  refugees  ;  and  the  most 
exalted  Hindu  princes  have  to  submit  to  a  curious  aboriginal  rite 
on  their  accession  to  the  throne.  It  was  stated  before  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  in  1852  that  the  investiture  of  the  Rajput  Rajah  of 
Nerwar  is  not  complete  till  one  of  his  purely  aboriginal  subjects, 
a  Mina,  paints  a  round  spot  on  his  forehead  with  blood  freshly 
drawm  from  the  toe  of  another  Mina.  Without  this  formal  recoc- 
nition  his  non-Aryan  subjects  could  not  be  depended  upon  ;  when 
once  it  has  been  performed  their  fidelity  has  never  been  known  to 
waver.  They  form  the  treasury  and  palace  guards,  hold  the  per- 
sonal safety  of  the  prince  entirely  in  their  hands,  and  supply  the 
sole  escort  to  whom  he  entrusts  the  honor  of  his  daughters  when 
they  go  abroad.  The  Ranah  of  Udayapur,  cited  by  General 
Briggs  as  the  highest  in  rank  of  all  the  sovereigns  in  India,  renders 
the  same  homage,  however  ill  it  may  comport  with  his  caste  and 
personal  dignity,  to  the  traditions  of  his  aboriginal  subjects. 
Before  he  ascends  the  throne  his  forehead  must  first  be  marked 
with  the  blood  of  a  Bhil.  The  Hinduized  chieftains  of  Central 
India,  receive  investiture  by  the  blood  of  a  pure  Kol ;  and  so 
strong  a  hold  has  this  ceremony  on  the  minds  of  the  people,  that 
amongst  the  Cheris — once  a  great  tribe,  w^ho  defended  themselves 
with  honor  against  Shere  Shah  and  the  imperial  army,  now  reduced 
to  five  or  six  families, — the  head  of  the  little  community  is  still 
installed  under  the  title  of  Rajah,  with  the  token  of  the  round  spot 
of  warm  aboriginal  blood. 

"  But  it  is  not  the  Hindus  alone  that  have  proved  the  loyalty  of 
these  neglected  races.  Scarcely  a  single  administrator  has  ruled 
over  them  for  any  length  of  time,  without  finding  his  prejudices 
conquered,  and  his  heart  softened,  and  leaving  on  record  his  sorrow 
for  their  present  condition,  and  his  belief  in  their  capabilities  for 


4  ABO 

good.  .  *  *  *  'They 

are  faithful,  truthful  and  attached  to  then*  superiors,  writes 
General  Briggs,  ready  at  all  times  to  lay  down  their  lives  for 
those  they  serve,  and  remarkable  for  their  indomitable  courage. 
These  qualities  have  been  always  displayed  in  our  service.  The 
aborigines  of  the  Carnatic  were  the  sepoys  of  Clive  and  of  Coote. 
A  few  companies  of  the  same  stock  joined  the  former  great  Captain 
from  Bombay,  fought  the  battle  of  Plassey  in  Bengal,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  our  Indian  empire.  They  have  since  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  corps  of  Pioneers  and  Engineers,  not  only  in 
India,  but  in  Ava  and  Afghanistan,  and  in  the  celebrated  defence 
of  Jelalabad.  An  unjust  prejudice  has  grown  up  against  them  in 
the  armies  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  where  they  have  done  best 
service,  produced  by  the  feelings  of  contempt  for  them,  existing 
among  the  Hindu  and  Mahomedan  troops.  They  have  no  pre- 
judices themselves,  are  always  ready  to  serve  abroad,  and  embark 
on  board  ship,  and  I  believe  no  instance  of  mutiny  has  ever  occur- 
red among  them."  '*  Other  testimonies  are  quoted  by  the  same 
WYitev  from  equally  high  authorities  all  showing  that  the  truth- 
fulness and  fidelity  of  these  despised  races  are  most  satisfactorily 
established. 

Their  condition,  after  many  centuries  of  suffering,  is  now  likely 
to  be  improved.  Their  character  and  claims  are  beginning  to  be 
understood.  It  is  seen  too  how  they  may  be  utilized  by  being 
made  to  take  the  place  of  English  soldiers.  "  In  interest,  in  race, 
in  religion,  in  habits  of  life,  they  are  cut  off  from  the  Hindus  and 
Mussulmans  by  a  gulf  of  whose  breadth  the  people  of  Christian 
States  can  form  no  idea  ;  and  their  ethnical  repugnance  is  kept  in  a 
constant  glow  by  the  remembrance  of  ancient  wars  and  recent 
wrongs."  By  extensively  employing  these  tribes  as  a  military 
police  and  as  soldiers,  we  should  not  only  relieve  the  English  popu- 
lation of  a  burden,  but  we  should  offer  a  livelihood  to  brave 
predatory  peoples  whom  the  stern  order  of  British  rule  has 
deprived  of  an  important  source  of  subsistence."*  See  Bhils, 
Bhuteeas,  Gonds,  Ghurkas,  etc. 


♦  W.  W.  Hunter,  Preface  to  Non-Aryan  Dictionary. 


ACH— ADH 


Achara— A  name  of  Siva.  A  name  of  Vishnu.  Braiim,  the 
Supreme  Being,  (in  this  sense  it  is  sometimes  Mas.)  The  word 
also  means  eternal  beatitude,  or  exemption  from  further  transmi- 
gration.    Also  religious  austerity  or  moral  merit. 

Acharas— Observances  of  caste  and  order.  The  V.  P.  con- 
tains a  complete  and  systematic  description  of  the  Acharas,  or 
personal  and  social  customs  and  obligations  of  the  Hindus.  See 
Chapter  VIII  et  seq. 

Acharya — The  term  Acharya  sometimes  means  a  j^riest  ;  but 
its  most  usual  meaning  is  a  spiritual  guide  or  preceptor,  one  who 
invests  the  student  with  the  sacred  thread,  and  who  instructs  him 
in  the  law  of  sacrifices,  and  the  mysteries  of  religion. 

Achyuta — A  common  name  of  Vishnu  :  meaning  "  the 
imperishable." 

Achyuta — Krishuauanda  Nithi,  author  of  a  commentary  on 
the  Siddhanta  Kalpataru,  called  Krishualankara. 

Adbhuta— The  Indra  of  the  ninth  Manwantara. 

Adharma— A  sou  of  Brahma— the  husband  of  Falsehood 
(Mrisha)  and  the  father  of  Hypocrisy  and  Deceit ;  (Dambha  and 
Maya).  From  them  descended  Covetousness,  Wrath,  Slander, 
Fear,  &c. 

Adharma — l.  Unrighteousness  ;  all  behaviour  contrary  to 
the  Sruti  and  Smriti,  or  religious  and  legal  institutions. 

2.  In  philosophy,  according  to  the  Nyaya  and  Vaiseshika  : 
moral  demerit,  the  result  of  doing  what  is  forbidden,  the  peculiar 
cause  of  pain,  one  of  the  twenty-four  qualities  united  with  sub- 
stance. According  to  the  Sankhya,  one  of  the  changeable  dispo- 
sitions of  the  mind,  which  being  the  efficient  cause,  makes  the 
soul  migrate  into  an  animal,  a  deer,  a  bird,  a  reptile,  a  vegetable,  a 
mineral.  According  to  the  Buddhistic  doctrine  it  is  the  conse- 
qaence  of  upadana  or  exertion  of  body  or  speech.  According  to 
the  Jains  it  is  that  which  causes  the  soul  in  general  to  continue 
embarrassed  with  body,  notwithstanding  its  capacity  for  ascent  and 
natural  tendency  to  soar. 

3.  As  a  personification,  Adharma  occurs  in  the  Puranas  as  one 
of  the   Prajapatis   or   mind-born   sons    of   Brahma  ;  his    wife  is 


ADH— ADHY 


Hinsa  (mischief)  on  whom  he  begot  Anrita  (falsehood)  and  Nik- 
riti  (immorality)  or  according  to  others,  Mrisha  (falsehood)  and 
his  children  Dambha  (hypocrisy)  and  Maya  (deceit)  who  were 
adopted  by  Nirriti  (misfortune).  Adharma  is  also  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  eighteen  servants  of  the  sun.     V.  P. 

1.  Adhidaiwata — "  The  Supreme  Being  in  his  personality, 
considered  as  a  deity,  and  therefore  the  Supreme  Being  in  his 
relation  to  the  gods.  This  includes  the  two  parts,  the  essence  of 
fpirit,  and  matter,  called 

(a)  Adhydlma^  the  essence  of  spirit,  the  origin  of  souls, 
and  the  Supreme  Being  in  his  relation  to  man  or  individual  soul  ; 

(l)  Ad/iibhuta,  the  material  essence,  or  the  Supreme  Being 
in  his  relation  to  matter. 

2.  The  one  indivisible  (akshara) ;  that  is,  the  universal  energy 
called  indivisible,  as  contrasted  with  individual  souls  {kshara). 

3.  Adhiyajna,  the  Supreme  Being  as  Vishnu  or  Krishna,  a 
manifest  object  of  worship,  and  therefore  the  Supreme  Being  in 
his  relation  to  religion." — J.  C.  Thomson. 

Adhipurusha— The  presiding  spirit  of  the  Universe — descend- 
ed from  Vishnu. 

Adhiratha— A  son  of  Satyakarman,  one  of  the  kings  of  Anga. 
He  found  Kama  in  a  basket  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  where  he 
had  been  exposed  by  his  mother  Pritha. 

Adhogati — The  Jains  believe  that  below  this  world  there  is  a 
world  called  Adhogati,  the  Abyss,  the  nethermost  hell,  above 
which  there  are  seven  infernal  worlds  ;  and  above  these  again  are 
ten  Favanalokas,  purifying  worlds,  (Purgatories)  above  which  is 
this  world  of  earth. 

Adhosiras— One  of  the  divisions  of  the  Hindu  Hell  (or  Nara- 
ka)  in  which  persons  are  punished  for  bribery.     V.  P. 

Adhyaropa — A  technical  term  used  in  the  Veddnta  system  of 
Hindu  Philosophy,  meaning  *'  erroneous  imputation" — an  allega- 
tion that  the  Unreal  is  the  Real.  One  of  the  four  Requisites  to 
the  study  of  the  Vedanta  is,  "  the  discrimination  of  the  eternal 
substance  from  the  transient."     This  is  the  discerning  that  God  is 


ADHY 


tlie  eternal  subsfance,  and  that  all  else  is  non-eternal.  To  under- 
stand this  fully  the  Adhyaropa  or  erroneous  imputation  must  be 
refuted. 

Adhyatma — The  ministers  of  the  Soul.  A  technical  phrase 
in  the  Sankhya  philosophy.  Thirteen  instruments  or  ministers  of 
the  soul  are  enumerated,  each  of  which  has  a  "  province"  and 
"  presiding  deity,"  viz  : — 

1— Intellect  is  a  minister  of  the  soul, 

"  Whatever  is  to  be  understood"  is  its  proviuce  ; 
Brahma  is  its  presiding  deity. 

2 — Self-consciousness  is  a  minister  of  soul  ; 
Whatever  is  to  be  believed  is  its  province, 
Rudra  is  its  presiding  deity. 

3 — Mind  is  a  minister  of  soul  ; 

Whatever  is  to  be  resolved  on  is  its  province, 
The  moon  is  its  presiding  deity. 

4 — The  hearing  is  a  minister  of  soul, 

Whatever  is  to  be  heard  is  its  province  ; 

The  Ether  is  its  supernatural  presiding  power. 

5 — The  touch  is  a  minister  of  soul. 

Whatever  is  to  be  touched  is  its  province  ; 
The  air  is  its  supernatural  presiding  power. 

6 — The  sight  is  a  minister  of  soul. 

Whatever  is  to  be  seen  is  its  province  ; 
The  sun  is  its  presiding  deity. 

7 — The  taste  is  a  minister  of  soul. 

Whatever  is  to  be  tasted  is  its  province  ; 
Varuna  (the  god  of  waters)  is  its  presiding  deity. 

8 — The  smell  is  a  minister  of  soul. 

Whatever  is  to  be  smelled  is  its  province  ; 

The  earth  is  its  supernatural  presiding  power. 
9 —The  voice  is  a  minister  of  soul. 

Whatever  is  to  be  uttered  is  its  province  ; 

Saratjwati  (or  Fire)  is  its  presiding  deity. 


8  ADHY— ADI 


10 — The  hands  are  ministers  of  soul, 

Whatever  is  to  be  grasped  is  their  province  ; 
Indra  is  their  presiding  deity. 

11 — The  feet  are  ministers  of  soul, 

Whatever  is  to  be  gone  over  is  their  province  ; 
Vishnu  is  their  presiding  deity. 

12 — The  organ  of  excretion  is  a  minister  of  soul, 
Whatever  is  to  be  excreted  is  its  province  ; 
Mitra  is  its  presiding  deity. 

13 — The  organ  of  generation  is  a  minister  of  soul, 
What  is  to  be  enjoyed  is  its  province  ; 
Prajapati  is  its  presiding  deity. — Ballantyne. 

Adhyatma  Ramayana — A  spiritualized  version  of  the  Rama- 
yana,  being  an  abridgment  of  the  story,  the  authorship  of  which 
is  attributed  to  the  mythical  Vyasa,  in  which  the  whole  has  been 
spiritualized,  and  every  conflicting  incident  either  explained  or 
omitted,  whilst  the  greatest  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  character 
of  Rama  as  a — "  saviour  and  deliverer." —  TVheele?\ 

Adhyatmika  —In  the  Sankhya  philosophy.  The  pain  which 
arises  from  any  of  the  Adhyatma  or  instruments  of  soul. 

Adhvarya  priests — The  third  class  of  priests  at  sacrifices, 
who  had  to  prepare  the  sacrificial  ground,  to  adjust  the  vessels,  to 
procure  the  animals,  and  other  sacrificial  oblations,  to  light  the  fire, 
to  kill  the  animal,  and  do  all  the  manual  labor. 

Adi— The  first.  A  name  given  to  the  Bramha  Purana,  con- 
taining ten  thousand  stanzas. 

Adina — The  sou  of  Sahadeva,  celebrated  in  the  wars  between 
the  demons  and  the  gods. 

Aditi — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  wife  of  Kasyapa,  and  mother 
of  the  gods.  At  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  Aditi  received 
the  ear-rings  then  produced,  which  were  given  her  by  Krishna. 
Her  history,  with  that  of  the  other  daughters  of  Daksha, 
is  regarded  by  Professor  Wilson  as  an  allegorical  personifi- 
cation of  Astronomical  phenomena.  "  The  thoughts  of  primitive 
humanity    were    not    only    difierent     from    our    thoughts,    but 


ADI  9 

different  also  from  what  we  think  their  thoughts  ought  to  have 
been.  The  poets  of  the  Veda  indulged  freely  in  theogonic  specula- 
tions without  being  frightened  by  any  contradictions.  They  knew 
of  Indra  as  the  greatest  of  gods,  they  knew  of  Agni  as  the  god  of 
gods,  they  knew  of  Varuua  as  the  ruler  of  all  ;  but  they  were  by 
no  means  startled  at  the  idea  that  their  Indra  had  a  mother,  or  that 
their  Agni  was  born  like  a  babe  from  the  friction  of  two  fire-sticks, 
or^that  Varuna  and  his  brother  Mitra  were  nursed  in  the  lap  of 
Aditi."  (Max  Muller).  "  Aditi  is  an  object  of  frequent  celebra- 
tion in  the  Rig-veda,  where  she  is  supplicated  for  blessings  ou 
children  and  cattle,  for  protection  and  for  forgiveness."  (Muir.) 
"  Aditi,  an  ancient  god  or  goddess,  is  in  reality  the  earliest  name 
invented  to  express  the  Infinite  ;  not  the  Infinite  as  the  result  of  a 
long  process  of  abstract  reasoning,  but  the  visible  Infinite,  visible 
by  the  naked  eye,  the  endless  expanse,  beyond  the  earth,  beyond 
the  clouds,  beyond  the  sky.  If  we  keep  this  original  conception  of 
Aditi  clearly  before  us,  the  various  forms  which  Aditi  assumes, 
even  in  the  hymns  of  the  Veda,  will  not  seem  incoherent." — 
{Miiller.) 

Dr.  Muir,  in  an  elaborate  article,  discusses  the  following  points  : 
"  Aditi  as  the  mother  of  the  Adityas."  "  Is  Aditi  ever  identified 
with  the  sky  ?"  "  Aditi  seems  to  be  distinguished  from  the  earth." 
"  Aditi  may  be  a  personification  of  universal  nature."  "  Aditi  as  a 
forgiver  of  sin."     "  Aditi's  position  sometimes  subordinate." 

In  the  two  epics,  and  in  the  Bhagavata  Puraua,  Aditi  is 
described  as  the  wife  of  Kasyapa,  and  the  mother  of  Vishnu  in  his 
dwarf  incarnation  :  "  Au  older  authority  however,  the  Vaj- 
sanhitd,  gives  quite  a  different  account  of  the  relation  of  Aditi  to 
Vishnu,  as  it  represents  her  to  be  his  wife.  In  the  following 
passage  of  the  Tattiriya-sanhita  also  she  is  similarly  described. 
"  Supporter  of  the  sky,  sustainer  of  the  earth,  sovereign  of  this 
world,  wife  of  Vishnu,  may  the  all-embracing  and  powerful  Aditi, 
filling  us  with  vigour,  be  auspicious  to  us  (abiding)  in  her  lap." — 
Mtiir,  0.  S.  r.,  Vol.  F,  p.  53. 

Aditya — The  Sun,  called  also  Surya,  (and  Vivaswat)  the  chief 
of  the  gods  at  a  very  early  period.     The  twelve  solar  dynasties,  or 


10  ADO— ADR 


personifications  of  the  sun  under  a  different  name  and  sign  of  the 
zodiac  in  each  month  of  the  year,  are  called  Adityas.  Tliey  belong 
to  a  period  before  the  time  of  the  Vedas,  when  the  worship  of  the 
elements,  particularly  of  the  sun,  was  first  enriched  and  extended 
by  fancy.  The  name,  Adityas,  is  a  matrouymic  from  Aditi.  The 
various  stories  related  of  the  sun,  or  of  the  Adityas,  will  be  given 
in  connection  with  the  histories  of  the  demi-gods  to  which  they 
refer.     Vishnu  is  called  chief  of  the  Adityas.— See  Appendix. 

Adoption — If  a  married  brahman  is  without  male  issue  he 
is  required  to  procure  a  son  by  means  of  adoption.  He  must  have 
a  son  to  perform  his  obsequies,  or  believes  he  would  be  excluded 
from  happiness  after  death.  So  prevalent  is  this  notion  amongst 
the  Hindus  that  women  who  have  only  daughters  will  themselves 
find  their  husbands  a  second  wife,  notwithstanding  all  the  incon- 
veniences involved.  "  The  adopted  son  wholly  renounces  all  claim 
on  the  property  of  his  natural  father,  and  acquires  an  unlimited 
right  of  succession  to  all  that  belongs  to  his  adopted  father.  From 
hira  he  is  entitled  to  maintenance  and  education,  as  if  he  were  his 
own  son  ;  and  to  receive,  through  his  means,  the  advantages  of  the 
Triple  cord,  and  of  being  settled  in  marriage.  The  adopted  son  is 
obliged,  on  his  part,  to  take  care  of  his  acquired  parents  in  their 
old  age,  and  attend  to  their  funeral  when  they  die.  He  farther 
enters  into  the  Gotra  or  lineage  of  him  by  whom  he  is  adopted  ; 
and  is  considered  as  descended  from  the  same  ancient  stock.  When 
the  ceremonies  of  adoption  commence  the  new  parents  perform  one 
which  is  held  to  be  the  most  important  and  essential  of  any,  by 
tying  round  the  loins  of  the  youth  that  little  string  which  every 
male  child  in  India  (not  an  outcast)  is  ceremoniously  invested  with 
at  the  age  of  two  or  three  years.  If  the  ceremony  has  been  pre- 
viously performed  by  the  natural  parents,  the  adopting  ones  break 
the  cord,  in  token  of  dissolving  the  Gotra  from  which  the  child 
descended  ;  and  put  in  a  new  one  in  sign  of  being  called  to  theirs. 
On  this,  as  in  all  other  solemn  occasions,  their  first  care  is  to  select 
an  auspicious  day,  by  the  help  of  astrology.  The  child  adopted 
may  be  a  relative  or  not,  but  must  be  of  the  same  caste." — Dubois. 
Adrika — The  mother  of  Vydsa.  "  The  muni  Parasara,  hav- 
ing occasion  to  cross  over  from  one  side  of  the  Ganges  to  the  other 


ADR— ADV  11 


bank,  employed  a  ferry  boat,  rowed  by  a  fisherman's  daugkter, 
towards  whom  he  felt  an  attraction  ;  the  consequence  of  which  was 
the  birth  of  a  son.  A  Tamil  version  of  the  Bhdratam  enigmatizes 
the  matter,  by  stating  that  Vydsa  was  born  from  a  fish  ;  but  the 
Sanskrit  original,  not  remarkable  for  fastidiousness,  states  the  case 
with  all  simplicity." — Taylor. 

Adrisyanti — The  wife  of  Sakti,  and  mother  of  Parasara, 
which  see. 

Advaita — The  name  of  a  school  of  philosophy  and  theology, 
established  by  Sankaracharya,  founder  of  the  monasterium  of  Srin- 
geri,  near  the  Tumbiidra  river.  The  system  regards  the  Supreme 
spirit  and  the  human  spirit  as  one  ;  in  degradation  through  ignor- 
ance, and  re-absorbed  on  obtaining  true  wisdom.  It  regards  the 
world  as  an  illusion  ;  all  external  objects  as  different  forms  of  the 
one  deity,  besides  whom  there  exists  nothing  else.  As  gold  is  one, 
though  in  various  forms,  as  money,  ear-rings  and  other  ornaments, 
so  the  one  sole  existent  deity  is  found  in  all  the  various  forms  that 
appear  to  exist  around  us.  "  The  Veddnta  of  Vydsa,  which  con- 
sidered all  existing  beiugs  and  things  to  be  an  evolution  of  deity, 
and  the  deity  in  and  throughout  all  beings  and  things,  was,  by 
Sankardchdrya,  drawn  out  to  the  full  consequence  ;  which  is,  that 
the  soul  of  man  is  a  part  of  deity,  not  difierent ;  the  body  is  a  tem- 
porary prison  ;  on  its  decease  the  soul  flows  into  deity,  as  air  in  a 
closed  earthen  vessel,  when  this  is  broken,  flows  into  the  common 
atmosphere.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  the  idea  of  deity, 
on  this  system,  philosophically  includes  personality  ;  but  means  the 
supreme  universe.  It  leans  towards  the  female  energy  system  ;  of 
matter  (or  nature)  being  the  great  spontaneous  mother.  Sankard- 
chdrya  discoursed  freely  of  Siva  and  Pdrvatl,  and  wrote  hymns  to 
both  ;  maintaining,  besides,  the  oneness  of  Bramha,  Vishnu  and 
Siva.''  There  are  many  treatises  in  Tamil,  Telugu  and  Canarese, 
on  the  Adwaita  philosophy,  which  seems  to  have  been  made  a 
special  study  in  the  south  more  than  the  north  of  India. 

Advaitananda — The  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Vedanta; 
and  preceptor  of  Sadananda  who  wrote  the  Vedanta  Sara.  Nothing 
certain  is  known  a?  to  the  time  when  he  lived. 


12  ADY— AGA 


Adyas — One  of  the  five  classes  of  gods  prevailing  in  the  sixth 
Manwantara,  of  which  period  Chakshusha  was  the  Manu. 

Agada — One  of  the  eight  branches  into  which  medical  science 
is  divided  by  the  Hindus.  Agada  treats  of  the  best  antidotes  to 
Poisons. 

Agama — A  divine  system  of  doctrine. 

Agastya — A  great  sage  whose  hermitage  was  situated  in  a 
beautiful  locality,  on  the  borders  of  a  forest  near  the  Vindhya 
mountains.  Rama,  with  his  wife  Sita  and  brother  Lakshmana, 
paid  the  sage  a  visit,  which  is  thus  narrated  in  the  Ramayana  ;  "  As 
they  went  they  beheld  the  trees  of  the  forest  in  full  flower,  sur- 
rounded by  climbing  plants,  broken  by  the  trunks  of  sportive 
elephants,  enlivened  with  playful  monkeys,  and  vocal  with  joyous 
birds.  Rama,  as  he  viewed  the  beautiful  wilderness,  said  to  his 
brother  Lakshmana  : — "  The  hermitage  of  Agastya  appears  in 
view  ;  this  is  the  abode  of  that  sage  who  freed  the  southern 
quarter  from  the  Rakshasas  ;  at  whose  command  the  Vindhya 
mountain  forbore  to  rise  higher  in  the  sky  ;  who  drank  up  the  sea 
abounding  in  crocodiles  and  great  fishes  ;  who  was  entreated  by 
the  gods,  with  Indra  at  their  head,  to  destroy  the  Danavas  :  O 
Lakshmana,  here  will  I  spend  the  remainder  of  my  exile  :  Here 
the  perfect  men,  the  great  sages,  cast  off  their  old  bodies,  and 
ascend  in  new  bodies  to  heaven  on  chariots  as  resplendent  as  the 
sun." 

Agastya  presented  Rama  with  the  bow  of  Vishnu,  the  arrow  of 
Brahma,  two  inexhaustible  quivers  and  a  scimitar  ;  also  with  a 
superb  coat  of  mail  which  had  been  given  to  the  sage  by  Indra. 

The  Ramayana  gives  the  following  legend  of  Vatapi  and  Ilwala 
who  were  destroyed  by  Agastya  : — "  In  former  times,  two  cruel 
Rakshasas,  the  devourers  of  Brahmans,  resided  here,  and  their 
names  ^vere  Vatapi  and  Ilwala,  and  Ilwala  was  accustomed  to 
assume  the  form  of  a  Brahman,  and  speak  the  sacred  tongue,  and 
invite  the  Brahmans  under  pretence  of  solemnizing  a  Sraddha  : 
Then  his  brother  Vatapi  assumed  the  form  of  a  ram,  and  was  con- 
secrated for  the  sacrifice  by  Ilwala  ;  and  when  the  Brahmans  had 


AGA— AGH  13 


eateu  the  ram,  Ilwala  called  to  his  brother  to  come  forth,  and 
Vatapi  came  forth  out  of  the  stomachs  of  the  Brahmaus,  bleating 
like  a  sheep,  aud  tearing  his  way  through  their  bodies.  Thousands 
of  Brahmans  were  thus  destroyed,  when  Agastya  came  to  this 
spot,  and  accepted  the  invitation  to  a  Sraddha  ;  and  Agastya  had 
not  eaten  for  many  years,  aud  he  devoured  the  whole  of  Vatapi  in 
the  form  of  a  ram,  aud  then  prayed  to  Ganga  ;  aud  the  goddess 
appeared  in  his  alms  dish,  and  he  touched  the  water,  aud  pro- 
nounced her  divine  name  :  Then  when  Ilwala  called  on  his  brother 
to  come  forth,  Agastya  laughed  aud  said  : — '  Your  brother  has 
been  eaten  by  me  in  the  form  of  a  ram  and  has  now  gone  to  the 
abode  of  Yama,  and  for  him  there  is  no  coming  forth  :'  Ilwala  in  a 
rage  began  to  assail  Agastya,  but  was  immediately  consumed  by 
the  fire  which  flashed  from  the  eyes  of  the  sage  :  This  hermitage, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  the  two  Rakshasas,  is  now  inhabited 
by  the  brother  of  Agastya."  Goldstucker  writes,  "  Agastya  was 
the  reputed  author  of  several  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda.  He  is 
represented  as  of  short  stature,  and  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
born  in  a  water  jar.  He  is  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  oldest 
medical  authors,  considered  as  the  civilizer  of  the  south  aud  as  the 
regent  of  the  star  Canopus." 

Agastya — A  celebrated  Tamil  author,  who  is  considered  by 
Dr.  Caldwell  to  have  lived  in  the  6th  century,  b.  c,  but  the 
Tamulians  assign  a  much  earlier  date. 

Agathamma — One  of  the  tutelary  goddesses  of  Madras. 

Aghorahanta — The  Priest  of  Chdmnndd,  a  terrific  goddess 
in  the  drama  of  Malati  and  Madhava. 

Aghori,  or  Aghorapanthi— The  original  AghoH  worship 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  Devi  in  some  of  her  terrific  forms,  and 
to  have  required  even  human  victims  for  its  performance.  lu 
imitation  of  the  formidable  aspect  under  which  the  goddess  was 
worshipped,  the  appearance  of  her  votary  was  rendered  as  hideous 
as  possible,  and  his  wand  and  water-pot  were  a  stafif  set  with  bones 
and  the  upper  half  of  a  skull :  the  practices  were  of  a  similar 
nature,  and  flesh  and  spirituous  liquors  constituted,  at  will,  the 
diet  of  the  adept. 


14  AGN— AGNI 


"  The  regular  worship  of  this  sect  has  loug  since  been  suppressed, 
and  the  only  traces  of  it  now  left  are  presented  by  a  few  disgust- 
ing wretches,  who,  whilst  they  profess  to  have  adopted  its  tenets, 
make  them  a  mere  plea  for  extorting  alms.  In  proof  of  their  indif- 
ference to  worldly  objects,  they  eat  and  drink  whatever  is  given  to 
them,  even  ordure  and  carrion.  They  smear  their  bodies  also  with 
excrement,  and  carry  it  about  with  them  in  a  w^ooden  cup,  or  skull, 
either  to  swallow  it,  if  by  so  doing  they  can  get  a  few  pice  ;  or  to 
tlirow  it  upon  the  persons,  or  into  the  houses  of  those  who  refuse 
to  comply  with  their  demands.  They  also  for  the  same  purpose 
inflict  gashes  on  their  limbs,  that  the  crime  of  blood  may  rest  upon 
the  head  of  the  recusants  ;  and  they  have  a  variety  of  similar  dis- 
gusting devices  to  extort  money  from  the  timid  and  credulous 
Hindu.  They  are  fortunately  not  numerous,  and  are  universally 
detested  and  feared."—  Wilson,  Vol  I,  p.  234. 

Agneya — The  name  of  one  of  the  eighteen  Puranas.  [See 
Agni  Parana.] 

Agneyastram — The  name  of  the  fiery  weapon  given  by  Aurva 
to  Sagara,  and  with  which  he  conquered  the  barbarians  who  had 
invaded  his  patrimonial  possessions, 

Agneyi — The  wife  of  Uru,  a  descendant  of  Dhruva,  and  mother 
of  six  excellent  sons,  Anga,  Sumanas,  Swati,  Kratu,  Angiras  and 
Siva. 

AgXli — "  The  deity  of  Fire,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most 
sacred  objects  of  Hindu  worship.  As  such,  Agni  is  considered  as 
the  mediator  between  men  and  gods,  as  protector  of  mankind  and 
their  home,  and  as  witness  of  their  actions  ;  hence  his  invocation 
in  all  solemn  occasions,  at  the  nuptial  ceremony,  &c.  He  is  one  of 
the  eight  Lokapalas,  or  guardians  of  the  world,  and  especially  the 
Lord  of  the  south-east  quarter.  He  appears  in  the  progress  of 
mythological  personification  as  a  son  of  Angiras,  as  a  king  of  the 
Pitris  or  Manes,  as  a  Marut,  as  a  grandson  of  Sandila,  as  one  of  the 
seven  sages  during  the  reign  of  Tamasa,  or  the  fourth  Manu,  as  a 
star,  and  as  a  Rishi  or  inspired  author  of  several  Vaidic  hymns."* 

*  GoldstUcker. 


AGNI  15 


He  is  generally  described  as  having  two  faces,  three  legs  and 
seven  arms,  of  a  red  or  flame  color,  and  riding  on  a  ram.  Before 
him  is  a  swallow-tailed  banner  on  which  a  ram  is  also  represented. 
He  is  described  by  others  as  a  corpulent  man  of  a  red  complexion, 
with  eyes,  eyebrows,  head  and  hair,  of  a  tawny  color,  riding  on  a 
goat.  From  his  body  issue  seven  streams  of  glory,  and  in  his  right 
hand  he  holds  a  spear.  Agni  is  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  His 
consort  or  Sakti  is  Swaha,  a  daughter  of  Kasyapa.  Brahman  priests 
are  ordered  to  maintain  a  perpetual  fire  ;  and  in  the  numerous 
religious  ceremonies  of  the  Hindus  Agni  is  commonly  invoked. 
The  god  is  sometimes  figured  with  a  forked  representation  of  fire 
issuing  from  his  mouth  ;  and  sometimes  with  seven  tongues  of  fire. 
( See  Colebrooke's  Essays.) 

Agni,  like  ludra,  is  sometimes  addressed  as  the  one  great  god 
who  makes  all  things,  sometimes  as  the  light  which  fills  the  heavens, 
sometimes  as  the  blazing  lightning,  or  as  the  clear  flame  of  earthly 
fire.  The  poets  pass  from  one  application  of  the  word  to  another 
with  perfect  ease,  as  conscious  that  in  each  case  they  are  usiug  a 
mere  name  which  may  denote  similar  qualities  in  many  objects. 
There  is  no  rivalry  or  antagonism  between  these  deities.  Agni  is 
greatest,  Varuna  is  greatest,  and  Indra  is  greatest  :  but  when  the 
one  is  so  described,  the  others  are  for  the  time  unnoticed,  or  else 
are  placed  in  a  subordinate  position.  Thus  Agni  is  said  to  com- 
prehend all  other  gods  within  himself,  as  the  circumference  of  a 
wheel  embraces  its  spokes  ;*  and  not  unfrequently  Indra  is  said  to 
be  Agni,  and  Agni  is  said  to  be  Indra  ;  while  both  alike  are  Skam- 
bha,  the  supporter  of  the  world. 

Hence  the  character  of  the  god  is  almost  wholly  physical.  The 
blessings  which  his  worshippers  pray  for  are  commonly  temporal. 
In  the  earlier  hymns  he  is  generally  addressed  as  the  fire,  which  to 
mortal  men  is  an  indispensable  boon  ;  in  the  more  developed  cere- 
monialism of  later  times  he  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  ordering 
of  the  sacrifice. 

*****  "  As  the  special  guardian  and  regulator  of  sacrifices 
Agni  assumes  the  character  of  the  Hellenic  Hestra,  and  almost 


16  AGNI— AGNIH 


attains  the  majesty  of  the  Latiu  Vesta.  He  is  the  lord  aud  protector 
of  every  house,  and  the  father,  mother,  brother  aud  son  of  every 
one  of  the  worshippers.  Duriug  life  he  shields  men  from  harm, 
and  at  death  he  becomes  the  Psycho  ponipos,  as  conveying  the 
'  unborn  part'  of  the  dead  to  the  unseen  world."* 

2.  Agui  is  also  the  name  of  a  star  in  the  tail  of  the  planetary 
porpoise. 

Agni  Purana — This  Puraua  derives  its  name  from  its  having 
been  communicated  originally  by  Agni,  the  god  of  Fire,  to  the 
Muni  Vasishtha,  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  him  in  the  two-fold 
knowledge  of  Brahma.  By  him  it  was  taught  to  Vyasa,  who 
imparted  it  to  Suta  ;  and  the  latter  is  represented  as  repeating  it  to 
the  Rishis  at  Naimisharanya.  The  contents  of  different  copies  vary 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  thousand  stanzas.  The  early  chapters  of 
the  work  describe  the  Avataras,  aud  in  those  of  Rama  aud  Krishna 
avowedly  follow  the  Ramayana  and  Mahabharata.  Other  portions 
contain  instructions  for  the  performance  of  religious  ceremonies — 
chiefly  mystical  forms  of  Saiva  worship.  There  are  also  chapters 
descriptive  of  the  earth  and  the  universe,  the  duties  of  kings,  &c., 
much  of  which  has  obviously  been  taken  from  the  Vishnu  and  other 
Puranas.  On  these  accounts  Professor  Wilson  regards  it  as  a  com- 
paratively modern  work,  without  "  legitimate  claims  to  be  regarded 
as  a  Purana,"  and  only  "  valuable  as  embodying  and  preserving 
relics  of  antiquity." 

Agnibahu — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Priyavrata  aud  Kamya, 
famous  for  strength  and  prowess.  It  is  said  of  him  in  the  V.  P., 
that  when  he  adopted  a  religious  life,  he  remembered  the  occur- 
rences of  a  prior  exirjtence,  and  did  not  covet  dominion,  but  dili- 
gently practised  the  rites  of  devotion,  wholly  disinterested,  aud 
looking  for  no  reward. 

Agnidhra— The  brother  of  the  above,  was  made  by  his  father 
king  of  Jambudwipa,  and  had  nine  sons  who  are  enumerated  and 
more  or  less  celebrated  in  the  Puranas. 

Agnihotra — A  burnt  offering,  or  libation  of  clarified  butter  on 
sacred  fire. 


*  Cox,  Mythology  of  Aryan  Nations. 


AGN-AHA  17 


Agnishtoma— 1,  A  son  of  the  Manu  Chakshuslia  ;  2,  the 
name  of  a  sacrifice  produced  from  the  eastern  mouth  of  Brahma, 
along  with  the  Gtiyatri,  and  the  Rig  Veda.     V.  P.,  42. 

Agnishwattas — A  ckss  of  Pitris,  a  divine  race  inhabiting 
celestial  regions  of  their  own.  This  class  consists  of  those  house- 
holders who  when  alive  did  not  maintain  their  domestic  fires,  nor 
offer  burnt  sacrifices.  Some  of  the  Puranas  identify  the  Agnishwat- 
tas  with  the  seasons.     V.  P.,  p.  239. 

Agnivarchas — One  of  Suta's  scholars,  who  became  a  celebrated 
teacher  of  the  Puranas. 

Agnivarna — A  prince  whose  name  occurs  in  various  Puranas  ; 
but  little  more  is  known  of  him  beyond  his  being  a  descendant  of 
Kama. 

Agrahara— A  village  granted  tobrahmaus  by  government  free, 
or  at  a  favorable  assessment  ;  there  are  three  kinds,  viz  : — 

1 .  Sarvamanya — rent  free. 

2.  Jodi — partially  rent  free. 

3.  Trishvega — one-third  part  of  the  produce  is  given  for  rent. 

Agrahayana — The  name  of  one  of  the  lunar  months. 

Agrasya — The  first  day  of  the  Hindu  year  which  falls  on  the 
new  moon  in  March.  A  feast  goes  on  for  three  days  at  this  period 
— the  new  year's  day  festival. 

Ahalya— The  wife  of  the  rishi  Gautama,  of  whom  the  following 
legend  is  related  :  One  day  when  the  sage  was  absent  from  his  dwell- 
ing, the  mighty  Indra  passed  by,  and  burned  with  an  impure  passion 
for  the  wife  of  Gautama  ;  he  entered  the  hut  in  the  disguise  of 
the  sage,  and  began  to  entreat  Ahalya  ;  and  Ahalya,  knowing  him 
to  be  the  Raja  of  the  celestials,  in  the  wantonness  of  her  heart 
yielded  to  his  desires.  Then  the  sovereign  of  the  gods  left  the 
hermitage,  but  at  that  moment  Gautama  entered,  and  he  was  invin- 
cible even  to  the  gods,  through  the  power  of  his  austerities.  Perceiv- 
ing him,  Indra  was  overwhehued  with  sadness  ;  and  the  sage, 
beholding  the  profligate  lord  of  gods  in  his  disguise,  thus  addressed 
him  in  words  of  dreadful  anger  :—'  O  depraved  wretch,  assuming 
my  form  you  have  perpetrated  this  great  crime  !     Therefore  from 


18  AH  AN— AH  AK 


this  momeul  do  you  become  a  eunuch  I'  The  great  sage  then  pro- 
nounced this  curse  upon  his  wife  Ahalya  :— '  0  sinful  wretch,  for 
thousands  of  years  shall  you  remain  in  the  forest,  abandoned  by  all 
and  invisible  to  all,  until  Rama,  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  shall  enter 
here,  and  you  from  beholding  him  shall  be  cleansed  from  all  sin, 
and  again  approach  me  without  fear.'  With  these  words  the  illus- 
trious Gautama  abandoned  this  hermitage,  and  performed  religious 
austerities  on  the  summit  of  the  Himalaya  mountains. 

Having  heard  this  holy  legend,  Rama  entered  the  hermitage, 
preceded  by  Viswamitra  ;  and  at  that  moment,  Ahalya  was  released 
from  her  curse,  and  became  visible  to  all  ;  and  a  shower  of  flowers 
fell  from  heaven,  and  divine  music  was  heard  in  the  sky.  Then 
the  illustrious  Gautama,  beholding  with  divine  eye  that  his  consort 
-vvas  cleansed  from  all  sin,  repaired  again  to  his  hermitage  ;  and 
having  paid  due  honors  to  Rama,  he  engaged  in  sacred  austerities 
with  his  purified  spouse.  And  Rama  proceeded  to  Mithila  with  his 
brother  and  Viswamitra. — It  is  said  that  Indra  means  the  sun,  and 
Ahalya,  the  night  ;  and  as  the  night  is  seduced  and  ruined  by  the 
sun  of  the  morning  therefore  is  Indra  called  the  paramour  of  Ahalya. 

Ahankara—Consciousness,  or  Egotism.  The  sense  of  Ahan- 
kara,  says  Professor  Wilson,  cannot  be  very  well  rendered  by  any 
European  term.  It  means  the  principle  of  individual  existence, 
that  which  appropriates  perceptions,  and  on  Avhich  depend  the 
notions,  I  think,  I  feel,  I  am.  It  might  be  expressed  by  the  pro- 
prosition  of  Descartes  reversed.  '  Sum,  ergo  cotigo,  sentio,'  &c.  The 
equivalent  employed  by  Mr.  Colebrooke,  egotism,  has  the  advantage 
of  an  analogous  etymology.  In  the  Sankya  Karika  three  varieties 
of  Ahankara  are  described.  From  the  first  kind  proceed  the  senses; 
from  the  third  the  unconscious  elements  ;  both  kinds  being  equally 
inert  of  themselves,  are  rendered  productive  by  the  co-operation  of 
the  second,  the  energetic  modification  of  Ahankara,  which  is  there- 
fore said  to  be  the  origin  both  of  the  senses  and  the  elements. 
Colloquially  "  Ahankara"  is  still  in  common  use  throughout  India 
in  the  sense  of  pride,  or  great  conceit. 

Ahar — Day.  One  of  the  forms  of  Brumha  during  the  work  of 
Creation.     V.  P.,  p.  40. 


AHl-AJA  1!) 


Ahikshetra — The  capital  of  the  northern  portion  of  Panchala, 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Adisathrus  in  Ptolemy. 

Airavata — The  king  of  elephants,  produced  from  the  churning 
of  the  ocean,  and  taken  by  Indra,  who  subsequently  used  it  as  his 
vehicle.  The  name  has  been  derived  from  Iravat  "watery,"  and 
supposed  to  allude  to  the  north,  as  the  quarter  whence  rain  comes,  or 
to  the  original  idea  of  a  cloud,  in  which  Indra  as  the  king  of  clouds, 
is  mounted,  and  therefore  called  his  elephant.  Professor  Wilson 
refers  it  to  the  fact  of  his  being  produced  from  the  watery  ocean  ; 
2,  Airavata  is  also  the  name  of  the  north  portion  of  the  sun's  path 
among  the  lunar  asterisms  ;  3,  The  name  of  a  celebrated  serpent 
with  many  heads,  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru. 

Aitareya  Brahmanam  of  the  Rig  Veda  :  this  w^ork  contains 
the  earliest  speculations  of  the  Brahmans  on  the  meaning  of  the 
Sacrificial  Prayers,  and  on  the  origin,  performance,  and  meaning  of 
the  Rites  of  the  Vedic  Religion.  It  consists  of  forty  Adyhayas. 
Translated  and  edited  by  Dr.  Martin  Haug,  2  vols.  1 2  mo.,  Bom- 
bay, 1863. 

Aitareya-aranyaka — A  commentary  on  the  beginning  of  the 
Rig  Veda.     It  is  ascribed  to  Mahidasu  the  son  of  Itara. 

^ja— The  unborn.  A  name  of  Bramha  ;  of  Siva  ;  of  Vishnu  ; 
also  of  Kama,  or  Cupid.  Aja  is  also  the  proper  name  of  a  mythical 
prince,  the  son  of  Raghu,  and  father  of  Dasaratha.  This  prince 
forms  the  subject  of  the  first  and  longest  of  Mr.  Griffiths'  beautiful 
Idylls  from  the  Sanscrit.  The  story  is  taken  from  the  Raghu- 
vansa  of  Kalidasa.  (See  Raghu.)  The  childhood  and  youth  of 
Aja  are  described  in  glowing  terms,  and  in  due  course  he  was  sent 
by  his  father  to  the  Swayamvara  of  the  princess  Indumati  Devi, 
daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Vidarbha.  On  his  way  thither  while 
resting  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  encampment  was  disturbed  by  a 
wild  elephant  which  Aja  ordered  to  be  shot.  On  being  pierced 
by  an  arrow  a  figure  of  great  splendour  issued  from  the  body  of 
the  elephant  ;  and  standing  in  mid-air  thus  spoke  :  "  Aja  Maharaya, 
I  was  formerly  a  gandharva,  but  for  mocking  a  holy  rishi  was 
cursed  to  be  born  in  an  insane  elephant;  but  on  my  begging  for 


20  AJAG— AJAN 


mercy  was  told  I  should  be  released  by  the  sou  of  Raghu  Maharaja, 
called  Aja,  when  on  his  way  to  be  married,"  He  then  gave  Aja 
the  arrows  used  by  the  gandharvas  and  instructed  him  in  the  use 
of  them. 

On  arriving  at  the  capital  of  Vidarbharaya  he  was  treated  with 
great  respect,  and  was  selected  from  amongst  all  the  assembled 
princes  by  the  fair  Indumati  Devi,  who  intimated  her  choice  by 
herself  placing  the  garland  on  the  neck  of  Aja.  In  the  contests 
that  ensued  with  the  other  disappointed  suitors  Aja  obtained  a  com- 
plete victory  by  means  of  the  arrows  received  from  the  gandharva. 
He  then  returned  to  his  father's  kingdom,  with  his  lovely  bride  ; 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  reigned  wisely  and  well  for  many 
years. 

After  the  birth  of  his  distinguished  son  Dasaratha  (father  of 
Rama)  his  beloved  wife  Indumati  Devi  was  killed  by  the  fall  of 
Narada's  garland,  when  asleep  in  an  arbor  of  the  summer  palace. 
On  Dasaratha's  attaining  his  majority  Aja  is  said  to  have  ascended 
to  Indra's  paradise,  leaving  his  body  between  the  rivers  Ganges 
and  Sarayu. 

Ajagava — The  bow  of  Mahadeva  which  fell  from  the  sky,  at 
the  birth  of  Prithu,  with  celestial  arrows  and  panoply  from  heaven. 

Ajaka — l,  A  descendant  of  Pururavas,  the  son  of  Sumanta 
(or  according  to  others  of  Sunaha)  and  grandson  of  Jahuu  ;  2,  A 
king  of  Magadha  of  the  line  of  Pradyota. 

Ajamadha — l,  A  son  of  Suhotra  and  author  of  vaidic  hymns  ; 
2,  The  twenty-sixth  king  of  the  lunar  dynasty  ;  3,  A  surname 
of  Yudhishthira,  the  friend  of  Aja. 

Ajamidha — A  son  of  Hastin,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated 
city  of  Hastinapura,  finally  ruined  by  the  encroachments  of  the 
Ganges,  but  vestiges  of  which  were  lately  to  be  traced  along  the 
river  nearly  in  a  line  with  Delhi,  about  60  miles  to  the  east. 

Ajanta— A  river  in  the  hills  below  the  river  Tapti,  to  the 
north  of  Bombay.  *'  In  this  ravine,  somewhere  about  the  first 
century  of  our  era,  Buddhists  began  to  excavate  architectural 


AJA— AJI  21 


caves.  There  are  twenty-six  in  all,  and  of  these  twenty-two  are 
conventual  abodes,  whilst  the  remaining  four  are  Chaitya  halls  or 
places  of  worship."  A.  and  M.  I.,  p.  401.  A  full  description  of 
these  caves  is  given  in  Fergusson's  History  of  Architecture.  It  is 
seen  from  the  costume  carefully  represented  in  the  pictures  at 
Ajanta,  that  the  Hindus  still  dress  in  the  fashion  that  then  pre- 
vailed ;  and  which  was  described  by  the  Greeks  who  accompanied 
Alexander  the  Great  to  India,  as  consisting  of  two  cloths,  one 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  whilst  another  is  folded  around 
the  shoulders.  The  cloth  is  described  as  being  made  from  wool 
which  grows  in  trees. 

Ajapas — Sons  of  Kardama,  Pitris  of  the  Vaisyas,  called  also 
Kavyas  and  Suswadhas. 

Ajapashya — A  surname  of  Rajivalochana,  the  sou  of  Sweta- 
karna  ;  his  sides  were  black  like  the  skin  of  certain  goats,  when  he 
was  drawn  out  of  the  water,  after  having  been  found  exposed  by 
his  mother  and  purified  by  two  sons  of  Sravishta. 

Ajavithi—  A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions. 

Ajigarta — A  Rishi  mentioned  in  the  Aitareya  Brahmana.  He 
lived  in  the  forests  Avith  his  three  sons  Sunapuchha,  Sunahsepha 
and  Sunolaugula.  He  sold  his  son  Sunahsepha  to  be  offered  as  a 
sacrifice,  showing  that  the  Brahmans  at  that  early  period  were 
familiar  with  the  idea  of  human  sacrifices.  "  If  we  accept  the 
Aryan  origin  of  Ajigarta,  the  seller  and  butcher  of  his  own  son,  it 
is  important  to  remark  how  great  a  difference  there  must  have  been 
between  the  various  Aryan  settlers  in  India  *  *  *  *, 
Yet  there  remains  the  fact  that,  with  all  the  vaunted  civilization 
of  the  higher  Aryan  classes,  there  were  Aryan  people  in  India  to 
whom  not  only  a  young  prince  could  make  the  offer  of  buying  their 
children,  but  where  the  father  offered  himself  to  bind  and  kill  the 
son  whom  he  had  sold  for  a  hundred  cows."* 

Ajita — A  form  of  Vishnu.  "  The  unequalled  energy  of  Vishnu 
combining  with  the  quality  of  goodness,  and  effecting  the  preserva- 
tion of  created  things,  presides  over  all  the  Mauwautaras,  in  the 
form  of  a  divinity."     V.  P.,  p.  264. 


*  Max  MUlier,  A.  S.  L.,  p.  415. 


22  AJI— AKR 

Ajita— Unconquered  ;  unexcelled.— 1,  The  proper  name  of 
several  gods  and  persons,  viz.,  Vishnu,  Siva  ;  2,  One  of  the  seven 
Eishis  who  preside  during  the  reign  of  the  fourteenth  Manu  ; 
S,  A  name  of  Maitreya  or  a  future  Buddha  ;  4,  The  second  of 
the  Arhats  or  Jaiua  saints  of  the  present  Avasarpini  ;  5,  The 
attendant  of  the  ninth  Jaina  Arhat ;  6,  A  descendant  of  Iksh- 
waku  and  a  sou  of  Jitasatru  by  Vijaya. 

•  Ajitas — A  class  of  deities  whose  history  is  thus  given.  In  the 
beo-iuning  of  the  Kalpa  twelve  gods  named  Jayas  were  created  by 
Brahma,  as  his  deputies  and  assistants  in  the  creation.  They,  lost 
in  meditation,  neglected  his  commands  ;  on  which  he  cursed  them 
to  be  repeatedly  born  in  each  Manwantara  till  the  seventh.  In 
the  first  they  became  Ajitas. 

Ajnana — A  technical  term  used  in  the  Veddnta  system, 
meaning  "  ignorance,"  which  the  Vedantists  declare  is  a  somewhat 
that  is  not  to  be  called  positively  either  entity  or  non-entity — 
not  a  mere  negation  but  the  opponent  of  knowledge,  consisting  of 
the  three  fetters.  According  to  the  Naiyayikas  ajiidna  is  merely 
the  non-existence,  or  negation,  (abhdva)  of  j nana.  To  deny  this 
the  writer  calls  it  bhdva,  implying  that  it  is  not  abhdva. 

Akali— (Immortals).  Zealots  of  the  Sikh  religion,  soldiers  of 
God,  who  with  their  blue  dress  and  bracelets  of  steel,  claimed  for 
themselves  a  direct  institution  by  Govindh  Singh.  They  combined 
warlike  activity  with  the  relinquishment  of  the  world,  and  became 
the  armed  guardians  of  Amritsir.  It  cost  Ranjit  Singh  much  time 
and  trouble  to  reduce  them  to  order. 

Akanithaka — The  name  of  the  twenty-second  heaven  of 
Buddhism. 

Akasa — Ether,    the   medium   of  sound.      A   very   important 

*  element'  in  the  philosophy  of  the  Puranas.     See  V.  P,,  p.  16,  17. 

Akasavani — A  divine  manifestation,  in  which  the  deity  is 
heard  but  not  seen. 

Akrura— The  son  of  Swaphalka  and  Gandini  who  took  charge 
of  the  celebrated  Syamantaka  jewel  from  Satadhanwau,  when  he 


AKS— AKU  23 


was  pursued  by  Krishna  ;  and  through  the  virtue  of  that  gem 
there  was  no  dearth  nor  pestilence  in  the  whole  country.  When 
Krishna  discovered  that  the  precious  jewel  was  in  Akrura's  pos- 
session he  desired  him  to  retain  it  ;  Akrura,  thus  urged,  afterwards 
wore  it  publicly  round  his  neck,  where  it  shone  with  dazzling 
brightness  ;  and  he  moved  about  like  the  sun,  wearing  a  garland  of 
light.  Akrura  couveyed  Krishna  and  Rama,  when  youths,  to 
Mathura,  where  Krishna  performed  some  of  his  great  pxploits. 

Aksha — A  sou  of  the  great  giant  Rdvana,  who  was  slain  by 
Hanumau. 

Akshata — Grains  of  rice  tinged  with  a  reddish  hue,  placed 
by  the  husband  on  the  head  of  the  infant  after  the  ceremony  of 
Arati,  and  after  the  women  have  retired. 

Akshohini — An  Army  consisting  of  109,350  infantry  ;  65,610 
cavalry  ;  21,870  chariots  ;  and  21,870  elephants. 

Akuli — The  name  of  one  of  the  priests  of  the  Asuras.  It  was 
he  who  with  another  priest  of  the  same  class  called  Kilata,  obtained 
permission  from  Mauu  to  sacrifice  for  him,  and  took  for  the  victim 
first  a  bull  of  Manu's  into  which  an  Asura-slaying  voice  had  entered. 
When  it  had  been  slaughtered  the  voice  departed  out  of  it  and 
entered  into  Manu's  wife  Manavi.  "  Wherever  they  hear  her 
speaking,  the  Asuras  and  Rakshasas  continue  to  be  destroyed  in 
consequence  of  her  voice.  The  Asuras  said  :  '  She  does  us  yet 
more  mischief;  for  the  human  voice  speaks  more.'  Kilata  and 
Akuli  said,  '  Manu  is  a  devout  believer  :  let  us  make  trial  of  him  !' 
They  came  and  said  to  him  '  Manu,  let  us  sacrifice  for  thee  !'  '  With 
what  (victim)?'  he  asked.  'With  this  (thy)  wife,' they  replied. 
'Be  it  so,'  he  answered.  When  she  had  been  slaughtered  the 
voice  departed  out  of  her  and  entered  into  the  sacrifice  and  the 
sacrificial  vessels.  Thence  they  were  unable  to  expel  it.  This  is 
the  Asura-slayiug  voice  which  speaks  out  (when  the  two  stones 
are  struck  with  the  samyd,  as  a  part  of  the  ceremonial).  Wretched 
become  the  enemies  of  that  man  for  whom,  when  he  knows  this, 
they  cause  this  voice  here  to  reverberate."* 


Muir's  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  1.  p.  180. 


24  AKU— ALL 


Akuti— 1,  The  second  daughter  of  Svayambhuva  MaDu  and 
his  wife  Saturiipa,  the  first  pair.  She  was  '  graced  with  loveliness 
and  exalted  merit.'  She  Avas  married  to  Ruchi,  and  had  twins. 
Yaina  and  Dakshina,  who  afterwards  became  husband  and  wife, 
and  had  twelve  sons,  the  deities  called  Yamas.  Dr.  IMuir  remarks 
that  the  word  is  found  in  the  Rig  Veda  with  the  signification  of 
"will"  or  "  design  ;"  but  appears  to  be  personified  in  a  passage  of 
the  Taittiriya  Brahmana,  where  it  is  said.  "  Ira  was  the  wife  of 
tlie  creators.  Akuti  kneaded  the  oblation."  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  1, 
p.  73.     2,  Also  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Chakshush. 

Alaka — King  over  the  earth  for  sixty  thousand  and  sixty 
hundred  years  ;  this  protracted  existence  was  enjoyed  through  the 
favor  of  Lopamudra,  and  having  lived  till  the  period  at  which  the 
curse  on  Kasi  terminated,  he  killed  the  Rakshasa  Kshemaka  by 
whom  the  city  had  been  occupied  after  it  was  abandoned  by 
Divodasu,  and  caused  the  city  to  be  re-inhabited. 

Alaka — The  Himalayan  residence  of  Kuvera  the  god  of  riches. 
It  is  termed  in  the  "  Cloud  Messenger"  the  City  of  the  Blessed  ; 
and  is  described  as  unmatched  for  lovely  girls,  wiio  learn  to  choose 
the  flowers  that  suit  them  best. 

"  The  amaranth,  bright  glory  of  the  spring  ; 

The  lotus  gathered  from  the  summer  flood  ; 

Acacias  taught  around  their  brows  to  cling  ; 

The  jasmine's  fragrant  white  their  locks  to  stud  ; 

And  bursting  at  thy  rain  the  young  Kadamba  bud."* 

Alakananda — One  of  the  four  great  branches  of  the  river 
Ganges,  which  was  carried  by  Siva  upon  his  head  for  a  hundred 
years  ;  and  was  the  river  which  raised  to  heaven  the  sinful  sons  of 
Sagara,  by  washing  their  ashes. 

Alambana — The  exercise  of  the  Yogi  while  endeavouring  to 
bring  before  his  thoughts  the  gross  form  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
It  also  means  the  silent  repetition  of  prayer. 

AUama  Prabhu— Among   the  Vira  Saivas  a  lesser  incarna- 
*  Griffiths'  Translation, 


ALL— ALU 


tion,  or  form  of  Siva.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  Brahman,  who 
acted  in  close  concert  with  the  e\dev  Basava  ;  whether  as  a  primary 
instigator,  or  subsequent  accomplice,  is  not  clear.  But  he  became 
Basava' s  guru  or  spiritual  adviser,  and,  as  such,  was  concerned  in 
the  revolution  at  Kalyanapuri,  in  which  the  king  Bijala  was  slain, 
and  a  new  religion  established.  The  Prabku  linga  Ula  is  a  popular 
poem,  in  Telugu,  and  composed  expressly  in  order  to  magnify  the 
great  excellencies  of  Allaind  'prahlm  as  a  form  of  Biva^  and 
especially  his  chastity,  that  resisted  all  the  fascinations  of  the 
tdmasa  guna  or  evil  portion  of  Pdrvati ;  which  became  incarnate 
as  a  woman,  Maya  or  Frans,  in  order  to  tempt  him.  "  In  the 
Basava  picrdnam,  Allamh  prahJm  is  stated  to  have  travelled 
about,  and  especially  to  Sri  Saila?7i  in  Teliugaua,  performing 
various  wonders,  and  possessed  of  a  body  invulnerable.  No 
record  of  the  manner  of  his  death  has  been  observed." — (Taylor.) 
There  is  a  good  abstract  of  Prabhu-liuga  lila,  by  C.  P.  Brown,  in 
the  Catalogue  Raisonne,  vol.  2,  p.  838. 

AUoo— A  raw  hide  used  by  the  Rajputs  to  cover  themselves 
when  they  assert  their  claim  to  a  disputed  piece  of  laud. 

Aluvar — Rulers;  twelve  heads  and  original  leaders  of  the 
Vaislmava  faith  in  the  Peninsula  only.  They  were  born  in  various 
places,  and  lived  in  different  times.  To  understand  their  office  and 
importance  the  reader  must  be  apprized  that  the  Saiva  system  first 
obtained  a  hold  and  influence  in  the  Peninsula  ;  and,  in  some 
instances,  by  exterminating  the  Buddhists  or  Jains  who  preceded 
them.  The  Vaishnavas,  on  their  coming,  had  not  only  to  deal  with 
a  rude  and  savage  people,  following  superstitious  customs,  some  of 
which  continue  to  the  present  day,  but  also  had  to  contend  with 
the  astute  and  powerful  Saivas  already  in  possession  ;  and  some- 
times in  the  way  of  public  disputation— as  at  Villiputtur  in  the 
Pandya  kingdom,  at  Uriyur  in  the  Chola  kingdom,  and  at  Sri 
Permattur  in  the  Tondamandalam.  These,  or  others,  were  engag- 
ed in  translating  portions  of  the  Vedas  into  Tamil  poetry,  now 
known  as  the  Tiru-morhi  or  sacred  word.  Different  books  exist, 
containing  in  all  many  thousand  stanzas,  said  to  indicate  the  idiom 
of  foreigners.     Twelve  individuals,  distiuguished  in  these  or  other 

4 


26  AMARA— AMARAV 


ways  iu  the  first  establislimeut  of  Vaislinavism,  were  named  Aluvar; 
aud  are  regarded  with  high  veneration  by  modern  votaries.  An 
approximation  towards  deification  has  been  assigned,  by  metaphori- 
cally viewing  them  as  incarnations  of  Vishnu's  arms,  ornaments,  or 
attendants.  Their  names  in  order  are — 1 ,  Poyalvar  ;  2,  Puthatal- 
var  ;  3,  Peyalvar  ;  4,  Tirumal  Peyalvar  ;  5,  Namalvar  ;  6,  Kula- 
sec'haralvar  ;  7,  Periydlvar  ;  8,  Tirupanalvar  ;  9,  Tirumangayal- 
va4'  ;  10,  Tondamalvar  ;  11,  Yempramanar,  or  Yetiraja,  or  Rama- 
nujacharya  ;  12,  KurhttilviY.—  Tai/Ior. 

Amara  Kosha — A  celebrated  Sanscrit  Vocabulary  which  is 
found  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  state  in  all  Indian  languages.  Like 
most  other  Sanscrit  Dictionaries  it  is  arranged  in  verse  to  aid  the 
memory.  Synonymous  words  are  collected  into  one  or  more  verses, 
and  placed  in  fifteen  different  chapters,  which  treat  of  as  many 
different  subjects.  The  sixteenth  contains  a  few  homonymous 
terms  arranged  alphabetically,  in  the  Indian  manner,  by  the  final 
consonants.  The  seventeenth  chapter  is  a  pretty  full  catalogue  of 
indeclinubles,  which  European  philologists  would  call  adverbs,  pre- 
positions, conjunctions,  and  interjections,  but  which  Sanscrit  gram- 
marians consider  as  indeclinable  nouns.  The  last  chapter  of  the 
Amara  IC^osha  is  a  treatise  on  the  gender  of  nouns.  See  Cole- 
brooke's  Essay  on  the  Sanscrit  and  Pracrit  Languages. 

Amara  Sinha — The  author  of  the  Amara  Kosha.  He  was 
also  an  eminent  poet,  and  one  of  the  nine  gems,  as  these  poets 
were  termed,  who  were  the  ornaments  of  Vicramaditya's  court. 
Unfortunately  he  held  the  tenets  of  a  heterodox  sect,  and  his 
poems  perished  in  the  persecutions  fomented  by  intolerant 
philosophers  against  the  persons  and  writings  of  both  Jainas  and 
Buddhists. 

Amaravati — The  capital  of  Indra,  built  by  Visvakarma,  the 
architect  of  the  gods.  It  is  described  as  800  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  40  miles  high.  Its  pillars  are  composed  of  diamonds  ;  its 
thrones  of  pure  gold  ;  it  is  surrounded  with  gardens  and  fountains, 
while  music  and  dancing  entertain  the  celestial  inhabitants.  There 
is  a  ruined  town  called  Amaravati  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Kistna 
containing  numerous  antiquities  in  the  form  of  sculptures,  all  of 


AMA— AMB  27 


Buddhist  origiu.     Sir  Walter  Elliot  and  Mr.  Fergusson  made  consi- 
derable explorutioDS  there.     The  ruined  Dagoba  whence  the  relics 
were  taken  was  on  a  mound  of  ioO  feet  diameter,  now  converted 
into  a  tank.     It  is  called  Dipaldinna,  the  Mound  of  Light. 

Amavasya— The  day  of  '  conjunctioD,'  just  before  new-moon 
— a  fast  day  for  all  brahmaus. 

Amba— The  eldest  daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Kasi.  She  was 
taken  with  her  two  sisters  by  Bhishma,  when  he  conveyed  them 
away  from  the  Swayamvara  to  be  the  wives  of  Raja  Vichitravirya. 
But  on  the  day  when  the  marriage  was  to  be  performed,  Amba 
said  that  her  father  had  already  betrothed  her  to  the  Raja  of  Salwa, 
and  prayed  that  she  might  be  sent  to  him.  Bhishma  accordingly 
sent  her  under  a  safe  conduct,  to  the  Rdja  of  Salwa,  and  Amba 
i-elated  how  she  had  been  carried  away,  and  had  now  come  to  fulfil 
her  betrothal  ;  but  the  Raja  of  Salwa  said,  "  You  have  entered  the 
dwelling  of  a  strange  man  and  I  will  not  take  you  to  be  my  wife  ;" 
and  ordered  his  servants  to  drive  her  from  the  city  :  she  went  into 
the  jungle  and  perished  miserably.  (Maha  bharata)  Another 
legend  says  she  was  born  again  as  a  man  named  Sikliandin  and  slew 
Bhishma  the  author  of  all  her  misfortunes. 

Amba  and  Ambika — Names  of  Fdn-ati,  the  Salcti  of  Siva. 
Ambi  and  Ambalika — The  sisters  of  Amba,  who  became  the 
two  widowed  wives  of  Vichitravirya,  on  whom  the  Muni  Vyasa 
begot  Dritardshtra  and  Fdndu.     See  Vyasa. 

Ambarisha— 1,  The  son  of  the  great  monarch  Mandhatri. 
He  had  fifty  sisters,  all  of  whom  were  married  to  the  sage  Saub- 
hari  ;  2,  The  name  of  several  other  princes  mentioned  in  the 
Pui-auic  histories. 

Ambhansi~A  mystic  term  for  the  four  classes  of  beings,  gods, 
demons,  men,  and  pitris.     It  means  literally  '  waters.' 

Ambha  Matha,  a  Jaina  goddess,  still  worshipped  in  various 
parts  of  India.  The  ruins  of  many  beautiful  temples  erected  to 
her  may  be  seen  in  the  high  hills  of  Miirwar. 

Ambea— The  mother  of  the  Kurus,— a  race  of  lierocs  or  demi- 
srods  related  to  the  ratulus. 


28  AMI— AMR 


Amitabha— The  Lord  of  the  Munis,  a  deity  in  the  Buddhist 
Pantheon. 

Amogavarsha— The  Jain  king  of  Kanchi,  or  Tondamanda- 
him,  at  tlie  end  of  the  ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
principal  Jain  Purauas  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  his 
reign,  by  the  king's  spiritual  preceptor  Jina  Sena  Acharya. 

Amogha  Siddha— The  remover  of  the  ills  of  the  Kali  age  ;  a 
d^ty  in  the  Buddhist  Pantheon  to  whom  prayers  are  made  and 
offerings  addressed.—  fVilso?i. 

Amrita— Ambrosia:  The  beverage  of  immortality.  It  was 
produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  a  legend  with  which  all 
Hindus  are  familiar,  and  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  following 
way  ;  When  the  gods  were  overcome  by  the  Danavas,  they  fled 
for  refuge  to  Vishnu  and  sought  his  protection  and  advice.  Hari, 
the  creator  of  the  universe,  being  thus  prayed  to  by  the  prostrate 
divinities,  smiled,  and  thus  spake  with  renovated  energy,  "  Oh  gods, 
I  will  restore  your  strength.  Do  you  act  as  I  enjoin  ?  Let  all  the 
gods,  associated  with  the  Asuras,  cast  all  sorts  of  medicinal  herbs 
into  the  sea  of  milk  ;  and  then  taking  the  mountain  Mandara  for 
the  churniug-stick,  the  serpent  Vasuki  for  the  rope,  churn  the 
ocean  together  for  Ambrosia  ;  depending  upon  my  aid.  To  secure 
the  assistance  of  the  Daityas,  you  must  be  at  peace  with  them,  and 
engage  to  give  them  an  equal  portion  of  the  fruit  of  your  associat- 
ed toil  ;  promising  them  that  by  drinking  the  Amrita  that  shall  be 
produced  from  the  agitated  ocean,  they  shall  become  mighty  and 
immortal.  I  will  take  care  that  the  enemies  of  the  gods  shall  not 
partake  of  the  precious  draught ;  that  they  shall  share  in  the  labor 
alone." 

"Being  thus  instructed  by  the  god  of  gods,  the  divinities  entered 
into  alliance  with  the  demons,  and  they  jointly  undertook  the 
acquirement  of  the  beverage  of  immortality.  They  collected 
various  kinds  of  medicinal  herbs,  and  cast  them  into  the  sea  of 
milk,  the  Avaters  of  which  were  radiant  as  the  shining  clouds  of 
autumn.  They  then  took  the  mountain  Mandara  for  the  staff; 
the  serpent  Vasuki  [see  Ananta]  for  the  cord  ;  and  commenced 
to  churn  the  ocean  for   the  Amrita.     The  assembled  gods  were 


AMR  29 

stationed  by  Vishnu  at  the  tail  of  the  serpent ;  the  Daityas  and 
Dauavas  at  its  head  and  neck.  Scorched  by  the  flames  emitted  from 
his  inflated  hood,  the  demons  were  shorn  of  their  glory  ;  whilrst 
the  clouds  driven  towards  his  tail  by  the  breath  of  his  mouth, 
refreshed  the  gods  with  revivifying  showers.  In  the  midst  of  the 
milky  sea,  Hari  himself,  in  the  form  of  a  tortoise  ;  served  as  a 
pivot  for  the  mountain,  as  it  was  whirled  around.  The  holder  of 
the  mace  and  discus  was  present  in  other  forms  amongst  the  gods 
and  demons,  and  assisted  to  drag  the  monarch  of  the  serpent  race  : 
and  in  another  vast  body  he  sat  upon  the  summit  of  the  mountain. 
With  one  portion  of  his  energy,  unseen  by  gods  or  demons,  he 
sustained  the  serpent  king  ;  and  with  another  infused  vigour  into 
the  gods. 

"  From  the  ocean,  thus  churned  by  the  gods  and  danavas,  first  up- 
rose the  cow  Surabha,  the  fountain  of  milk,  and  curds,  worshipped 
by  the  divinities,  and  beheld  by  them  and  their  associates  with 
minds  disturbed,  and  eyes  glistening  with  delight.  Then,  as  the 
holy  Siddhas  in  the  sky  wondered  what  this  could  be,  appeared 
the  goddess  Varuni  [the  deity  of  wine,]  her  eyes  rolling  with 
intoxication.  Next,  from  the  whirlpool  of  the  deep,  sprang  the 
celestial  Parijata  tree,  the  delight  of  the  nymphs  of  heaven,  per- 
fuming the  world  with  its  blossoms.  The  troop  of  Apsarasas,  the 
nymphs  of  heaven,  were  then  produced,  of  surprising  loveliness, 
endowed  with  beauty  and  with  taste.  The  cool-rayed  moon  next 
rose,  and  was  seized  by  Mahadeva  :  and  then  poison  was  engendered 
from  the  sea,  of  which  the  snake  gods  (Nagas)  took  possession. 
Dhanwantari,  robed  in  white,  and  bearing  in  his  hand  the  cup  of 
Amrita,  next  came  forth  ;  beholding  which,  the  sons  of  Diti  and 
of  Danu,  as  well  as  the  Munis,  were  filled  with  satisfaction  and 
delight.  Then,  seated  on  a  full-blown  lotus,  and  holding  a  water- 
lily  in  her  hand,  the  goddess  Sri,  radiant  with  beauty,  rose  from 
the  waves.  The  great  sages,  enraptured,  hymned  her  with  the 
song  dedicated  to  her  praise.  Viswavasu  and  other  heavenly  quiris- 
ters  sang,  and  Ghirhichi  and  other  celestial  nymphs  danced  before 
her.  Ganga  and  other  holy  streams  attended  for  her  ablutions  ; 
and  the  elephants  of  the  skies,  taking  up  their  pure  waters  in 
vases  of  gold,  poured  them  over  the  goddess,  the  queen  of  the 


30  ANA 

universal  world.  The  sea  of  milk  m  person  presented  her  with 
a  wreath  of  never-fading  flowers  ;  and  the  artist  of  the  gods  (Vis- 
wakarma)  decorated  her  person  with  heavenly  ornaments.  Thus 
bathed,  attired,  and  adorned,  the  goddess,  in  the  view  of  the  celes- 
tials, cast  herself  upon  the  breast  of  Hari,  and  there  reclining, 
turned  her  eyes  upon  the  deities,  who  were  inspired  with  rapture 
by  her  gaze.  Not  so  the  Daityas,  who,  with  Viprachitti  at  their 
head,  were  filled  with  indignation,  as  Vishnu  turned  away  from 
them,  and  they  were  abandoned  by  the  goddess  of  prosperity 
(Lakshmi). 

"  The  powerful  and  indignant  Daityas  then  forcibly  seized  the 
Amrita-cup  that  was  in  the  hand  of  Dhanwantari  :  but  Vishnu, 
assuming  a  female  form,  fascinated  and  deluded  them  ;  and  recov- 
ering the  Amrita  from  them,  delivered  it  to  the  gods.  Sakra  and 
the  other  deities  quaffed  the  Ambrosia.  The  incensed  demons, 
grasping  their  weapons,  fell  upon  them  ;  but  the  gods,  into  whom 
the  Ambrosial  draught  had  infused  new  vigour,  defeated  and  put 
their  host  to  flight,  and  they  fled  through  the  regions  of  space,  and 
plunged  into  the  subterraneous  realms  of  Patala.  The  gods  thereat 
greatly  rejoiced,  did  homage  to  the  holder  of  the  discus  and  mace, 
and  resumed  their  reign  in  heaven.  The  sun  shone  with  renovated 
splendour,  and  again  discharged  his  appointed  task  ;  and  the  celes- 
tial luminaries  again  circled,  in  their  respective  orbits.  Fire  once 
more  blazed  aloft,  beautiful  in  splendour  ;  and  the  minds  of  all 
beings  were  animated  by  devotion.  The  three  worlds  again  were 
rendered  happy  by  prosperity  ;  and  Indra  the  chief  of  the  gods,  was 
restored  to  power."  (V.  P.,  p.  77.)  The  legend  as  given  in  the 
Ramayana  may  be  found  in  Carey's  Translation,  Vol.  I,  p.  410 — 
and  that  of  the  MahaBharata  in  Sir  C.  Wilkius'  Bhagavat  Gita — 
Bangalore  edit.,  p.  105. 

Anabhitra — A  proper  name  of ;  1 ,  A  prince  of  the  solar  race, 
a  descendant  of  Sagara,  sou  of  Niglina  and  brother  of  Raghu,  the 
fifty-second  king  of  Ayodhya  ;  2,  a  son  of  the  king  Kroshtu  or 
Kroshtri  by  Gandhari  and  father  of  Sini  or,  according  to  others,  a 
grandson  of  Vrishni,  son  of  Sumitra  by  Madri  and  brother  to  Sini ; 
or,  again,  a  grandson  of  Dhrishta.  son  of  Sumitra,  &c. 


ANA— ANAR  31 


Anadi-chitta-para-meshti — Eternal  intellectual  heavenly 
fhveller  ;  the  Jain  name  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord  of  all, 
who  dwells  in  Moksha-loka,  the  world  of  bliss. 

Ananganu — A  name  of  Cupid,  the  Hindu  god  of  love. 

Ananta — Infinite.  Called  also  Sesha  or  Vasuki.  The  king  of 
the  Nagas,  a  race  of  serpents  which  inhabit  Patala.  He  belongs 
purely  to  the  Puranic  period,  and  is  described  as  having  a  thou- 
sand hooded-heads,  on  the  foreheads  of  which  was  inscribed  the 
sign  called  Swastika,  the  mystic  cross  which  betokens  good  for- 
tune. He  is  clothed  in  purple  and  wears  a  white  necklace.  In  one 
hand  he  holds  a  plough,  in  the  other  a  pestle.  At  the  end  of  eacli 
kalpa  he  vomits  a  venomous  fire  which  destroys  all  creation.  He 
bears  the  universe  on  his  head  and  produces  earthquakes  whenever 
he  yawns.  On  his  body  Vishnu  reposes,  during  the  intervals  of 
creation,  and  is  sheltered  by  his  hoods  which  stretch  out  above 
him  like  a  canopy.  He  proved  a  very  useful  personage  at  the 
churning  of  the  ocean  ;  the  gods  seizing  his  tail  and  the  demons 
his  head,  they  twisted  him  round  Mount  Meru,  and  thus  formed  a 
churn  on  a  large  scale. — J.  C.  Thomson, 

Ananta — l,  A  name  of  Vishnu  or  Krishna  ;  2,  a  name  of 
Baladeva,  the  elder  brother  of  Krishna  ;  3,  a  name  of  Siva  ;  4,  a 
name  of  Rudra,  in  an  Upanishad  of  the  Atharvana  veda  ;  5,  a  name 
of  Sesha,  the  chief  of  the  Nagas  or  serpent  race  as  described 
above  :  the  couch  and  constant  attendant  of  Vishnu  ;  6,  a 
name  of  Vasuki,  another  king  of  the  serpents,  the  brother  of  the 
former  ;  7,  a  name  of  one  of  the  Viswadevas  ;  8,  the  name  of  the 
fourteenth  of  the  twenty-four  Arhats  or  Jaina  deified  saints  of  the 
present  Avasarpini  ;  9,  the  name  of  a  king  of  Kashmir  ;  10,  a  pro- 
per name  common  to  several  authors,  &c. 

Ananda  Giri — A  Sanscrit  author  who  lived  about  the  10th 
century  and  wrote  several  works  which  are  still  extant  and  of 
some  value  :  among  them  are  the  Sankara  Dig  Vijaya,  the  Life  of 
Sankaracharya,  &c. 

Anaranya — A  venerable  patriarch  whose  daughter  Pushka- 
rani,  was  mother  of  the  Mann  Chakshusa. 


32  ANA— AND 


Anasuya — Charity.  The  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Atri,  celebrated  for  her  piety  and  virtue.  Atri  introduced  her  to 
Sita,  to  whom  she  gave  an  ointment  to  render  her  "  beautiful  for 
ever." 

Andakataha — The  shell  of  the  mundane  egg.  Beyond  the 
sea  of  fresh  water  is  a  region  of  twice  its  extent,  where  the  laud  is 
of  gold,  and  where  no  living  beings  reside.  Thence  extends  the 
I^ka-lolia  mountain,  which  is  10,000  yojanas  in  breadth,  and  as 
many  in  height ;  and  beyond  it  jDCrpetual  darkness  invests  the 
mountain  all  around  ;  which  darkness  is  again  encompassed  by  the 
shell  of  the  egg. 

Andhaka — A  proper  name  of:  1,  a  demon,  a  son  of  Kasyapa 
and  Diti  with  a  thousand  arms  and  heads,  two  thousand  eyes  and 
feet,  and  called  Andhaka,  because  he  walked  like  a  blind  man 
although  he  saw  very  well ;  in  his  attempt  to  take  away  the  Pari- 
jata  tree  of  Swarga  he  was  slain  by  Siva  ;  2,  a  grandson  of  Krosh- 
tri,  and  son  of  Yuddhajita,  who  together  with  his  brother  Vrishni 
is  the  ancestor  of  the  celebrated  family  of  the  Andhaka- Vrishnis  ; 
3,  a  grandson  of  Vrishni  (the  brother  of  Andhaka),  and  son  of 
Swaphalka  by  Gandini  ;  4,  a  sou  of  Sattwat,  belonging  to  the  same 
family,  by  Kausalya  ;  5,  a  son  of  Bhima  (of  the  same  family)  and 
father  of  Revata.  [The  foregoing  lineage,  2-5,  is  taken  from  the 
Harivansa.  In  the  Linga  Purana  an  Andhaka  is  a  son  of  Nahusha 
who,  according  to  other  Puranas,  is  the  ancestor  of  Kroshtri  ;  in 
the  Kurma  Purfma  an  Andhaka  is  a  son  of  Ansa  and  father  of 
S^ttwata,  while  in  the  Vishnu  P.  a  prince  of  that  name  is  men- 
tioned as  the  son  of  Sattwata  who  is  apparently  the  same  as  the 
Sattwat  of  the  Hariv.]  ;  6,  The  name  of  a  Muni  (in  the  Padma 
Purana.) 

Andhra  kings,  dynasty  of,  celebrated  in  the  south  of  India 
from  a  very  early  period.  Professor  Wilson  makes  it  commence 
about  20  years  B.C.,  though  they  might  not  have  established  their 
authority  in  Magadha  until  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
They  are  noticed  by  Pliny. 

Andhra  Dipaca— An  old  and  very  good  Dictionary  of  the 
Telugu  language,  by  Mamidi  Vencaya. 


AND— ANG  8S 


Andhra — The  Sanscrit  name  for  the  Telugu  language.  Andhra 
is  the  ancient  name  of  Telingana,  the  Telugu  country. 

Andraj atlas — The  same  as  Andhras,  the  Telugu  people,  or 
inhafeitants  of  Telingana,  formerly  called  Gentoos, 

Anga — 15  A  name  of  a  minor  Dwipa,  peopled  by  Mlechchhas 
who  -worship  Hindu  divinities  ;  2,  A  country  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bhagulpur.  It  is  the  scene  of  several  of  the  legends  of  the 
Ramayaua.  A  dynasty  of  Buddhist  Rajas  reigned  at  Anga  about 
the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era  under  the  name  of  Karnas; 
and  it  is  thought  that  the  Brahmanical  compilers  of  the  Mahabha- 
rata  wished  to  establish  a  mythical  connection  between  the  Kama 
who  fought  in  the  great  war,  and  the  Kama  Rajas  of  Anga  who 
flourished  at  a  much  later  period. 

Anga — The  eldest  of  the  six  sons  of  Uru,  a  descendant  of 
Dhruva,  of  the  family  of  Atri.  Anga  who  had  by  his  wife  Sunitha, 
only  one  son  named  Vena,  whose  right  arm  was  rubbed  by  the 
Rishis  for  the  purpose  of  producing  from  it  progeny.   (See  Prithu.) 

Angada — A  son  of  Lackshmana,  king  of  Angadi,  and  brother 
of  Rama  ;  2,  the  son  of  Vali,  who  was  installed  Tuvaraja  of  Kish- 
kindha  ;  3,  a  son  of  Gada  by  Vrihati. 

Anganyasa  karanyasa— The  mmitras  used  in  the  early 
Enorniug  by  Brahmans,  with  certain  motions  of  their  fingers,  and 
touching  various  parts  of  their  bodies. 

Angaja — (Lust).  A  son  of  Brahma.  The  virtues  and  vices  are 
represented  as  the  progeny  of  Bramha. 

Angaraka — A  Rudra.  There  are  eleven  well-known  Rudras, 
lords  of  the  three  worlds  ;  but  each  one  of  the  eleven  has  many 
appellations  in  the  different  Puranas, 

AngaraS — One  of  the  peoples  enumerated  in  the  V.  P. 

Angas — There  are  six  Angas,  or  subsidiary  portions  of  the 
Vedas,  viz  : — Siksha,  rules  for  reciting  the  prayers,  the  accents  and 
tones  to  be  observed  ;  Kalpa,  ritual;  Vyakarana,  grammar;  Nirukta, 
glossarial  comment ;  Chhandas,  metre  ;  and  Jyotish,  astronomy. 
The  four  Vedas,  the  six  Angas,  Avith  Mimansa,  theology  ;  Nyaya, 
logic  ;  Dharma,  the  institutes  of  law,  and  ihc  Puranas,  coiitiitute 
the  fourteen  principal  branches  of  knowledge. 

5 


34  ANG— ANGI 


Angiras — A  Prajapati  who  married  Smriti  (memory)  oue  of 
the  daughters  of  Daksha.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  many 
vaidik  hymns,  but  is  mentioned  also  in  a  subsequent  period  as  one 
of  the  inspired  legislators  of  India,  and  as  the  author  of  an  astrono- 
mical work.  '■  The  various  legends  connected  Avitli  his  life  seem 
to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  word  Angiras  coming  from  the 
same  radical  as,  and  its  sound  recalling  that  of  Agni,  fire  (q.  v.) 
Hence  we  find  Angiras  sometimes  either  as  an  epithet  or  as  the 
father  of  Agni,  and  the  saint  himself  connected  chiefly  with  such 
hymns  as  are  addressed  to  Agni,  to  Indra  or  to  deities  of  a  kindred 
description  :  a  portion  of  the  fourth  Veda,  the  Atharvan,  reports 
him  also  as  an  expounder  of  the  Eramhavidya  (q.  v.)  or  the  sacred 
knowledge  that  had  been  imparted  to  him  by  Satyavaha,  a  descend- 
ant of  Bharadvaja.  Though  Angiras,  as  may  be  concluded  from 
his  name  being  connected  with  the  authorship  of  a  great  portion  of 
the  sacred  Hindu  literature,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest 
civihzers  of  India,  no  historical  date  is  to  be  obtained  from  the 
epic  or  puranic  literature  where  the  vaidik  legends  of  his  life  are 
merely  amplified  ;  there  he  is  named  as  one  of  the  Prajapatis  or 
progenitors  of  mankind,  engendered,  according  to  some  by  Manu, 
according  to  others  by  Brahma  himself,  either  with  the  female  half 
of  his  body  or  from  his  mouth,  or  from  the  space  between  his  eye- 
brows. As  such  he  is  considered  also  as  one  of  the  seven  Rishis 
who  preside  over  the  reign  of  the  first  Manu,  or  Svayambhuva. 
He  is  called,  besides,  the  priest  of  the  Gods,  the  Lord  of  the  Sacri- 
fice, &c.  Sometimes  he  is  considered  as  a  son  of  Uru  by  Agneyi, 
the  daughter  of  Agni.  His  daughters  are  the  Richas  (or  vaidik 
hymns)  and  also  Sasvati,  Sinivali,  Kuhu,  Raka,  Anumati ;  his  sons 
are  Samvarta,  the  manes  called  Havishmats,  Utathaya,  Brihaspati, 
Markandeya  ;  his  wives,  Smriti  (traditional  science),  two  daugh- 
ters of  Daksha,  Swadha  and  Sati,  and  Sraddha,  the  daughter  of 
the  sage  Kardama.  As  an  astronomical  personification  he  is  Bri- 
haspati himself,  or  the  regent  of  the  planet  Jupiter  and  presides 
over  the  sixth  year  of  the  cycle  of  sixty  years." — Goldstiicker. 

Angirasas — Warrior  priests.  These  who  were  kshatryas  by 
birth,  the  heads  of  the  family  of  Rathinara,  were  called  Angirasas 
(sous  of  Angh'as)  and  were  brahmaus  as  well  as  kshatryas.    "  This 


ANIL-ANIR  35 


affords  an  instance  of  a  mixture  of  character,  of  which  several 
similar  cases  occur.  Kshatryas  by  birth  become  brahmans  by  pro- 
fession, and  such  persons  are  usually  considered  as  Angirasas, 
descendants  or  followers  of  Angiras,  who  may  have  founded  a 
school  of  warrior  priests." — Wilson. 

Anila — (Wind)  Vasu.  The  deities  called  Vasus,  because,  pre- 
ceded by  tire,  they  abound  in  splendour  and  might,  are  severally 
named  Apa,  Dhruva,  Soma,  Dhava  (fire),  Anila  (wind),  Anala  (fire), 
Pratusha  (daybreak)  and  Prabhasa,  (eight)  ;  2,  The  son  of  Tansu 
and  father  of  Dushyanta  ;  3,  A  Rdkshasa. 

Allima — A  superhuman  faculty,  or  the  possession  of  a  divine 
influence  to  be  attained  by  austere  devotion  ;  or  the  faculty  of 
assuming  an  atomic,  subtle,  invisible,  supreme  condition  of  existence, 
supposed  to  be  attainable  by  men  through  a  course  of  austerities, 
attended  with  magical  rites,  in  honor  of  Siva  and  Parvati. 

Aniruddha — The  son  of  Pradyumna.  He  is  described  as  "  a 
powerful  and  gallant  prince,  who  was  fierce  in  fight,  an  ocean  of 
prowess,  and  the  tamer  of  his  foes."  He  was  beloved  by  Usha, 
daughter  of  Bana.  Her  companion  Chitralekha,  being  endowed 
with  magic  power,  set  off  through  the  air  to  Dwuraku,  and  returned 
bringing  Aniruddha  along  with  her  to  the  palace  of  Bana.  The 
guards  discovering  him  there  with  Usha  reported  it  to  the  king, 
who  sent  a  body  of  his  followers  to  seize  the  prince  ;  but  the  valiant 
youth  slew  his  assailants,  on  which  Bana  advanced  against  him 
and  endeavoured  to  kill  him.  Finding  however  that  Aniruddha 
was  not  to  be  subdued  by  prowess,  he  brought  his  magical  faculties 
into  the  conflict,  by  which  he  succeeded  in  capturing  the  Yadu 
prince  and  bindiug  him  in  serpent  bonds.  When  Aniruddha  was 
missed  from  Dwaraka,  and  the  Yadavas  were  enquiring  of  one 
another  whither  he  had  gone,  Narada  came  to  them  and  told  them 
he  was  the  prisoner  of  Bana.  Krishua  immediately  summoned 
Garuda,  who  came  with  a  wish,  and  mounting  upon  him,  along  with 
Bala  and  Pradyumna,  he  set  off  for  the  city  of  Bana.  A  great  battle 
then  took  place  in  which  Krishna  with  his  discuss  lopped  away  the 
thousand  arms  of  Buua,  and  would  have  killed  him  but  for  the 


36  ANJ— ANT 


interference  of  Siva  on  his  behalf.  Krishna  then  went  to  the  place 
■where  Aniruddha  was  confined.  The  fetters  that  bonnd  him  were 
destroyed,  being  blasted  by  the  breath  of  Garnda  ;  and  Krishna, 
placing  him,  along  with  his  wife  Usha,  on  the  celestial  bird,  returned 
with  Pradyumna  and  Rama  to  Dwaraka.'^  V.  P.  Professor  Wilson 
thinks  that  the  legend  describes  a  serious  struggle  between  the 
Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 

Aniaka." — ^^^  ^^  ^^®  Danavas,  a  son  of  Vipi^chitti,  of  th& 
families  of  the  Daityas. 

Anjan — The  second  elephant  of  Indra. 

An j ana — A  sei*pent  with  many  heads,  one  of  the  progeny  of 
Kadru,  V.  P.,  V.  I„  c.  21. 

Anrita- — Falsehood,  son  of  Adharma,  (vice)  married  to  Nikriti^ 
they  had  two  sous,  Bhaya  (fear)  and  Naraka  (hell),  and  twins  to 
them  two  daughters,  Maya  (deceit)  and  Vedanii  (torture),,  who^ 
became  their  wives.  In  the  Ramayana,  Anrita  is  the  name  of  one 
of  the  mystical  weapons  delivered  by  Rama  to  Viswamitra. 

Ansa— One  of  the  twelve  Adityas.     V.  P.,  p.  122. 

Ansuman — A  mythical  raja  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of 
Asamauj,  and  father  of  Dilipa.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Sagara, 
who  was  sent  by  him  to  recovei'  the  sacrificial  steed,  Ansumat 
having  arrived  at  the  place  of  the  great  Rishi,  Kapila,  prayed  to 
liim  and  so  propitiated  him,  that  the  saint  gave  up  the  horse  and 
predicted  his  future  greatness.  Sagara  on  recovering  the  steed 
completed  his  sacrifice. 

"  Piince  Ansuman,  the  strong  and  brave 
Followed  the  rede  Suparna  gave, 
The  glorious  hei-o  took  the  horse, 
And  homeward  quickly  bent  his  course." — Griffiths. 

Ansaumti — A  river  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda,  on  the  banks 
©f  which  Krishna  the  Dasyu  was  conquered  by  Raja  Rigiswan. 

Antacharas — A  class  of  Border  tribes,  mentioned  in  the  V.  P. 

Antariksha— A  Vyasa,  son  of  Kinuara,  the  arranger  of  the 

Veclas  in  the  thirteenth  Dwapara.  The  great  Rishis  are  said  in  the 


ANU— ANUK  37 


V.  P.  to  have  arranged  the  Vedas  twenty-eight  times,  a  list  is 
given  of  the  twenty-eight  Vyasas  of  the  present  Manwantara  ;  2, 
A  king  of  the  family  of  Ikshwaku,  a  sou  of  Kinuara  and  father  of 
Suvarna. 

Anu — A  son  of  Yayati  who  was  made  by  his  father  king  of 
the  North  to  govern  as  viceroy  under  his  younger  brother  Paru, 
whom  he  appointed  supreme  monarch  of  the  earth. 

Anubhavamrita — A  vairdgya  treatise,  which  exists  only  in 
the  Dravidian  languages,  and  appears  to  be  entirely  unknown  in  other 
parts  of  India.  Dr.  Ballantyue  informed  the  writer  in  1852  that 
none  of  the  pandits  in  the  Benares  College  knew  of  the  work  :  it 
contains  a  treatise  on  the  Upanishads, — a  sort  of  exposition  of 
Pantheism — shows  that  the  existence  of  a  material  world  cannot  be 
proved — that  all  is  Maya — recommends  retirement  from  domestic  life 
and  meditation,  in  order  to  the  soul's  j^urification  and  final  beatitude. 

Anugraha — The  eighth  creation,  which  possesses  both  the 
qualities  of  goodness  and  darkness.  This  seems  to  have  been  taken 
from  the  Sankya  philosophy,  and  is  described  in  the  Padma,  Liuga, 
and  Matsya  Puranas.  It  is  the  creation  of  which  we  have  a  notion, 
or  to  which  we  give  assent  (anugraha)  in  contradiction  to  organic 
creation,  or  that  existence  of  which  we  have  sensible  perception. 

Anugraha-sarga — A  technical  phrase  meaning  "  Benevolent 
Kature,"  one  of  the  Aphorisms  of  the  Sankhya  Philosophy  as  stated 
in  the  Compendium  of  Principles.  "  Benevolent  creation"  it  is  said 
consists  of  the  production  of  external  objects  from  the  five  subtile 
elements,  viz.,  of  sound,  tangibility,  colour,  savour,  odour.  Bramha 
perceiving  these  (the  senses)  to  be  destitute  of  a  sphere  of  action, 
created  external  objects,  or  "  benevolent  nature." 

Anuhlada — Son  of  Hiranyakasipu,  and  brother  of  the  wise 
Prahlada,  the  augmenter  of  the  Daitya  race  [Prahlada.] 

Anukramanis — Systematic  indices  to  various  portions  of  the 
ancient  Vaidic  literature.  The  most  perfect  Anukramani  is  that  of 
the  Sanhita  of  the  Rig  V^da.  It  is  ascribed  to  Katyayaua,  an 
author  chiefly  known  by  his  works  in  the  Yajur  Veda  and  Sama 
Veda.    Its  name  is  Sarvanukramani,  i.  e,,  the  index  of  all  things. 


88  ANUL— ANY 


It  o-ives  the  first  words  of  each  hymn,  the  number  of  verses,  the 
name  and  family  of  the  poets,  the  names  of  the  deities  and  the 
metres  of  every  verse.  Max  Miiller  fixes  the  date  of  Kiityayana's 
writing  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century,  b.  c. 

Anula— -^  female  Buddhistic  Arhat  or  saint  who  is  renowned 
for  having  introduced  the  Buddhistic  religion  into  Laukcl  or  Ceylon 
in  the  time  of  the  king  Asoka  ;  she  was  the  wife  of  Mahctuaga,  the 
^'oun^er  brother  of  Mahendra  and  received  the  dignity  of  a  female 
Arhat  from  Sanghamitra,  the  sister  of  Mahendra  ;  2,  A  queen  of 
Ceylon  renowned  for  her  profligacy.  She  was  the  wife  of  Koranga, 
the  brother  of  Mahakiila-mahatishya,  whom  she  killed  by  poison  as 
well  as  his  son  Tishya  and  four  paramours  whom  she  married  in 
sucoessiou.  A  second  son  of  Mahakula,  Kalakauatishya,  revolted 
at  last  against  her  and  caused  her  death  in  the  year  41  b.  c. — 
Goldst'ucker. 

Anumati— Oue  of  the  four  daughters  of  Angiras  ;  the  first  day 
of  the  moon's  wane.  The  four  daughters  are  the  four  phases  of  the 
moon,  Y,  P.,  p.  83.  The  goddess  of  the  day  when  the  moon  is  in 
the  third  and  fourth  quarters. 

Aliuradha— ^  lunar  mansion  in  Jaradgavi.  For  an  explana- 
tion of  the  divisions  of  the  celestial  sphere,  see  Y.  P.,  p.  226. 

Anushtubh — Ij  -^  metre  from  the  northern  mouth  of 
Brahma,  along  with  the  Sama  Yeda,  &c.,  Y.  P.,  p.  42  ;  2,  A  name 
of  Saras wati. 

Anuvatsara— Fourth  cyclic  year.  Fifteen  days  of  thirty 
Muhurttas,  each  is  called  a  Paksha  (a  lunar  fortnight)  ;  two  of 
these  make  a  month,  two  months  a  solar  season,  three  seasons  a 
northern  or  southern  declination  (Ayana)  ;  and  these  two  compose 
a  year.  Years,  made  up  of  four  kinds  of  months,  are  distinguished 
into  five  kinds  ;  and  an  aggregate  of  all  the  varieties  of  time  is 
termed  a  Yuga  or  cycle.  The  years  are  severally  called  Samvatsara, 
Parivatsara,  Idvatsara,  Anuvatsara  and  Vatsara.  This  is  the  time 
called  a  yuga. 

Anyadesya— The  name  given  to  words  derived  from  foreigu 
languages. 


APA— APR  39 


^pg^—Ouc  of  the  deities  called  Vasus.     (See  Anila.) 

Apamurtti— One  of  the  sinless  sous  of  Atri. 

Apana— Oue  of  the  ten  winds  which  brahmans  believe  to  be 
lodged  in  the  body  ;  this  oue  resides  in  the  region  of  the  navel, 
and  forces  out  the  solid  and  liquid  secretions. 

Apara — A  technical  term  in  the  Sankhya  philosophy,  denot- 
ing that  kind  of  mental  acquiescence  or  indifference  which  arises 
from  the  reflection  that  sensual  objects  perish  in  consequence  of 
enjoyment,  and  that  there  is  a  feeling  of  pain  or  trouble  when  they 
perish. 

Aparagodana— (111  Buddhistic  Cosmogony.)  One  of  the 
four  dwipas  or  continents,  in  shape  like  a  round  mirror,  and  seven 
thousand  Yojanas  in  breadth,  to  the  west  of  the  Mahameru  which 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Aparajita — l?  One  of  the  eleven  Rudras  ;  2,  A  name  of 
Siva  and  of  Vishnu  ;  3,  A  name  of  Durga. 

Aparna — -^  name  of  Uma,  a  daughter  of  Himavat  and  Mena, 
so  called  because  she  did  not  even  eat  a  leaf  daring  her  perform- 
ance of  religious  austerities. 

Apaspati — A  son  of  Uttanapada,  and  brother  of  Dhruva,  q.  v. 

Apastamba — A  celebrated  writer,  author  of  the  Samaya- 
charica  sutras.  The  precise  period  at  which  he  lived  is  not  known, 
but  his  writings  are  much  valued. — A.  S.  L.,  p.  206. 

Apava — A  name  of  the  Prajapati  Vasishtha.  "As"  says 
Professor  Wilson,  "  he  performs  the  oflice  of  Brahma,  he  should  be 
regarded  as  that  divinity,  but  this  is  not  exactly  the  case.  Apava 
becomes  two-fold,  and  in  the  capacity  of  his  male  half  begets 
offspring  by  the  female."  V.  P.,  p.  52. 

Appamanabha— The  name  of  the  twelfth  heaven  of  Bud- 
dhism. 

Appamana  Subha — The  fifteenth  heaven  of  Buddhism. 

Apratisht'ha^One  of  the  Narakas  or  hells,  of  which  twenty- 
eight  are  enumerated.  They  are  called  the  awful  provinces  of  the 
kingdom  of  Yama,  terrible  with  instruments  of  torture. 


40  APS— APT 


ADSaiclsaS The   name   given   to    the   nymphs   of    heaven 

created  by  Brahma  in  the  commencement  of  the  Kalpa.  They  are 
also  said  to  have  been  i^roduced  from  the  Avhirlpool  of  the  deep,  of 
surprising  loveliness.  In  some  of  the  Puranas  they  are  called 
the  daughters  of  Kasyapa  and  Muni.  The  Apsarasas  are  of  two 
kinds  :  Laukika,  "  worldly,"  of  whom  thirty-four  are  specified  ; 
and  Daivika  or  divine,  ten  in  number  ;  the  latter  furnish  the  indivi- 
duals most  frequently  engaged  in  the  interruption  of  the  penances  of 
holy  sages.  There  are  also  fourteen  Ganas — or  troops  of  Apsarasas, 
bearing  peculiar  designations  as  Ahutas,  &c.  "  Originally  these 
deities  seem  to  have  been  personifications  of  the  vapours  which  are 
attracted  by  the  sun,  and  form  into  mist  or  clouds  :  their  character 
may  be  thus  interpreted  in  the  few  hymns  of  the  Rig  Yeda  where 
mention  is  made  of  them.  At  a  subsequent  period  when  the  Gaud- 
harva  of  the  Rig  Veda,  who  personifies  there  especially  the  fire  of 
the  Sun,  expanded  into  the  Fire  of  Lightning,  the  rays  of  the  moon 
and  other  attributes  of  the  elementary  life  of  heaven,  as  well  as 
into  pious  acts  referring  to  it,  the  Apsarasas  become  divinities 
which  represent  phenomena  or  objects  both  of  a  physical  and  ethi- 
cal kind,  closely  associated  with  that  life  ;  thus  in  the  Yajurveda 
sunbeams  are  called  the  Apsarasas,  associated  with  the  Gandharva 
who  is  the  sun  ;  Planets  are  termed  the  Apsarasas  connected  with 
the  Gandharva  Fire  ;  Constellations  are  the  Apsarasas  of  the  Gan- 
dharva Wind,  &c.,  &c.  In  the  last  Mythological  epoch  when  the 
Gandharvas  have  saved  from  their  elementary  nature  merely  so 
much  as  to  be  musicians  in  the  paradise  of  Indra,  the  Apsarasas 
appear  among  other  subordinate  deities  w^hich  share  in  the  merry 
life  of  Indra's  heaven,  as  the  wives  of  the  Gandharvas,  but  more 
especially  as  wives  of  a  licentious  sort,  and  they  are  promised  there- 
fore, too,  as  a  reward  to  heroes  fallen  in  battle  when  they  are 
received  in  the  paradise  of  Indra  ;  and  Avhile,  in  the  Rig  Veda,  they 
assist  Soma  to  pour  down  his  floods,  they  descend  in  the  epic  liter- 
ature on  earth  merely  to  shake  the  virtue  of  penitent  sages,  and  to 
deprive  them  of  the  power  they  would  otherwise  have  acquired 
through  unbroken  austerities." —  Goldstuckei\  Sans.  Diet. 

Aptoryama — A    sacrificial    rite    produced    from   Bramha's 
northern  mouth,  V.  P.     "  The  Aptorrjam  is  the  seventh  or  last 


ARAD— ARAN  41 


part  of  the  Jjotislitoma,  for  the  performaDce  of  which  it  is  not 
essentially  necessary,  but  a  voluntary  sacrifice  instituted  for  the 
attainment  of  a  specific  desire.  The  literalmeauiug  of  the  word  would 
be  in  conformity  with  the  Praudliamanoramd  '  a  sacrifice  which 
procures  the  attainment  of  the  desired  object."  ' — Goldstucher. 

Aradhya— The  name  of  a  class  of  Brahmans  who  recede 
somewhat  from  the  extreme  tenets  of  the  Vira  Saivas,  and  tend 
somewhat  towards  the  Vaishnavas.  Basava  was  originally  an 
Aradhya  brahman,  though  in  the  Purana  bearing  his  name  the  sect 
is  spoken  of  very  contemptuously. 

Araga— A  Sun.  When  Vishnu  assumes  the  character  of 
Eudra,  the  destroyer,  and  descends  to  reunite  all  creatures  with 
himself,  he  enters  into  the  seven  solar  rays  which  dilate  into  seven 
suns — the  name  of  the  first  is  Araga. 

Aranyakas— "  The  Treatises  of  the  Forest."  So  named,  as 
Sayana  informs  us,  because  they  had  to  be  read  in  the  Forest. 
"It  might  almost  seem,"  says  Max  Miiller,  "as  if  they  were 
intended  for  the  Vauaprasthas  only,  people  who,  after  having  per- 
formed all  the  duties  of  students  and  householders,  retire  from  the 
world  to  the]forest,  to  end  their  days  in  the  contemplation  of  the 
deity."  In  some  instances  the  Aranyakas  form  part  of  the 
Brahmanas  and  thus  share  the  authority  of  Sruti  or  revelation. 
Part  of  one  however  is  ascribed  to  a  human  author  Asvalanyaka. 
Another  part  is  quoted  by  Sayana  as  being  a  Sutra  work  of 
Saunakas.  The  Aranyakas  pre-suppose  the  existence  of  the 
Brahmanas,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  enlargement  upon  them. 
The  chief  interest  which  they  possess  at  the  present  moment  con- 
sists in  their  philosophy.  The  philosophical  chapters,  termed 
Upanishads,  are  almost  the  only  portion  of  Vedic  literature  exten- 
sively read  to  this  day.  The  Vedanta,  the  Sankya,  the  Vaiseshika, 
the  Nyaya  and  Yoga  philosophers,  all  appeal  to  the  Upanishads  in 
support  of  their  tenets.  "  Traces  of  modern  ideas  are  not  wanting 
in  the  Aranyakas,  and  the  very  fact  that  they  are  destined  for  a 
class  of  men  who  had  retired  from  the  world  in  order  to  give  them- 
selves up  to  the  highest  problems,  shows  an  advanced,  and  an 

6 


42  ARA 

already  declining  and  decaying  society,  not  unlike  the  monastic 
ao-e  of  the  Christian  workV—Max  Midler,  A.  S.  L.,  Chap.  II. 

Arati  Alati — A  ceremony  on  the  birth  of  a  brahman  child. 
The  Abbe  DuBois  thus  describes  it :  "  Upon  a  plate  of  copper  they 
place  a  lamp,  made  of  a  paste  from  rice-flour.  It  is  supplied  with 
oil  and  lighted.  The  married  Avomen,  but  not  widows,  for  their 
presence  would  be  unlucky,  take  hold  of  the  plate  with  both  hands, 
a^jd  raising  it  as  high  as  the  head  of  the  i>ersou  for  whom  the  cere- 
mony is  performed,  describe  in  that  position  a  number  of  circles 
with  the  plate  and  the  burning  lamp. 

Sometimes,  in  place  of  the  rice  lamp,  they  fill  the  plate  "with 
water,  colored  red  with  a  mixture  of  saffron  and  other  ingredients  ; 
and  with  this  describe  their  circle,  raising  it  as  high  as  the  head  of 
the  person  who  is  the  object  of  the  ceremony. 

The  intention  of  this  ceremony  is  to  avert  fascination  by  the  eye, 
and  to  prevent  the  accidents  which  arise  out  of  I  know  not  what 
evil  impression  occasioned  by  the  jealous  looks  of  certain  persons. 
The  credulity  of  the  Hindus  respecting  this  sort  of  injury  is  carried 
to  excess  :  and  it  is  for  that  reason  thai;  the  ceremony  of  the  drati, 
which  is  considered  to  have  the  virtue  of  preventing  the  effect  of 
those  glances,  is  so  common  and  so  universal  among  the  Hindus, 
and  especially  among  persons  of  high  rank,  wdio,  being  more 
observed  and  having  more  enemies  than  private  individuals,  are 
more  exposed  to  the  evil  influence  of  malevolent  or  jealous  looks. 
When  such  persons  therefore  appear  in  public,  the  first  thing  that 
is  done  on  their  return  home,  is  to  perform  this  ceremony  of  the 
arati  over  them,  as  an  antidote  to  the  ill-designed  looks  which  may 
have  been  cast  upon  them.  For  the  same  reason  princes  have  the 
ceremony  repeated  several  times  in  a  day. 

This  sort  of  superstition  or  idle  observance  is  by  no  means 
peculiar  to  the  Hindus.  I  have  seen  cantons  in  France,  (and  I 
suppose  it  is  not  different  in  many  other  countries,)  where  the 
people  were  scarcely  less  infatuated.  I  have  known  decent  villagers 
who  would  not  have  dared  to  show  their  young  children  to  people 
they  did  not  know,  or  to  persons  of  bad  appearance,  lest  their 
invidious  or  ill-boding  look  should  occasion  some  mischief  to  befall 
them." — Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Hindus. 


ARB— ARJ  43 


Arbudas — The  people  about  Mount  Abu  in  Guzerat — called 
Arbuda  iu  the  Purauas. 

Archish— (Flame).  The  wife  of  Krisaswa,  and  mother  of  Dhii- 
maketu  (comet). 

Ardra — A  lunar  mansion  in  Gajavithi.  The  path  of  the  Pun 
and  other  planets  amongst  the  lunar  asterisms  is  divided  into  throe 
portions  or  Avasthanas,  northern,  southern  and  central,  called 
severally  Airavata,  Jaradgava  and  Vaiswanara.  Each  of  these 
again  is  divided  into  three  parts  or  Vithis.  Each  of  these  Vithis 
contains  three  asterisms. 

Argha — A  gift  indicating  great  respect,  such  as  fruit  and 
flowers,  or  milk  and  honey,  which  are  offered  to  an  idol,  or  to  a 
brahman,  or  to  a  bridegroom  on  his  wedding  day. 

Ahrat — l?  A  king  of  southern  Karnataka  who  was  converted 
by  Rishabha  ;  2,  A  name  of  a  deified  sage  among  the  Jaiuas. 

Arhatas — A  name  applied  to  the  Jains,  q.  v. 

Arishta — l*  A  demon  who  in  the  form  of  a  savage  bull  came 
one  evening  to  the  spot  where  Krishna  and  the  Gopis  were  dancing 
together.  His  color  was  that  of  a  cloud  charged  with  rain,  he  had 
vast  horns  ;  and  his  eyes  were  like  two  fiery  suns,  his  tail  was 
erect,  his  dewlap  hung  low,  and  he  was  a  terror  to  the  herds.  The 
herdsmen  and  their  women  were  exceedingly  frightened,  and  call- 
ed aloud  on  Krishna,  who  came  to  their  succour,  without  any  fear. 
He  waited  the  near  approach  of  the  bull,  when  he  seized  him  by 
the  horns  and  pressed  his  sides  with  his  knees.  Tearing  off  one 
of  the  horns  he  beat  the  fierce  demon  with  it  till  he  died,  vomitino; 
blood  from  his  mouth.  The  herdsmen  then  praised  Krishna  ;  2,  A 
daughter  of  Daksha,  and  wife  of  Kasyapa.     V.  P. 

Arishtaucmi — 15  A  Prajapati,  who  married  four  daughters 
of  Daksha  ;  2,  A  name  of  Kasyapa.  His  daughter  Kesini  became 
the  wife  of  Sagara. 

Arjuna — The  third  of  the  five  sons  of  Pandu  by  his  wife 
Kuuti  or  Pritha,  who,  however,  received  amatory  visits  from  the 
gods  Dharma,  Vayu  and  Indra,  who  are  therefore  put  forward  as 
the  real  fathers  of  Yudhishthira,  Bhima  and  Arjuna,  iu  order  to 


44-  ARJ 

give  these  heroes  a  divine  origin.  Arjuua  is  therefore  called  the 
sou  of  Indra.  He  was  taught  the  use  of  the  bow  by  Drona,  aud 
was  his  best  loved  pupil  :  this  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  cousin 
Duryodhana,  and  ultimately  led  to  the  banishment  of  the  Pandavas 
from  Court,  Arjuua  appeared  iit  the  exhibition  of  arms  at  Hastina- 
pura,  where  he  performed  marvellous  feats  in  archery,  sword- 
playing,  whirling  the  chakra,  and  throwiug  the  noose.  At  the 
{^vayamvara  of  Draupadi,  Arjuna  was  disguised  as  a  brahman,  aud 
succeeded  in  hitting  the  golden  fish  after  all  tlie  Rajas  had  failed  ; 
he  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  Draupadi  as  the  victor  ;  she 
threw  the  garland  round  his  neck,  and  permitted  him  to  lead  her 
away  according  to  the  rule  of  the  Swayamvara.  Draupadi  became 
the  wife  of  the  five  brothers  ;  each  had  a  house  and  garden  of  his 
own,  and  Draupadi  dwelt  with  each  of  them  in  turn  for  two  days 
at  a  time  ;  and  it  was  a  law  .amongst  them  that  if  a  brother  entered 
the  house  of  another  brother,  whilst  Draupadi  was  dwelling  there, 
he  should  depart  out  of  the  city  and  go  into  exile  for  twelve  years. 
It  happened  that  this  rule  was  inadvertently  violated  by  Arjuna, 
who  went  into  exile  in  consequence.  He  was  accompanied  by 
many  brahmaus,  and  visited  mauy  sacred  places.  At  Hurdwar  a 
damsel  named  Ulupi,  the  daughter  of  Vasuki,  the  Raja  of  the  Nagas, 
saw  Arjuua  and  besought  him  to  espouse  her,  and  he  abode  with 
her  many  days. 

After  this  he  visited  the  countries  of  the  south,  and  in  the 
Maheudra  mountain  saw  Parasu  Rama  from  whom  he  obtained 
some  excellent  weapons.  In  the  city  of  Manipura,  Chitrangada 
the  daughter  of  the  Raja,  saw  Arjuna  aud  desired  him  for  her 
husband.  They  were  married  on  the  condition  that  any  son  she 
might  have  should  remain  to  succeed  to  the  Raj  of  Manipura.  She 
gave  birth  to  a  sou  who  was  named  Babhru-vahaua.  After  a 
residence  there  of  three  years  Arjuna  took  leave  of  his  wife  and 
son  and  proceeded  on  his  travels. 

The  next  place  to  which  he  went  was  Prabhasa  near  Dwaraka. 
Here  he  was  met  by  Krishna,  who  gave  orders  that  the  city  of 
Dwaraka  should  be  dressed  out  with  flowers  and  banners  aud  every 
sign  of  rejoicing.  Krishna  gave  a  great  entertainment  to  all  the 
chieftains  and  their  ladies,   on  the   beautiful  hill   of  Raivataka, 


ARJ  45 

ArJLuia  was  smitten  with  the  charms  of  Subhadra,  the  sister  of 
Krishna.  In  a  few  clays  they  were  married  by  the  contrivance  of 
Krishna,  and  when  the  twelve  years  of  exile  were  accomplished 
Arjuna  departed  with  his  wife  Subhadra  for  the  city  of  Indrapras- 
tha.  His  brothers  received  him  with  gladness  and  Draupadi  was 
soon  reconciled  to  Subhadra. 

Arjuna's  elder  brother,  the  Riija  Yudhishthira,  determined  to 
perform  the  great  sacrifice  called  the  Rajasviya.  This  w^as  success- 
fully accomplished,  but  it  revived  the  old  feud  between  the 
Kauravas  and  Pandavas.  Duryodhana  invited  his  kinsmen  to  a 
gambling  match,  seeking  by  under-hand  means  to  deprive  Yud- 
hishthira of  his  Raj. — [See  Yudhishthira.] 

In  the  course  of  the  second  exile  of  the  Pandavas,  Arjuna  "  by 
the  advice  of  his  mythical  grandfather  Vyasa,  for  the  sake  of  per- 
forming such  penances  as  should  propitiate  the  gods,  and  induce 
them  to  grant  him  celestial  weapons  which  would  ensure  him  the 
victory  over  Duryodhana  and  the  Kauravas.  On  reaching  the 
Mandara  mountain  he  heard  a  voice  in  the  sky  calling  upon  him 
to  stop  ;  and  Indra  appeared  in  all  his  glory,  and  promised  to  give 
him  the  divine  weapons  provided  he  succeeded  in  propitiating  the 
god  Siva.  Arjuna  then  entered  upon  a  course  of  austerities  so 
severe  that  Siva  was  perfectly  g)-atified,  but  proved  the  valour  of 
his  worshipper  by  taking  u^^on  himself  the  form  of  a  mountaineer 
and  engaging  Arjuna  in  single  combat.  Arjuna,  unable  to  make 
any  impression  upon  his  enemy,  at  length  discovered  the  deity, 
and  prostrated  himself  at  the  feet  of  Siva  ;  upon  which  Siva  gave 
him  one  of  his  most  powerful  w^eapons.  Subsequently  the  gods  of 
the  four  quarters  of  the  universe — Indra,  Yama,  Varuna,  and 
Kuvera — jDresented  themselves  to  Arjuna,  and  respectively  fur- 
nished him  with  their  own  peculiar  weapons.  Arjuna  was  then 
carried  away  in  Indra's  chariot  to  the  city  of  Amaravati,  w^hich  is 
the  heaven  of  Indra.  There  he  spent  many  years  in  practising  the 
use  of  arms  ;  and  at  length  was  sent  by  Indra  to  make  w^ar  against 
the  Daityas  of  the  sea. 

The  mythic  account  of  Arjuna's  wars  against  the  Daityas  of  the 
sea,  is  also  worthy  of  notice  if  only  as  a  creation  of  the  imagina- 
tion.    On  approaching  the  coast  in  a  chariot  which  flew  through 


46  ARJ 

the  air,  Arjuna  beheld  the  sea  rising  iu  vast  heaps,  and  saw  ships 
laden  with  rubies,  and  fishes  and  tortoises  as  large  as  mountains. 
He  blew  his  war  shell  and  the  Daityas  trembled  with  fear,  but 
in  return  they  sounded  their  drums  and  trumpets  so  loudly  that 
the  monsters  of  the  deep  leaped  above  the  waves.  Thousands  of 
Daityas  rushed  upon  him,  but  he  uttered  powerful  mantras  as  he 
discharged  his  arrows,  and  kept  them  all  at  bay.  They  rained 
fire,  water,  and  mountains  upon  him,  but  he  triumphed  in  the  end 
and  slew  them  all.  Then  the  women  came  out  screaming  like, 
cranes,  but  Arjuna  passed  them  by  and  entered  the  city,  where  he 
saw  chariots  with  ten  thousand  horses  of  the  colour  of  peacocks. 
Meantime  the  women  were  terrified  at  the  rolling  of  his  chariot, 
and  fled  to  their  houses,  whilst  the  noise  of  their  ornaments 
resembled  the  falling  of  stones  upon  a  mountain.  After  this  victory 
Arjuna  returned  to  Indra,  and  was  rewarded  with  great  praises  ; 
and  the  sovereign  of  the  gods  presented  him  with  a  chain  of  gold 
and  a  diadem,  and  with  a  war-shell  which  sounded  like  thunder." 

After  these  extravagant  myths  Arjuna  is  said  to  have  been  in 
the  service  of  Raja  Virata,  as  teacher  of  music  and  dancing,  until 
the  expiration  of  the  thirteen  years  of  exile.  When  negotiations 
took  place  for  the  restoration  of  the  Pandavas,  Arjuna  exerted 
himself  to  win  over  Krishna  to  their  side  ;  and  Krishna  promised 
to  drive  his  chariot  in  the  war  which  ensued.  It  was  then  that 
the  celebrated  dialogue  known  as  the  Bhagavat  Gita,  took  place. 
On  the  first  day  of  the  war  Arjuna  fought  with  Bhishma  :  on  the 
following  day  he  rallied  the  Pandavas  after  they  had  been  repulsed 
by  Bhishma,  and  the  latter  reluctantly  engaged  in  a  second  combat 
with  him.  He  also  rescued  his  son  Abhimanyu  from  Duryodhana. 
In  another  terrible  conflict  with  Bhishma  the  latter  w^as  mortally 
wounded.  Arjuna  was  afterwards  challenged  by  Susarma  and 
his  four  brethren  :  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Yudhishthira  he 
accepted  the  challenge,  defeated  Susarma  and  his  brethren  ; 
fought  Susarma  a  second  time  in  another  locality  ;  and  during  his 
absence  his  son  Abhimanyu  was  slain  by  six  of  the  Kaurava  chief- 
tains. Arjuna  was  overpowered  with  grief  when  he  heard  this, 
and  vowed  to  take  the  life  of  Jayadratha  before  the  setting  of  the 
morrow's  sun.     This  he  accomplished,  and  not  long  after  killed 


ARS-ART  47 


Karuawith  a  crescent-shaped  arrow.  The  armies  stopped  fighthig, 
and  the  gods  descended  from  heaven  to  witness  the  battle  between 
Arjuna  and  Kama. 

The  Mahabharata  next  relates  Arjuna's  adventures  with  the 
horse  that  was  captured  and  then  let  loose  for  a  year,  previous  to 
the  o-veat  Asvamedha  which  Yudhishthira  had  resolved  to  perform. 
These  adventures  constitute  twelve  legends  connected  with  the 
countries  into  which  the  horse  is  said  to  have  wandered.  In  the 
seventh  of  them  Arjuna  is  slain  and  beheaded  by  his  own  son 
Babhru-vahana  in  the  city  of  Manipura,  but  restored  to  life  by  the 
application  of  a  jewel  brought  from  the  city  of  serpents  in  the 
under  world.  After  the  massacre  at  Prabhasa,  Arjuna  was  sum- 
moned to  Dwaraka  by  Krishna,  and  on  his  arrival  he  directed  the 
residue  of  the  people  to  leave  the  city.  His  strength  now  depart- 
ed from  him  ;  he  was  advised  by  Vyasa  to  abandon  Avorldly  con- 
cerns, and  died  with  the  other  Pandavas  on  the  Himalaya  moun- 
tains. His  grandson  Parikshit  (son  of  Abhimanyu)  succeeded  to 
the  Raj  of  Hastinapura. 

Arshabhu— The  first  division  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
lunar  mansions. 

Arsha  marriage— One  of  the  eight  modes  of  marriage  des- 
cribed by  Manu  ;  in  which  a  father  receives  from  a  bridegroom  one 
pair  of  kine,  (a  bull  and  a  cow)  or  two  pairs,  for  religious  pur- 
poses, and  then  gives  away  his  daughter  in  due  form.  This  is  the 
ceremony  of  the  Rishis  and  probably  prevailed  amongst  all  the 
Vedic  Aryans.  It  furnishes  proof  of  the  distinction  between  the 
marriage  rite  of  the  Rishis  and  that  of  the  Brahmans.  No  reli- 
gious qualification  was  required  in  the  bridegroom,  and  the  young 
man  simply  obtained  a  damsel  by  presenting  her  father  with  a 
pair  or  two  of  kiue. —  Wheeler. 

Art'ha  Brahmans— According  to  the  Kerala  Ulpatti,  when 
Purasu  Rama  had  recovered  a  large  strip  of  territory  from  the 
ocean,  on  the  Malayalam  coast,  he  set  apart  certain  fishermen  to 
officiate  as  Brahmans  to  the  rest  of  the  people,  and  promised  to 
come  at  their  call.  They,  however,  acted  so  as  to  displease  him  ; 
whereupon  he  disfranchised  them,  and  called  in  a  colony  of  pure 


48  ART— ARY 


Brahmans  from  Hai  Kshetram,  to  whom  he  delivered  charge  of 
the  people,  in  matters  of  rites  and  ceremonies.  The  fishermen  had 
the  title  of  "  half-brahmans."— Toj^Z^r. 

Art'hanesvari— -^  foi'"^  <^f  ^^^^^  ^"^^j  ^"  *^^®  left-hand  half,  is 
Pdrvati.     This  is   doubtless  an   early   hieroglyphic  to  convey  a 
chaste  notion  of  the  union  of  the  active  deity,  with  passive  matter  ; 
whence  creation. 
*  Arthasadhak — The  finance  minister  of  Raja  Dasaratha. 

Arthasastra— One  of  the  eighteen  principal  branches  of 
knowledge,  viz.,  the  science  of  Government  as  laid  down  first  by 
Vrihaspati. 

ArUffan — The  name  given  by  the  Jains  to  the  Supreme  Being. 
The  popular  name  of  God  is  Jinan,  or  Jainan  ;  hence  the  appella- 
tion Jains.  To  this  God  one  thousand  and  eight  sacred  names  are 
ascribed.  The  attributes  of  omnipotence  and  omniscience,  of  omni- 
presence and  infinite  benevolence,  are  given  to  this  deity.  See 
Jains. 

Aruna— A  celebrated  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Vinata  :  and  brother 
of  Garuda  the  destroyer  of  serpents. 

Arundhati— Daughter  of  Kardama,  wife  of  Vasistha,  evident- 
ly an  allegorical  personification  of  a  religious  rite.  "  One  of  the 
Pleiades  and  generally  regarded  as  the  model  of  wifely  excellence  ;  " 
it  is  a  small  star  close  to  the  middle  one  in  the  tail  of  Ursa  Major : 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  wife  of  Vasistha.  A  newly-married 
couple,  amongst  brahmans,  have  this  star  pointed  out  to  them  by  the 
Purohita,  or  Astrologer,  and  are  directed  to  pay  it  obeisance. 

Arvarivat — One  of  the  seven  Rishis  of  the  second  Mauwan- 
tara.  By  the  seven  Rishis  we  may  often  understand  the  constel- 
lation, Ursa  Major. 

Arvavasu— One  of  the  seven  principal  solar  rays,  that  which 
supplies  heat  to  the  planet  Jupiter. 

Aryabhatta— A  celebrated  ancient  Hindu  astronomer.  It  is 
difficult  to  determine  with  accuracy  when  he  lived,  but  Mr. 
Colebrooke  thinks  he  flourished  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  or  not  later  than  the  third  or  foui'th  century. 


ARYA  49 


Aryaka — A  cowherd  in  the  Sanscrit  drama  of  the  Toy-cart. 
He  conspired  against  the  weak  and  unpopular  king  then  upon  the 
throne  at  Ananti  or  Ougeiu.  Arjaka  is  described  as  a  nian  with 
*arms  like  elephants,  vast  tusks,  his  breast  and  shoulders  brawny 
as  the  lion's,  his  eyes  a  coppery  red.'  He  succeeded  in  obtainiuo- 
possession  of  the  throne. 

Aryayhichita— A  celebrated  Dravida  Brahman  who  lived  at 
Agrahara  in  the  16th  century  of  Saliv^hana  ;  his  contemporaries 
considered  him  as  an  emanation  of  Siva,  on  account  of  his  devotion 
for  this  god,  and  his  great  learning.  He  is  said  to  be  the  author 
of  84  books  on  theology,  rhetoric  and  philosophy  ;  he  died  at  Cliil- 
lumbrum  at  the  age  of  ninety, 

Aryaman — One  of  the  twelve  Adityas  in  the  Manwantara  of 
Vaivaswata. 

Aryan  Race,  Aryan  Languages— Aryavarta  was  the  holy 

land  of  the  brahraans,  the  country  lying  between  the  Hima- 
laya and  the  Vindhya  mountains,  which  was  the  ancient  abode  of 
the  Hindus.  In  the  north-western  part  of  that  region,  in  countries 
w^atered  by  the  Saraswati,  the  earliest  traditions  of  the  brahmans 
place  the  ancestors  of  the  Indian  race.  The  name  Arj'an  is  now 
generally  used  to  designate  that  ethnological  division  of  mankind 
otherwise  called  Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic.  No  one  now 
doubts  that  the  brahmans  of  India  belong  to  the  same  family,  the 
Aryan  or  Indo-European  family,  which  civilized  the  whole  of 
Europe.  The  Aryan  race  consists  of  two  branches,  an  eastern  and 
a  M'estern.  The  western  branch  comprehends  the  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the  Turks,  Magyars,  and  Finns  ; 
the  eastern  comprehends  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  of  Persia, 
of  Afghanistan  and  Hindustan.  The  evidence  on  which  a  family 
relation  has  been  established  among  these  nations  is  that  of 
language. 

"  At  the  first  dawn  of  traditional  history,"  says  Max  Miiller,  "  we 
see  these  Aryan  tribes  migrating  across  the  snow  of  the  Himalaya 
southward  toward  the  '  Seven  Rivers'  (the  Indus,  the  five  rivers 
of  the  Punjab  and  the  Saras vati),  and  ever  since  India  has  been 
called  their  home.     That  before  that  time  they  had  been  living  in 

7 


;0  ARYA 


more  northern  regions,  Avithin  the  same  precincts  with  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Greeks,  the  Italians,  Slavonians,  Glermans  and  Celts,  is 
a  fact  as  firmly  established  as  that  the  Normans  of  William  the 
Conqueror  were  the  northmen  of  Scandinavia.  The  evidence  of 
language  is  irrefragable,  and  it  is  the  only  evidence  worth  Usteuing 
to  with  regard  to  ante-historical  periods.  It  would  have  been  next 
to  impossible  to  discover  any  traces  of  relationship  between  the 
swarthy  natives  of  India  and  their  conquerors,  whether  Alexander 
or  Clive,  but  for  the  testimony  borne  by  language.  What  other 
evidence  could  have  reached  back  to  times  when  Greece  was  not 
peopled  by  Greeks,  nor  India  by  Hindus  ?  Yet  these  are  the  times 
of  which  we  are  speakiug.  What  authority  would  have  been  strong 
enough  to  persuade  the  Grecian  army,  that  their  gods  and  their 
hero  ancestors  were  the  same  as  those  of  King  Porus,  or  to  con- 
vince the  English  soldier  that  the  same  blood  was  running  in  his 
veins  and  in  the  veins  of  the  dark  Bengalese  ?  And  yet  there  is 
not  an  English  jury  now-a-days,  which,  after  examining  the  hoary 
documents  of  language,  would  reject  the  claim  of  a  common  descent 
and  a  legitimate  relationship  between  Hindu,  Greek  and  Teuton. 
Many  words  still  live  in  India  and  in  England,  that  have  witnessed 
the  first  separation  of  the  northern  and  southern  Aryans,  and  these 
are  witnesses  not  to  be  shaken  by  cross-examination.  The  terms 
for  God,  for  house,  for  father,  mother,  son,  daughter,  for  dog  and 
cow,  for  heart  and  tears,  for  axe  and  tree,  identical  in  all  the  Indo- 
European  idioms,  are  like  the  watchwords  of  soldiers.  We  chal- 
lenge the  seeming  stranger  ;  and  whether  he  answer  with  the  lips 
of  a  Greek,  or  German,  or  an  Indian,  we  recognise  him  as  one  of 
ourselves.  Though  the  historian  may  shake  his  head,  though  the 
physiologist  may  doubt,  and  the  poet  scorn  the  idea,  all  must  yield 
before  the  facts  furnished  by  language.  There  ivas  a  time  when 
the  ancestors  of  the  Celts,  the  Germans,  the  Slavonians,  the  Greeks 
and  Italians,  the  Persians  and  Hindus,  were  living  together  within 
the  same  fences,  separate  from  the  ancestors  of  the  Semitic  and 
Turanian  races. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  prove  that  the  Hindu  was  the  last  to  leave 
this  common  home,  that  he  saw  his  brothers  all  depart  towards  the 
setting  sun,   and   that  then,   turninc;  towards  the   south  and   the 


ARYA  51 


east,  lie  started  alone  in  search  of  a  new  world.  But  as  in  his  lan- 
guage and  in  his  grammar  he  has  jDreserved  something  of  what 
seems  peculiar  to  each  of  the  northern  dialects  singly,  as  he  agrees 
with  the  Greek  and  the  German  where  the  Greek  and  the  Ger- 
man seem  to  differ  from  all  the  rest,  and  as  no  other  language 
has  carried  off  so  large  a  share  of  the  common  Aryan  heirloom — 
whether  roots,  grammar,  words,  myths,  or  legends — it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that,  though  perhaps  the  eldest  brother,  the  Hindu  was 
the  last  to  leave  the  central  home  of  the  Aryan  family. 

The  Aryan  nations  who  pursued  a  north-westerly  direction, 
stand  before  us  in  history  as  the  principal  nations  of  north-western 
Asia  and  Europe.  They  have  been  the  prominent  actors  in  the 
great  drama  of  history,  and  have  carried  to  their  fullest  growth  all 
the  elements  of  active  life  with  which  our  nature  is  endowed. 
They  have  perfected  society  and  morals,  and  we  learn  from  their 
literature  and  works  of  art  the  elements  of  science,  the  laws  of  art, 
and  the  principles  of  philosophy.  In  continual  struggle  with  each 
other  and  with  Semitic  and  Turanian  races,  these  Aryan  nations 
have  become  the  rulers  of  history,  and  it  seems  to  be  their  mission 
to  link  all  parts  of  the  world  together  by  the  chains  of  civilization, 
commerce  and  religion.  In  a  word,  they  represent  the  Aryan  man 
in  his  historical  character. 

But  while  most  of  the  members  of  the  Aryan  family  followed 
this  glorious  path,  the  southern  tribes  were  slowly  migrating 
towards  the  mountains  which  gird  the  north  of  India.  After  cross- 
iug  the  narrow  passes  of  the  Hindu  kush  or  the  Himalaya,  they 
conquered  or  drove  before  them,  as  it  seems  without  much  effort, 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  Trans-Himalayan  countries.  They 
took  for  their  guides  the  principal  rivers  of  northern  India,  and 
were  led  by  them  to  new  homes  in  iheir  beautiful  and  fertile  val- 
leys. It  seems  as  if  the  great  mountains  in  the  north  had  after- 
wards closed  for  centuries  their  Cyclopean  gates  against  new 
immigrations,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  waves  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  kept  watch  over  the  southern  borders  of  the  peninsula. 
None  of  the  great  conquerors  of  antiquity — Sesostris,  Semiramis, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  or  Cyrus,  who  waged  a  kind  of  half-nomadic  war- 


52  ASAM— ASAN 


fare  over  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe,  aud  whose  names,  traced  in 
characters  of  blood,  are  still  legible  on  the  threshold  of  history, 
disturbed  the  peaceful  seats  of  these  Aryan  settlers.  Left  to  them- 
selves in  a  world  of  their  own,  without  a  past,  and  without  a 
future  before  them,  they  had  nothing  but  themselves  to  ponder  on. 
Struggles  there  must  have  been  in  India  also.  Old  dynasties  were 
destroyed,  whole  families  annihilated,  and  new  empires  founded, 
"^t  the  inward  life  of  the  Hindu  was  not  changed  by  these  con- 
vulsions. His  mind  was  like  the  lotus  leaf  after  a  shower  of  raiin 
has  passed  over  it ;  his  character  remained  the  same,  passive,  medi- 
tative, quiet  aud  full  of  faith." — A  Sanscrit  Lit,  p.  16. 

Asamanj — The  son  and  successor  of  Sagara  ;  he  is  thus 
described  in  the  Ramayana  : 

"  Prince  Asamanj  brought  up  with  care, 

Scourge  of  his  foes  was  made  the  heir. 

But  liegemen's  boys  he  used  to  cast. 

To  Sarju's  waves  that  hurried  past, 

Laughing  the  while  in  cruel  glee 

Their  dying  agonies  to  see. 

This  wicked  prince  who  aye  withstood 

The  counsel  of  the  wise  and  good. 

Who  plagued  the  people  in  his  hate, 

His  father  banished  from  the  State  ; 

His  son,  kind-spoken,  brave  and  tall. 

Was  Ansuman,  beloved  of  all." — Griffiths. 
Asampricshana — The  title   of  the   fifth   section  of  the  Pan- 
cha  Tantra  ;  meaning  Inconsiderateness. 

Asamprajnata — Contemplation,  in  which  reason  is  lost  sight 
of ;  a  complete  restraint  of  the  action  of  thought ;  the  last  stage  of 
mental  abstraction  ;  in  which  even  the  reflection  of  his  individual 
existence  is  lost  sight  of,  and  he  is  mentally  one  with  the  Supreme 
Being. 

Asana— The  third  stage  of  Yoga.  There  are  various  postures 
in  which  the  Yogi  is  directed  to  sit  when  he  engages  in  meditation^ 
Asana  is  that  in  which  he  crosses  his  legs  underneath  him,  and 
lays  hold  of  his  feet  on  each  side  with  his  hands. 


ASH— ASO  53 


Ashadha — The  name  of  a  coustellation. 

Ashahra — The  name  of  one  of  the  lunar  months  in  the  Vedas. 

Ashtavakra — A  brahman,  who  by  a  long  course  of  relio-ious 
penance,  standing  in  water,  and  meditating  on  the  eternal  spirit, 
became  a  celebrated  sage  or  Muni.  He  was  deformed  from  Iiis 
birth,  and  on  one  occasion  he  was  laughed  at  by  the  Apsarasas,  or 
divine  nymphs,  on  whom  in  consequence  he  denounced  impreca- 
tions. The  nymphs  then  endeavoured  to  appease  him,  and  so  far 
succeeded  that  he  promised  they  should  finally  return  to  the  sphere 
of  the  gods. 

Asikni— The  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Virana,  wife  of  Dak- 
sha,  the  great  father  of  mankind. 

Asipatravana — Sins  punished  in  one  of  the  Narakas  or  hells, 
of  which  twenty-eight  are  enumerated. 

Asit — The  son  of  Raja  Dhruvasandhi,  of  the  solar  race  ;  his 
career  is  thus  described  in  the  Ramayana  : 

"  Asit  had  warfare,  fierce  and  hot, 
With  rival  kings  in  many  a  spot, 
Haihayas,  Talajanghas  styled, 
And  Sasivaindhus,  strong  and  wild. 
Long  time  he  strove,  but  forced  to  yield. 
Fled  from  his  kingdom  and  the  field. 
With  his  two  wives  away  he  fled 
Where  high  Himalaya  lifts  his  head, 
And,  all  his  wealth  and  glory  past. 
He  paid  the  dues  of  Fate  at  last." — Griffiths, 

Asitanga— The  name  of  one  of  the  eight  Bhairavas,  or  inferior 
manifestations  of  some  portion  of  Siva. 

Aslesha — A  lunar  mansion  in  Airavati,  the  third  vithi  of  the 
northern  Avashtaua. 

Asmita— Selfishness,  one  of  the  five  afiiictions  of  the  Patan- 
julu  philosophy. 

Asoka— A  king  of  Magadha,  patron  of  Buddhism.  Th  is  king, 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  auy  in  the  annals  of  the  Buddhists.     In 


54  ASO— AST 


the  commencement  of  his  reign  he  followed  the  Brahmanical  faith, 
but  became  a  convert  to  that  of  Buddha,  and  a  zealous  encourager 
of  it.  "  He  is  said  to  have  maintained  in  his  palace  64,000  Bud- 
dhist priests,  and  to  have  erected  84,000  columns  or  topes  through- 
out India.  A  great  convocation  of  Buddhist  priests  was  held  in 
the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign  which  was  followed  by  missions 
to  Ceylon  and  other  places.  According  to  Buddhist  chronology 
he  ascended  the  throne  218  years  after  the  death  of  Buddha, 
B.  c,  325.  As  the  grandson  of  Chandragupta,  however,  he  must 
have  been  sometime  subsequent  to  this.  The  duration  of  his 
reign  was  36  years,  bringing  it  down  to  b.  c.  230.  A  number  of 
very  curious  inscriptions  in  columns  and  rocks,  by  a  Buddhist 
prince,  in  an  ancient  form  of  letter,  and  the  Pali  language,  exist 
in  India,  and  some  of  them  refer  to  Greek  princes,  who  can 
be  no  other  than  members  of  the  Seleucidan  and  Ptolemaic 
dynasties,  and  are  probably  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  Ptolemy 
Energetes,  Kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
third  century  before  Christ." — 'Professor  Wilson. 

Asokavarddhana — Another  name  for  Asoka, 

Asramas— A  condition  of  life  ;  "  orders;"  when  the  youth  has 
been  invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  he  is  diligently  to  prosecute 
the  study  of  the  Vedas  in  the  house  of  his  preceptor,  with  an  atten- 
tive spirit  and  leading  a  life  of  continence. 

Asti — The  wife  of  Kansa,  and  daughter  of  Jarasandha,  king  of 
Magadha. 

Astika — A  brahman  whose  father  had  practised  great  auste- 
rities, bathed  in  all  the  holy  tanks,  and  abstained  from  matrimony, 
with  his  body  dried  up  by  fasting,  he  wandered  hither  and  thither, 
till  he  accidentally  came  to  a  hollow  place  in  which  he  perceived 
men  hanging  over  an  abyss.  Their  heads  were  downwards  and 
suspended  by  a  straw  at  which  a  rat  was  gnawing.  Inquiring  who 
they  were  he  discovered  that  they  were  his  own  ancestors.  These 
Avretched  men  tell  him  that  they  are  thus  suspended  because  their 
posterity,  who  should  have  been  the  means  of  ensuring  their  bliss, 
had  perished  ;  and  the  one  living  descendant,  whose  son  might 
have  done  so,  was  entirely  given  up  to  austerities,  and  did  not 


ASU  55 

many.  The  ascetic  tells  them  that  he  is  that  one  descciulant. 
The  ancestors  entreat  him  to  marry  and  have  a  sou  who  would 
release  them.  He  promises  to  do  what  they  desire,  but  will  only 
marry  a  girl  whose  parents  give  her  to  him  willingly.  At  length 
in  the  forest,  Vasuki,  king  of  serpents,  offered  him  his  sister,  a 
young  girl  of  lovely  form.  To  her  he  was  married,  and  the  child 
born  to  them  was  Astika.  Of  him  w^e  are  told  that  he  had  a  noble 
spirit,  was  well  read  in  the  Vedas,  and  became  powerful  through 
austerities.* 

Asuras — Demons,  born  from  the  thigh  of  Brahma  while  the 
quality  of  darkness  pervaded  his  body.  Asura  is  a  general  name 
for  all  the  giants  and  demons  who  composed  the  enemies  of  the 
gods,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Patala  ;  and  a  special  designation  for  a 
class  of  these  of  the  first  order.  They  belong,  iu  the  wider  sense, 
to  the  Epic  ;  in  the  more  special  sense,  to  the  Purauic  period.  In 
the  latter  they  are  fabled  to  be  sprung  from  Brahma's  thigh 
(Vishnu,  P.,  p.  40),  and  to  be  the  sous  of  Kasyapa,  by  Diti  and 
Danayu.  As  in  the  earliest  period  the  Suras  were  personifications 
of  light,  so  the  Asuras  were  probably  those  of  darkness  ;  and  the 
original  idea  of  the  existence  of  malignant  and  terrible  beings  may 
thus  be  traced  to  the  fear  that  man  experiences  in  darkness,  from 
the  conviction  that  he  is  surrounded  by  creatures  which  he  cannot 
see,  in  short,  ghosts  or  goblins.  "  (The  word  is  derived  from  a, 
privative,  or  rather  negative,  and  sura,  '  a  deity.')  XI,  22." — J.  C. 
Thompson.  In  the  Puranas  the  aborigines  are  described  under  the 
names  of  Asuras  and  Rakshasas  ;  as  being  giants  and  cannibals, 
and  of  course  very  repulsive.  "  The  word  Asura  has  a  very  interest- 
ing history.  In  classical  Sanscrit  it  only  means  a  demon  ;  and  this 
meaning  occurs  occasionally  even  in  the  early  books  of  the  Rig 
Veda,  and  often  in  the  later  tenth.  In  the  Atharva  Veda  it  occurs 
very  often  in  this  sense,  and  the  Brahmanas  are  never  tired  of 
beginning  their  legends  with  the  phrase  '  devdsurd  va  eshu  lokeshu 
samayatanta^  '  the  gods  and  asuras  contended  in  these  worlds.' 
But  generally  in  the  '  Rig  Veda'  the  word  has  no  such  evil  meaning, 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  originally  derived  from  as  '  to  be'  with 

*  Mrs.  Manning,  from  Fragments  du  Mahabharata,  Par.  T.  Pavie. 


5Q  ASU— ASV 


the  affix  ura  (a-sura),  and  to  have  meant  ^  living,'  '  spiritual.'  But 
iu  later  times  asiira  acquired  a  malevolent  meaning,  just  as  the 
Greek  saifxutv  ;  and  even  in  the  great  epics,  the  Eamdyana  and  the 
Mahabharata,  we  find  a  new  word  sura,  coined  to  express  the  good 
deities.  Henceforth  sura  and  asura  play  the  same  parts  in  the 
legends  which  had  once  been  played  by  deva  and  asura  ;  and  a 
new  legend  is  invented  for  an  etymology,  the  suras  being  those 
l^eavenly  beings  who  shared  the  liquor  of  immortality,  {sura)  while 
those  who  were  excluded  became  the  asurasJ' —  Quarterly  Review, 
July  1870,  p.  202. 

Asura-marriage — The  fifth  mode  of  marriage  mentioned  by 
Mauu,  in  which  the  bridegroom  gives  as  much  wealth  as  he  can 
afford  to  the  damsel  and  her  kinsmen,  and  then  takes  her  according 
to  his  own  pleasure. 

Asvalayana — A  distinguished  author,  who  lived  about  350 
B.  c-  He  was  the  pupil  of  Saunaka  and  the  predecessor  of  Kat- 
yayana.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of  the  Kalpa-sutras  which  teach 
the  mode  of  performance  of  sacrifices  enjoined  by  the  Vedas  :  and 
the  author  of  the  Grihya  Sutras,  or  rules  for  household  rites. 

Asvamedha— The  Sacrifice  of  a  Horse.  This  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Bharata  of  Jaimini.  The  sacrifice  was  an  afiair  of  great 
importance.  It  was  of  a  politico-religious  character.  Any  one  claim- 
ing to  be  a  supreme  ruler,  announced  his  intention  of  celebrating  a 
horse  sacrifice.  A  horse  was  selected  and  then  turned  loose  to  go 
whither  it  pleased  :  only  being  followed  by  armed  men.  If  any 
other  potentate  contested  the  claim,  he  endeavoured  to  seize  the 
horse  ;  and  there  is  much  of  Romance  on  this  topic.  If  the  armed 
men  came  back  uncouquered,  and  the  horse  with  them,  the  sacrifice 
was  conducted  on  a  great,  and  most  expensive  scale.  The  flesh  of 
the  sacrifice  was  eaten,  or  burnt :  the  latter  is  the  usual  statement. 
The  Aswamedha,  performed  a  hundred  times,  raised  the  sacrificer 
to  a  level  with  Indra. 

Asvapati — (Lord  of  Horses).  1,  The  Raja  of  Kekaya,  and 
father  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha's  wife  Kaikeyi  ;  2,  An  ancient  raja, 
the  father  of  Savitri,  q.  v. 


ASVI  57 

Asvini — A  lunar  asterism  iu  Nagavithi,  the  first  vithi  in  the 
northern  Avasthana. 

Asvins — "  The  Asvins  seem  to  have  been  a  puzzle  even  to  the 
oldest  Indian  commentators,"  {Mtiir.)  Professor  Roth  says  "they 
are  the  earliest  bringers  of  light  in  the  morning  sky,  who  in  their 
chariot  hasten  onward  before  the  dawn,  and  prepare  the  way  for 
her." 

"  It  may  seem  unaccountable  that  two  deities  of  a  character  so 
little  defined,  and  so  difficult  to  identify,  as  the  Asvins,  should 
have  been  the  objects  of  so  enthusiastic  a  worship  as  appears  from 
the  numerous  hymns  dedicated  to  them  iu  the  Eig  Veda,  to  have 
been  paid  to  them  in  ancient  times.  The  reason  may  have  been 
that  they  were  hailed  as  the  precursors  of  returning  day,  after 
the  darkness  and  dangers  of  the  night.  In  some  passages  they  are 
represented  as  being,  like  Agni,  the  chasers  away  of  evil  spirits. 

"  The  Asvins  are  said  to  be  young  ancient,  beautiful,  honey- 
hued,  lords  of  lustre,  bright,  of  a  golden  brilliancy,  agile,  fleet  as 
thought,  swift  as  young  falcons,  possessing  many  forms,  wearing 
lotus  garlands,  strong,  mighty,  terrible,  possessed  of  wondrous 
powers,  and  profound  in  wisdom." — Muir,  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  v.,  p.  240. 

"The  following  are  a  few  of  the  modes  in  which  the  divine 
power  of  the  Asvins  is  declared  in  different  hymns  to  have  been 
manifested  for  the  deliverance  of  their  votaries. 

*'  When  the  sage  Cbyavdna  had  grown  old  and  had  been  forsaken, 
they  divested  him  of  his  decrepit  body,  prolonged  his  life  and 
restored  him  to  youth. 

"  In  the  same  way  they  renewed  the  youth  of  Kali  after  he  had 
grown  old  ;  and  when  Vispala's  leg  had  been  cut  off  in  battle  like 
the  wing  of  a  bird,  the  Asvins  are  said  to  have  given  her  an  iron 
one  instead. 

"They  restored  Par^vjir  (or  an  outcast),  who  was  blind  and 
lame,  to  sight  and  the  power  of  walking. 

"Finally  to  say  nothing  of  the  succours  rendered  to  numerous 
other  persons,  the  Asvins  did  not  confine  their  benevolence  to 
human  beings,  but  are  also  celebrated  as  having  rescued  from 
die  jaws  of  a  wolf  a  quail  by  which  they  were  invoked. 

8 


58  ASVI 

"  The  Asvius  arc  worshipped  with  uplifted  hands,  and  supplicated 
for  a  variety  of  blessings,  for  long  life,  and  for  deliverance  from 
calamities,  for  offspring,  wealth,  victory,  destruction  of  enemies, 
preservation  of  the  worshippers  themselves,  of  their  houses  and 
rattle.  No  calamity  or  alarm  from  any  quarter  can  touch  the  man 
whose  chariot  they  place  in  the  van." — Ibid,  p.  249. 

Professor  Goldstiicker  writes,  "  The  myth  of  the  Asvius  is,  in 
my  opinion,  one  of  that  class  of  myths  in  which  two  distinct 
elements,  the  cosmical  and  the  human  or  historical,  have  gradually 
become  blended  into  one.  It  seems  necessary,  therefore,  to  sepa- 
rate these  two  elements  in  order  to  arrive  at  an  understanding 
of  the  myth.  The  historical  or  liuman  element  in  it,  I  believe,  is 
represented  by  those  legends  which  refer  to  the  wonderful  cures 
effected  by  the  Asvins,  and  to  their  performances  of  a  kindred 
sort  ;  the  cosmical  element  is,  that  relating  to  their  luminous 
nature.  The  link  which  connects  both  seems  to  be  the  mysterious- 
ness  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  the  phenomena  of  light,  and  of 
the  healing  art  at  a  remote  antiquity.  That  there  might  have 
been  some  horsemen  or  warriors  of  great  renown  who  inspired 
their  contemporaries  with  awe  by  their  wonderful  deeds,  and  more 
especially  by  their  medical  skill,  appears  to  have  been  also  the 
opinion  of  some  old  commentators  mentioned  by  Yaska,  for  some 
*  legendary  writers,'  he  says,  took  them  for  '  two  kings,  per- 
formers of  holy  acts  ;'  and  this  view  seems  likewise  borne  out  by 
the  legend  in  which  it  is  narrated  that  the  gods  refused  the 
Asvius  admittance  to  a  sacrifice  on  the  ground  that  they  had  been 
on  too  familiar  terms  with  men.  It  would  appear  then  that  these 
Asvins,  like  the  Ribhus,  were  originally  renowned  mortals,  who, 
in  the  course  of  time,  were  translated  into  the  companionship  of 
the  gods  ;  and  it  may  be  a  matter  of  importance  to  investigate 
whether,  besides  this  a  jiriori  view,  there  are  further  grounds  of  a 
linguistic  or  grammatical  character  for  assuming  that  the  hymns 
containing  the  legends  relating  to  these  human  Asvins  are  pos- 
terior or  otherwise  to  those  descriptive  of  the  cosmical  gods  of  the 
same  name. 

*'  The  luminous  character  of  the  latter  can  scarcely  be  matter  of 
doubt,  for  the  view  of  some  commentators — recorded  by  Yaska, — 


ASVI  59 

iiccordiDg  to  which  they  were  identified  with  '  henveu  and  earth,' 
appears  not  to  be  countenanced  by  any  of  the  pabsages  known  to 
us.  Their  very  name,  it  would  seem,  settles  this  point,  since  asva, 
the  horse,  literally,  'the  pervader,'  is  always  the  symbol  of  the 
luminous  deities,  especially  of  the  sun.  The  difficulty,  however,  is 
to  determine  their  position  amongst  these  deities  and  to  harmonize 
with  it  the  other  myths  connected  with  them.  I  may  here,  how- 
ever, first  observe  that,  though  Yaska  records  opinions  which 
identify  the  Asvins  with  'day  and  night,'  and  'sun  and  moon,' 
the  passage  relied  upon  by  Professor  Roth  to  prove  that  Yaska 
himself  identified  them  with  Indra  and  Aditya  (the  sun),  does  not 
bear  out  any  such  conclusion.  For  the  passage  in  question,  as  I 
understand  it,  means  :  '  their  time  is  after  the  (latter)  half  of  the 
night  when  the  (spaces)  becoming  light  is  resisted  (by  darkness)  ; 
for  the  middlemost  Asvin  (between  darkness  and  light)  shares  in 
darkness,  whilst  (the  other),  who  is  of  a  solar  nature  (Aditya), 
shares  in  light.'  There  is  this  verse  relating  to  them  :  '  In 
nights,'  etc.  Nor  does  Durga,  the  commentator  on  Yaska, 
attribute  to  the  latter  the  view  which  Professor  Roth  ascribes  to 
him.  His  words,  as  I  interpret  them,  are  :  '  their  time  is  after  the 
(latter)  half  of  the  night  when  the  (spaces)  becoming  light  is 
resisted,'  (means)  when,  after  the  (latter)  half  of  the  night, 
darkness  intersected  by  light  makes  an  effort  against  light,  that  is 

the  time  of  the  Asvins Then  the  nature  of  the  middlemost 

(between  them)  is  a  share  in  that  darkness  which  penetrates  into 
light ;  and  the  solar  one  (iiditya)  assumes  that  nature  which  is  a 
share  in  the  light  penetrating  into  darkness.  These  two  are  the 
middlemost  and  the  uppermost  :  this  is  the  teacher's  (/,  e,,  Yaska's) 
own  opinion,  for,  in  order  to  substantiate  it,  he  gives  as  an  instance 
the  verse  '  Vasdtishu  sma^ '  "  etc. 

"  To  judge,  therefore,  from  these  words,  it  is  the  opinion  of  Yuska 
that  the  Asvins  represent  the  transition  from  darkness  to  light, 
when  the  intermingling  of  both  produces  that  inseparable  duality 
expressed  by  the  twin  nature  of  these  deities.  And  this  iuterpre- 
tation,  I  hold,  is  the  best  that  can  be  given  of  the  character  of  the 
cosmical  Asvins.  It  agrees  with  the  epithets  by  which  they  are 
invoked,  and  with  the  ichition.^hip  in  which  they  are  placed.    They 


60  ATA— ATH 


are  youag,  yet  also  ancient,  beautiful,  bright,  swift,  etc. ;  and  their 
negative  character— the  result  of  the  alliance  of  light  with  dark- 
less  is,  I  believe,  expressed  by  dasi^a^  the  destroyer,  and  also  by 

the  two  negatives  in  the  compound  nasatya  (na+a-saifya),  though 
their  positive  character  is  again  redeemed  by  the  ellipsis  of 
"  enemies,  or  diseases,  to  dasra^  and  by  the  sense  of  nasaiya^  not 
un-true,  i.  e.,  truthful.  They  are  the  parents  of  Pushan,  the  sun  ; 
^or  they  precede  the  rise  of  the  sun  ;  they  are  the  sons  of  the  sky, 
and  again  the  sons  of  Vivasvat  and  Saranyli.  Vivasvat,  I  believe, 
here  implies  the  firmament  '  expanding'  to  the  sight  through  the 
approaching  light ;  and  though  Saranyu  is  to  Professor  Miiller  one 
of  the  deities  which  are  forced  by  him  to  support  his  dawn- theory, 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  etymology  of  the  word,  and  the  character 
of  the  myths  relating  to  it,  rather  point  to  the  moving  air,  or  the 
dark  and  cool  air,  heated,  and  therefore  set  in  motion,  by  the 
approach  of  the  rising  sun.  The  Asvins  are  also  the  husbands  or 
the  friends  of  Surya,  whom  I  take  for  the  representative  of  the 
weakest  manifestation  of  the  sun  ;  and  I  believe  that  Sayana  is 
right  when,  by  the  sister  of  the  Asvins,  he  understands  Ushas,  the 
dawn.  The  mysterious  phenomenon  of  the  intermingling  of  dark= 
ness— which  is  no  longer  complete  night— and  of  light— which  is 
not  yet  dawn — seems  to  agree  with  all  these  conceptions,  and  with 
the  further  details  of  a  cosmical  nature,  Tvhich  are  so  fully  giveu 
in  the  preceding  paper," — Ibid^  p.  255-7. 

j^j^ala— The  first  of  the  seven  regions  of  Patala,— below  the 
earth — ten  thousand  yojanas  in  extent — the  soil  of  Atala  is  white, 
and  the  place  is  embellished  with  magnificent  palaces. 

Atarva~One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  school  of  Vajasa- 
neyi  or  white  Yajush. 

Atharva  Veda—The  name  of  the  fourth  of  the  four  Vedas, 
created  from  the  northern  mouth  of  Brahma.  It  was  arranged  by 
Vyasa.  The  illustrious  sage  Sumanta  taught  this  Veda  to  his 
pupil  Kabandha,  w^ho  made  it  two-fold.  The  principal  subjects  of 
difference  in  the  Sanhitas  of  the  Atharva  Veda,  are  the  five 
Kalpas  or  ceremonials.  "As  to  the  internal  character  of  the 
Athnrva  hymns,  it  may  be  said  of  them,  as  of  the  tenth  book  of  the 


ATH  Gl 

Rik,  that  they  are  the  productions  of  another  and  a  later  period, 
and  the  expressions  of  a  different  spirit,  from  that  of  the  earlier 
hymns  in  the  other  Veda.  In  the  latter,  the  gods  are  approached 
with  reverential  awe,  indeed,  but  with  love  and  confidence  also  ; 
a  worship  is  paid  them  that  exalts  the  offerer  of  it  ;  the  demonf?, 
embraced  under  the  general  name  Bdkshasas,  are  objects  of  horror, 
whom  the  gods  ward  off  and  destroy  ;  the  divinities  of  the  Atharva 
are  regarded  rather  with  a  kind  of  cringing  fear,  as  powers  whose 
wrath  is  to  be  deprecated  and  whose  favour  curried,  for  it  knows 
a  whole  host  of  imps  and  hobgoblins,  in  ranks  and  classes,  and 
addresses  itself  to  them  directly,  offering  them  homage  to  induce 
them  to  abstain  from  doing  harm.  The  ma7itra,  prayer,  which  iu 
the  older  Veda  is  the  instrument  of  devotion,  is  here  rather  the 
tool  of  superstition  ;  it  wrings  from  the  unwilling  hands  of  the 
gods  the  favours  which  of  old  their  good-will  to  men  induced  them 
to  grant,  or  by  simple  magical  power  obtains  the  fulfilment  of  the 
utterer's  wishes.  The  most  prominent  characteristic  feature  of 
the  Atharva  is  the  multitude  of  incantations  which  it  contains  ; 
these  are  pronounced  either  by  the  person  who  is  himself  to  be 
benefited,  or,  more  often,  by  the  sorcerer  for  him,  and  are  directed 
to  the  procuring  of  the  greatest  variety  of  desirable  ends  ;  most 
frequently,  perhaps,  long  life,  or  recovery  from  grievous  sickness, 
is  the  object  sought  ;  then  a  talisman,  such  as  a  necklace,  is  some- 
times given,  or  in  very  numerous  cases  some  plant  endowed  with 
marvellous  virtues  is  to  be  the  immediate  external  means  of  the 
cure  ;  farther,  the  attainment  of  wealth  or  power  is  aimed  at,  the 
downfall  of  enemies,  success  in  love  or  in  play,  the  removal  of 
petty  pests,  and  so  on,  even  down  to  the  growth  of  hair  on  a  bald 
pate.  There  are  hymns,  too,  in  which  a  single  rite  or  ceremony 
is  taken  up  and  exalted,  somewhat  in  the  same  strain  as  the  Soma 
iu  the  Pavamauya  hymns  of  the  Rik.  Others  of  a  speculative 
mystical  character  are  not  wanting  ;  yet  their  number  is  not  so 
great  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  considering  the  develop- 
ment which  the  Hindu  religion  received  in  the  periods  follow- 
ing after  that  of  the  primitive  Veda.  It  seems  in  the  main  that  the 
Atharva  is  of  popular  rather  than  of  priestly  origin  ;  that  in 
making  the  transition  from  the  Vedic  to  modern  times,  it  forms  an 


02  ATH 

intermediate  step,  rather  to  the  gross  idolatries  and  superstitions 
of  the  ignorant  mass,  than  to  the  sublimated  pantheism  of  the 
B  rahmaus." —  Whitney. 

"  It  has  been  surmised  (Miiller's  Ancient  Sanscrit  Literature, 
p.  447,  fF.)  that  the  hymns  of  the  Atharva  Veda  '  formed  an  addi- 
tional part  of  the  sacrifice  from  a  very  early  time,  and  that  they 
were  chiefly  intended  to  counteract  the  influence  of  any  untoward 
event  that  might  happen  during  the  sacrifice.'  This  is  possible  ; 
but  the  great  importance  which  the  adherents  of  this  Veda  them- 
selves attach  to  it,  is  founded  on  other  considerations  than  these. 
They  argue,  as  appears  from  the  treatise  Atharvanarahasya, 
mentioned  above,  that  the  three  other  Vedas  enable  a  man  to  fulfil 
the  dharma,  or  religious  law,  but  that  the  Atharva  helps  him  to 
attain  mbksha,  or  eternal  bliss.  This  doctrine  is  laid  down,  for 
instance,  in  the  Chulika  Upaiiishad  of  this  Veda,  when  it  says  : 
'  Those  Brahmans  and  others  who  know  the  science  of  the  (neuter) 
Brahman  continued  in  the  Brahma  Veda,  became  merged  in 
Brahman  ;'  and  it  is  likewise  inferred  from  other  passages  in  the 
Sdunaka  Brahmand.  The  name  of  Brahma  Veda  itself,  by  which 
this  Veda  is  also  frequently  called,  is  therefore  explained  by  them, 
not  as  implying  the  Veda  which  belongs  to  the  province  of  the 
priest  Brahman,  but  the  Veda  which  contains  the  mysterious 
doctrine  of  Brahman,  the  supreme  spirit,  into  which  the  human 
soul  becomes  finally  absorbed.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the 
very  uselessuess  of  the  Atharva  Veda  for  sacrificial  purposes,  and 
the  reluctance  which  was  felt  to  base  its  sanctity  merely  on  its 
incantations  and  spells,  invested  it,  in  the  mind  of  its  followers, 
with  a  spiritual  character,  which  was  then  fully  developed  in  the 
numerous  Upanishads  (q.  v.)  now  connected  with  it." — Muir. 

Professor  Miiller,  in  his  Ancient  Sanscrit  Literature,  has  given 
the  followiug  hymn  from  the  Atharva  Veda,  of  which  the  Quar- 
terly Revieiv  says,  "  we  know  of  no  passage  in  Vedic  literature 
which  approaches  its  simple  sublimity  :"— 

•'  The  Great  one  who  rules  over  these  worlds  beholds  all  as  if  he 
were  close  by.  When  any  one  thinks  that  he  cloaks  a  thiug.  the 
Gods  know  it  all. 


ATH— ATI  03 


'  They  know  every  one  who  stands  or  walks  or  glides  along 
secretly  or  withdraws  into  his  house  or  into  any  hiding  place.  What- 
ever two  persons  sitting  together  devise,  Varuna  the  king  knoAvs  it 
as  the  third. 

'  This  earth  too  is  Varuna  the  king's,  and  that  vast  sky  whose 
ends  are  far  off.  The  two  oceans  are  Varuua's  loins  ;  he  resides  too 
in  this  little  pool. 

*He  who  should  flee  far  beyond  the  sky,  would  not  there  escape 
from  Varuna  the  king  ;  his  messengers  from  heaven  traverse  this 
world,  thousand-eyed  they  look  beyond  this  earth. 

*  King  Varuna  sees  all, — what  is  within  and  beyond  heaven  and 
earth  ;  the  winkings  of  men's  eyes  are  all  numbered  by  him  ;  he 
moves  all  these  things  as  a  gamester  his  dice. 

'  May  all  thy  destructive  nooses,  O  Varuna,  which  are  cast 
sevenfold  and  threefold,  bind  him  who  speaks  falsehood,  and  pass 
by  him  who  speaks  truth.' " 

Atharvan — A  priest  who  is  considered  to  have  obtained  the 
fire  from  heaven,  and  who  in  the  course  of  Mythological  personifi- 
cation appears  as  a  Prajapati  or  father  of  all  beings,  as  the  inspired 
author  of  the  fourth  or  AtharvaVeda,  as  the  eldest  son  of  Brahma 
to  whom  Brahma  revealed  the  Brahma  vidya,  or  knowledge  of 
God  ;  and  at  a  later  period  as  the  same  as  Angiras. 

Atharvan — A  distinguished  sage,  the  generator  of  fire,  and 
producer  of  Agni.  Atharvan  is  mentioned  as  the  earliest  institutor 
of  sacrifice.  Atharvan  was  the  first  who  by  sacrifices  opened  up 
paths  ;  then  the  friendly  Sun,  the  upholder  of  ordinances,  was 
produced.* 

Atharvas — A  class  or  even  caste  of  priests,  who  had  secrets 
which  they  were  prohibited  from  divulging  ;  they  were  the 
spiritual  guides  of  their  nation,  and  none  but  the  son  of  a  priest 
could  become  a  priest — a  rule  which  the  Parsis  still  maintain. f 

Atiratra — A  form  of  sacrifice  created  from  the  western  mouth 
of  Brahma,  along  with  the  Sama  Veda.     It  is  a  division  of  the 


♦  Muir,  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  1,  p.  169. 
t  Muir,  O.  S.  T..  vol.  L  p.  293. 


64  ATI— AUR 


service  of  the  Jyotishtoma,  the  fifth  part,  or  Somasamtha,  and 
means  literally,  lasting  through  the  night. 

Atiratra — One  of  the  ten  noble  sons  of  Chakshusha,  V.  P., 
p.  98. 

Atma — A  name  of  Vishnu,  who  has  many  appellations. 

Atma — Soul,  living  soul,  animating  nature  and  existing  before 
k  :  "the  highest  object  of  their  religion  was  to  restore  that  bond 
by  which  their  own  self,  (atma)  was  linked  to  the  eternal  self 
(paramatman)  ;  to  recover  that  unity  which  had  been  clouded  and 
obscured  by  the  magical  illusions  of  reality  ;  by  the  so  called 
Maya  of  creation ." — Max  Muller. 

Atri — A  prajapati,  one  of  the  mind-engendered  progeny  of 
Brahma,  with  a  form  and  faculties  derived  from  his  corporeal 
uature.  One  of  the  nine  brahmans  celebrated  in  the  Puranas. 
He  was  married  to  Anusuya  (charity),  one  of  the  twenty-four 
daughters  of  Daksha.  When  Atri  was  plunged,  by  the  malice 
and  arts  of  evil  spirits,  into  a  gloomy  and  burning  abyss,  the  Asvins 
*'  speedily  came  to  his  assistance,  mitigated  the  heat  with  cold,  and 
supplied  him  with  nutriment,  so  that  his  situation  became  tolerable, 
if  not  agreeable,  till  they  eventuall}'-  extricated  him  from  his  peril- 
ous position."  (0.  S.  T.,  vol.  v,  p.  247.)  The  son  of  Atri  was 
Soma  (the  moon),  whom  Brahma  installed  as  the  sovereign  of 
plants,  of  brahmans,  and  of  the  stars. 

Attapa — The  name  of  the  nineteenth  heaven  of  Buddhism. 

Aurva— A  sage,  the  grandson  of  Bhrigu.  When  the  sons  of  king 
Kritavirya  persecuted  and  slew  the  children  of  Bhrigu,  to  recover 
the  wealth  which  their  father  had  lavished  upon  them,  they  destroy- 
ed even  the  children  in  the  womb.  One  of  the  women,  of  the  race  of 
Bhrigu,  in  order  to  preserve  her  embryo,  secreted  it  in  her  thigh 
(uru),  whence  the  child  in  his  birth  was  named  Aurva  ;  from  his 
wrath  proceeded  a  flame  that  threatened  to  destroy  the  world  ; 
but  at  the  persuasion  of  his  ancestors  he  cast  it  into  the  ocean,  where 
it  abode  with  the  face  of  a  horse.  Aurva  was  afterwards  religious 
preceptor  to  Sagara,  and  bestowed  upon  him  the  Agneyastram,  or 
fiery  weapon  with  which  he  conquered  the  tribes  of  barbarians,  who 


AVA  G5 

had  iuvatlecl  his  patrimonial  possessious.  The  duties  and  ceromojiies 
of  various  castes  and  classes  were  explained  by  Aiirva  to  Sagara  and 
may  be  seen  in  the  V.  P.,  Book  III,  C  hapters  'VIII  to  XVI 
inclusive.  It  is  said  that  Aurva  earnestly  longed  for  a  son,  and 
that  Atri  gave  his  chiklren  to  him,  but  afterwards  felt  very  lonely 
and  weak. 

Avanti — The  ancient  name  of  Ujein  in  Central  India,  where 
the  scene  is  laid  of  the  popular  domestic  drama  named  iMrich- 
chhakato,  or  Toy  Cart. 

Auttama,  or  Attumi— The  name  of  the  third  :Manu,  a 
descendant  from  Priyavrata. 

Avalokita — A  disciple  of  Kamandaki  in  the  di-ama  of  the 
Toy  Cart. 

Avantyas— One  of  tlie  five  great  divisions  of  the  Haikaya  tribe. 
The  Avantyas  were  in  Ujein,  and  preceded  the  Rajput  tribes  by 
whom  that  country  is  now  occupied.  There  are  still  vestiges  of 
them.— Tod's  Rajastha?!,  I,  39. 

Avarant — From  Avarana,  screening  or  surrounding  ;  the 
name  of  a  division  of  the  sect  of  Rdmdniijas  who  prepare  their 
own  meals  and  eat  iu  the  strictest  privacy  :  "  they  must  not  eat  in 
cotton  garments,  but  having  bathed  must  put  on  woollen  or  silk  ; 
all  the  Ramauujas  cook  for  themselves,  and  should  the  meal  during 
this  process,  or  whilst  they  are  eating,  attract  even  the  looks  of  a 
stranger,  the  operation  is  instantly  stopped  and  the  viands  buried 
in  the  ground." — H.  11.  Wilson^  Vol.  /,  p.  39.  In  the  Jain  system 
the  five  Avaranas  mean  the  difficulties  in  acquiring  as  many  grada- 
tions of  holy  or  divine  wisdom. 

Avasarpini — The  Jaius  divide  time  into  two  cycles  or  ages, 
viz.,  the  Utasarpini  and  the  Avasarpini  time.  The  Avasarpini  time, 
has  six  stages,  viz.,  super-good  time,  good  time,  good -bad  time,  bad- 
good  time,  bad-time,  and  super-bad  time.  The  stage  in  whicJi  we 
now  live  is  the  fifth,  the  bad  time.  Avasarpini  means  the  an-e  of 
decrease. 

Avasthanas  — The  name  of  the  divisions  of  the  sun's  cour>;e, 
which  are  three,  viz.,  Airavata  (northern).  Jai'ado-avu  (southei'n), 
and  Vaisv/anara  (central). 


6G  AVA— AW 

Avatar— A  descent,  especially  of  a  deity  from  heaven  ;  an  incar- 
nation, or  birth.  Professor  Wilson  states  that  the  Vedas  allude 
occasionally  to  the  avatars  of  Vishnu.  The  story  of  the  Ramayana 
and  Mahabharata  turns  wholly  upon  the  doctrine  of  incarnations. 
All  the  chief  dramatis  persojm  of  the  poems  being  impereonHtions 
of  gods  and  demi-gods  and  celestial  spirits.  In  the  Puranas,  Siva 
and  Vishnu,  under  one  or  other  form,  are  almost  the  sole  objects 
^hat  claim  the  homage  of  the  Hindus.  In  native  books  the  most 
frequent  references  are  to  the  ten  avatars  of  Vishnu,  viz  : — 

1. — The  Matsya,  or  Fish  avatar,  under  which  form  Vishnu 
preserved  Mauu  the  ancestor  of  the  present  human  race,  during  a 
universal  deluge. 

2. — The  Kurma  or  Tortoise  avatar. 

3. — The  Varahu  or  Boar  avatar. 

4.— TheNara  Simha  or  Man-lion  avatar. 

5. — The  Vamana  or  Dwarf  avatar. 

6. — The  Bhargava  or  Parasu  Rama. 

7. — The  Rama  Chendra  or  Kodanda  Rama. 

8. — As  Krishna  ;  this  is  the  most  celebrated  of  his  avatars, 
in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  completely  incarnate. 

9. — As  Buddha.  The  brahmans  consider  Buddha  to  have 
been  a  delusive  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  assumed  by  him  to  induce 
the  Asuras  to  abandon  the  Vedas,  by  which  they  lost  their 
supremacy. 

10. — The  White  Horse,  (yet  future)  an  account  of  each  will  be 
found  under  the  separate  heads. 

Avichi — One  of  the  twenty-eight  Narakas  or  hells  enumerated 
in  the  V.  P.  They  are  all  said  to  be  situated  beneath  the  earth  and 
beneath  the  waters. 

Avidya— Ignorance.  One  of  the  five  afflictions  of  the  Patan- 
jalu  philosophy. 

Avveyar — In  former  times,  there  existed  among  the  Tamil 
people  seven  distinguished  sages,  of  whom  four  were  women  and 
three  men.  Among  them  Avveyar  and  Tiruvalluvar  were  the 
most  celebrated.  Respecting  the  other  five,  but  little  is  known 
either  of  their  lives  or  their  writings. 


AW  C7 

"  The  particulars  given  respecting  Avveyar  too,  arc  so  fabulous 
and  so  variously  related  in  different  books,  that  it  is  quite  impos- 
sible to  come  to  any  true  and  satisflictory  results.  I  shall  attempt 
to  state  such  results  as  far  as  I  can,  and  refer  the  reader  for  speci- 
mens of  the  native  biography  to  the  history  of  Kabilar,  and  to  the 
extract  translated  from  the  Scanda  Puranam  as  given  in  the  Asiatic 
Researches. 

"  Avveyar  most  probably  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  the  three  cele- 
brated kings,  Ukkiraperuvarithi  Piindian  and  the  monarchs  of  the 
Seran  and  Sorhan  kingdoms  who  were  his  contemporaries.  In  her 
history  as  still  transmitted  by  oral  tradition,  there  are  many  refer- 
ences to  these  kings,  and  to  the  fabulous  miracles  she  performed 
before  them.  Her  father  seems  to  have  been  a  Brahman  and  her 
mother  an  outcast,  who  were  united  to  each  other  without  being 
aware  of  the  wide  difference  in  their  cast.  Afterwards  however, 
on  finding  it  out,  the  Brahman  determined  as  the  only  condition  on 
which  they  should  live  together,  that  any  children  who  might  be 
born  to  them  should  be  deserted  immediately  on  their  birth. 
Avveyar  was  their  second  female  child,  and  was  born,  reared,  and 
educated  at  a  village  inhabited  by  Panars.  (The  business  of  the 
Panars  was  to  attend  on  kings  and  celebrate  their  praises.  But 
the  race  is  now  almost  extinct.) 

"  If  we  may  judge  from  her  character  and  writings,  Avveyar  was 
educated  by  a  Panar  with  great  care  and  talent.  One  thing  is  very 
evident,  she  must  have  possessed  eminent  natural  abilities.  From 
the  numerous  fables  respecting  her,  we  may  gather  that  she  was 
not  only  clever  but  that  she  exerted  herself  to  do  good.  The 
excellent  moral  maxims  she  has  left,  tend  for  the  most  part  to 
the  promotion  of  good  sentiments  and  good  conduct. 

"  Her  principal  productions  now  extant  are  as  follows :  Attlii- 
chuvadiKondre-Venthau,  Muthure  (or  Vakkundan),  Nal-Vali,  Kalvi- 
Orjuk-kam,  Avve-Kerao,  Avve-Kovl,  Pilaiyar-Agaval,  Ganapathi- 
Asiria-Virutham,  and  a  number  of  detached  verses  :  but  probably 
some  of  her  productions  have  been  lost  :  she  is  reputed  to  have 
been  very  clever  in  chemistry  and  medicine,  and  to  have  discovered 
the  fiibled  panacea  (or  Kalpn)  by  eating  which  she  lived  to  the  age 
of  240  years. 


68  AVY— AYO 


"Her  ftime  became  widely  si^read  abroad,  and  wherever  she  went, 
khigs  and  nobles,  the  learned  and  the  ignorant,  alike  siiowed  her 
the  highest  respect. 

"  Her  productions  are  universally  read.  Some  of  them  arc  not 
only  among  the  very  first  reading  books  put  into  the  hands  of 
childi-en  in  almost  every  Tamil  school,  but  are  also  greatly  and 
deservedly  esteemed," —  Sugden. 

m 

Avyaya — A  name  of  Purusha  or  spirit,  it  means  inconsumable. 

Awiha — The  name  of  the  eighteenth  heaven  of  Buddhism. 

Ayana — A  period  of  six  months,  two  Ayauas  compose  a  year. 
The  southern  Ayana  is  a  night  and  the  northern  a  day  of  the  gods. 
Twelve  thousand  divine  years,  each  composed  of  such  days,  con- 
stitute the  period  of  four  Yugas,  or  ages.  The  word  is  also  used 
in  the  sense  of  hemisphere  ;  the  uttara-ayana  is  the  apparent  course 
of  the  sun  through  the  northern  signs,  and  the  dakshanayana  is  the 
southerly  course  ;  hence  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres 
appear  to  correspond  with  the  two  ayanas. 

Ayatayama — Texts  of  the  Yajur-veda,  revealed  to  Yajnawal- 
kya  by  the  sun  in  the  form  of  a  horse  :  the  Texts  thus  imparted 
were  unknown  to  Vaisampayana. 

Ayati — One  of  the  descendants  of  the  daughters  of  Dakslia 
who  were  married  to  the  Rishis.  Lakshmi  the  bride  of  Vishnu 
was  the  daughter  of  Bhrigu  by  Kayati.  They  had  also  two  sons, 
Dhatri  and  Vidhatri,  who  married  the  two  daughters  of  the  illus- 
trious Meru,  Ayati  and  Niryati  ;  and  had  by  them  each  a  son 
named  Prana  and  Mrikanda, 

Ayodhya — "  The  modern  Oude,  which  is  situated  on  the  river 
Sarayu,  the  modern  Gogra,  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  to 
the  south-east  of  Delhi.  In  the  present  day  the  city  of  Ayodhya 
has  disappeared,  and  little  is  to  be  seen  of  the  ancient  site  beyond 
a  shapeless  heap  of  ruins,  a  mass  of  rubbish  and  jungle  which 
stretches  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Gogra  river.  But  in 
olden  time  this  city  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  in 
Ilinduitau.  and  itf-  memory  is  still  preserved  in  every  r|uartcr  of 


AYO  G9 

the  latlian  peuhisula.  Its  geographical  position  is  highly  signifi- 
cant of  the  progress  of  Aryan  invasion  between  two  great  epochs, 
namely,  that  of  the  war  of  Bharata,  and  that  of  the  birth  of  Rama. 
In  the  Maha  Bharata  the  Aryans  had  apparently  advanced  no 
further  towards  the  south-east  than  the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi  ; 
but  in  the  Ramayana  they  seem  to  have  established  a  large  and 
substantial  Raj  in  the  very  centre  of  Hindustan,  and  to  have 
founded  a  metropolis  which  must  ever  be  famous  in  the  ancient 
History  of  India." —  Wheeler. 

The  Ramayana  gives  the  following  description  of  Ayodhya  : 
"  The  city  of  Ayodhya  was  full  of  people,  and  every  one  was 
healthy  and  happy,  and  every  one  was  well  fed  upon  the  best  of 
rice  ;  and  every  merchant  in  that  city  had  storehouses  filled  with 
jewels  from  every  quarter  of  the  earth.  The  Brahmans  constantly 
kept  alive  the  sacrificial  fire,  and  were  deeply  read  in  the  Vedas 
and  Vedaugas,  and  were  endowed  with  every  excellent  quality  ; 
they  were  profusely  generous,  and  were  filled  with  truth,  zeal  and 
compassion,  equal  to  the  great  sages,  and  their  minds  and  passions 
were  under  perfect  control.  All  these  Brahman  sages  had  three 
classes  of  disciples  ;  first,  the  youths  who  served  them  as  servants 
serve  their  masters  ;  then  the  students  who  were  receiving  instruc- 
tion ;  and  then  the  Brahmaclu^ris  who  maintained  themselves  and 
their  preceptors  by  collecting  alms.  Next  to  the  Brahmans  ^vere 
the  Kshatriyas,  who  were  all  warriors,  and  were  constantly  exer- 
cised in  the  practice  of  arms  in  the  presence  of  the  Maharaja. 
After  these  were  the  Vaisyas,  or  merchants,  who  sold  goods  of 
every  description,  and  who  came  from  every  corner  of  the  earth. 
Last  of  all  were  the  Siidras,  who  were  ever  engaged  in  devotion  to 
the  gods,  and  in  the  service  of  the  Brahmans.  Besides  these  there 
Avere  jewellers  and  artificers,  singing  men  and  dancing  women, 
charioteers  and  footmen,  potters  and  smiths,  painters  and  oilmen, 
sellers  of  floAvers,  and  sellers  of  betelnut.  In  all  that  city  of  well- 
fed  and  happy  people,  no  man  was  without  learning,  or  practised  a 
calling  that  did  not  belong  to  his  family  or  caste,  or  dwelt  in  a 
mean  habitation,  or  Avas  without  kinsmen.  There  were  no  misers, 
nor  liars,  nor  thieves,  nor  tale-bearers,  nor  swindlers,  nor  boasters  ; 
none    that    were    arrojrant.    malevolent,    mean,    or    who   lived    a( 


70  AYO— AYU 


another's  expense  ;  and  no  man  who  had  not  abundance  of  children, 
or  who  lived  less  than  a  thousand  years." 

Ayomukha— One  of  the  sons  of  Kasyapa  by  Danu,  hence 
termed  a  Danava. 

Ayuaveda— Medical  science,  as  taught  by  Dhanwantari. 

Ayus — The  eldest  son  of  Vikrama  and  Urvasi  ;  Vikramorvasi, 
5r  the  Hero  and  the  Nymphs,  is  the  title  of  a  second  drama  attri- 
buted to  Kalidasa.  Urvasi  was  one  of  the  nymphs  of  heaven,  and 
when  love  for  the  king  induced  her  to  dwell  on  earth,  she  had 
been  warned  that  so  soon  as  the  king  should  see  a  son  of  hers  she 
must  return.  From  fear  of  this  she  kept  her  infant's  birth  con- 
cealed. Ayus  was  not  seen  by  his  father  until  he  had  grown  up 
and  was  brought  from  the  hermitage  of  the  Rishi  Chyavana. 
His  inauguration  as  vice  king  then  took  place  in  circumstances  of 
great  splendour.  The  rite  being  concluded  a  chorus  was  heard 
without,  invoking  blessings  upon  Ayus — 

"  Son  of  the  monarch  the  universe  filling. 
Son  of  the  god  of  the  mist-shedding  night, 
Son  of  the  sage,  whom  the  great  Brahma  ;  willing, 
Called,  with  creation,  to  life  and  to  light." 

A.a7id  M. /.,  p.  205. 

Ayutayus — A  descendant  of  the  Kuru  princes  :  also  a  king 
of  Magadha,  the  name  of  one  of  the  future  kings  of  Magadha  as 
enumerated  in  the  V.  P.,  p.  465. 


B 


BabhrU-vahana — The  sou  of  Arjunaby  his  wife  Chitrangatla, 
daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Manipura.  Arjuoa  dv/elt  at  Manipura 
for  three  years,  and  then  according  to  previous  arrangements  took 
leave  of  his  wife  and  son.  When  Babhru-vahana  came  of  age  and 
ascended  the  throne  he  is  described  as  without  an  equal  in  prowess 
and  manhood.  His  country  was  rich  and  prosperous  ;  his  subjects 
virtuous,  contented  and  happy.  In  the  seventh  adventure  of  the 
horse  of  Arjuna  it  is  said  that  the  horse  was  seized  by  Babhru- 
vahana  when  it  approached  the  city  of  Manipura,  but  on  discover- 
ing that  it  belonged  to  his  father  Arjuna  he  restored  the  horse 
with  many  demonstrations  of  affection  and  respect.  Arjuna  how- 
ever considered  that  his  son  should  not  have  restored  the  horse 
without  a  battle,  and  attributed  it  to  cowardice,  which  led  to  a 
contest  in  which  Arjuna  was  slain  :  when  the  tidings  reached 
Chitrangada  she  wished  to  ascend  a  funeral  pile.  Arjuna  was  how- 
ever restored  to  life  again. 

Badari — An  extensive  forest  near  Benares,  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  many  mythical  austerities.  Krishna  is  said  to  have  stood 
"  on  the  spacious  Badari  a  hundred  years  with  his  arms  aloft,  on 
one  foot,  subsisting  on  air."  (O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  iv).  Of  Arjuna  it  is 
said,  "  Thou  wast  Nara  in  a  former  body,  and  with  Niiniyana  for 
thy  companion  didst  perform  dreadful  austerity  at  Badari  for  many 
myriads  of  years."     (O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  iv,  p.  196). 

Badravati — A  city  about  fifty  miles  from  Hastinapur,  from 
which  Bhima  forcibly  brought  away  the  horse  for  the  great 
Aswamedha  sacrifice  performed  by  Yudhishthira,  after  the  great 
war. 

Badhas — There  are  twenty-eight  kinds  of  badhas,  which  in  the 
Sankya  system  mean  imperfections  or  disabilities,  as  defects  of  the 
senses,  blindness,  deafness,  &c.,  defects  of  intellect,  as  incapacity, 
iji'noranco,  &c.,  and  moral  defects,  as  stubbornness,  discontent,  &c. 


BAH— BAL 


Bahkali,  Bahkala,  Bashkali— One  of  the  arrangers  of  the 
Yedas.  Paila  divided  the  Rig  Veda,  and  gave  the  two  Sanhitas, 
or  collections  of  hymns,  to  ludrapramati  and  to  Bashkali.  Bash- 
kali  sub-divided  his  Sanhita  into  four,  which  he  gave  to  his 
disciples  Baudha,  Agnimathara,  Yajnawalka  and  Parasara  ;  and 
they  taught  these  secondary  shoots  from  the  primitive  branch. 

Bahugara— A  descendant  of  Puru,  son  of  Sudyumua  :  called 
I5ahuvidha  in  the  Agni  and  Matsya  Puranas. 

Bahula — l,  The  name  of  one  of  the  Prajapatis,  V.  P.,  p.  50  ; 
2,  the  name  of  a  Prince  killed  by  Abhimanyu,  (Liuga.  Purana)  ; 
and  3,  the  name  of  one  of  the  rivers  enumerated  in  the  V.  P.,  p.  183. 

Bahulaswa — The  last  but  one  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  His 
son  was  Kriti,  with  whom  terminated  the  family  of  Janaka. 

Bahuputra — A  Prajapati  who  married  two  daughters  of 
Daksha,  their  children  were  the  four  lightnings,  enumerated  in 
Astrological  works  as  brown,  red,  yellow  and  white  ;  portending 
severally,  Avind,  heat,  rain,  famine. 

Bahurupa — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  or  lords  of  the  three 
worlds. 

Bahwaswa — Sou  of  Mudgala,  and  father  of  Divodasa  and 
Ahalya. 

Bajiarana — One  of  the  eight  branches  of  Medical  Science 
which  treats  of  the  use  of  aphrodisiacs. 

Balabhadra— See  Balarama. 

Balakhilyas — Pigmy  sages,  no  bigger  than  a  joint  of  the 
thumb,  chaste,  pious,  resplendent  as  the  sun,  whose  chariot  they 
constantly  surround.  The  wife  of  the  sage  Kratu  Sannati,  brought 
forth  the  sixty  thousand  Balakhilyas  ;  another  account  says  they 
were  produced  from  the  hair  of  Brahma.     V.  P. 

Balarama— An  incarnation  of  a  white  hair  of  Brahma,  born  as 
the  son  of  Vasudeva  ;  by  Devaki,  but  was  transferred  from  the  latter 
to  the  womb  of  Rohini,  the  other  wife  of  Vasudeva  ;  hence  he  was 
the  half-brother  of  Krishna.  He  was  brought  up  by  Nauda, 
and  is  the  patron  of  Agriculture  ;  the  Yadavas,  his  tribe,  ))eiug 


BAL  73 

properly  lierclsmeu  aud  shepherds.  He  is  often  represented  as 
armed  with  a  ploughshare,  and  sometimes  as  carrying  a  pestle- 
like club.  By  some  he  is  regarded  as  the  eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu  ; 
by  others  as  an  incarnation  of  the  great  serpent  Ananta.  He  was 
of  great  strength  and  irascible  temper.  He  diverted  the  course 
of  the  river  Yamuna,  and  compelled  it  to  attend  him.  The  fierce 
and  malignant  demon  Dhenuka,  in  the  form  of  an  ass,  attacked 
Bala  Rama  when  he  was  a  mere  boy  playing  with  Krishna  ;  Rama 
seized  him  by  both  hind  legs  aud  whirled  him  round  till  he  expired. 
On  another  occasion  the  Asura  Pralamba  came  to  the  boys  and 
attempted  to  carry  off  Rama,  who  however,  so  squeezed  and  beat 
the  powerful  demon  that  he  fell  upon  the  ground  aud  expired. 
Many  other  exploits  are  related  of  him.  Bala  Rama  was  married 
to  Revati,  to  whom  he  was  attached  and  faithful.  When  Aijuna, 
by  the  connivance  aud  help  of  Krishna,  stole  away  his  sister 
Subadhra,  Rama  collected  his  retainers  and  set  out  in  pursuit ; 
but  the  matter  was  made  up  by  the  intervention  of  Krishna.  One 
of  the  last  feats  of  his  prowess  w^as  the  destruction  of  the  dreadful 
Asura  Dwivida,  in  the  form  of  an  ape.  Shortly  aftewards  Bala 
Rama  resumed  the  form  of  Sesha.     V.  P. 

Bali— A  celebrated  Daitya,  the  son  of  Virochana,  who  rose  to 
such  an  eminence  in  power  that  Indra  and  the  other  gods  had  to 
apply  for  the  interference  of  Vishnu  to  protect  them  from  the 
destructive  effects  of  Bali's  rule.  The  Mahdbharata  gives  the 
following  legend  respecting  Bali,  as  related  by  Viswamitra  to  the 
two  young  princes,  Rama  and  Lakshmana,  when  they  visited  his 
hermitage  : — 

"In  ancient  days,  before  the  glorious  Vishnu  became  incarnate 
as  the  Dwarf,  this  was  his  holy  hermitage,  and  here  he  practised 
sacred  austerities  as  an  example  to  all  others.  Aud  it  came  to 
pass  that  Bali,  the  mighty  Raja  of  the  Asuras,  conquered  Indra 
and  the  gods  ;  and  the  gods  came  to  this  hermitage  and  prayed  to 
Vishnu  for  succour  :  And  Vishnu  was  born  on  earth  in  the  form 
of  a  Dwarf,  aud  he  assumed  the  dress  of  a  mendicant,  aud  went  to 
the  abode  of  jBali,  and  prayed  Bali  to  give  him  as  much  earth  as 
he  could  step  over  in  llirec  steps  :  And  Bali  granted  his  request : 

10 


74  BAL— BAN 


then  Vishnu  took  upon  himself  a  mighty  form,  and  took  three 
steps  ;  and  the  first  step  covered  the  earth,  and  the  second  covered 
the  heavens,  and  the  third  was  on  the  head  of  Bali :  And  Vishnu 
bound  Bali,  and  sent  him  and  all  his  legions  to  the  realms  below 
the  earth,  and  once  more  restored  the  universe  to  the  rule  of  Indra." 

The  meaning  of  this  myth  is  not  very  obvious.  It  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  an  obscure  Vedic  idea  that  Vishnu  as  the  Sun  took 
Hhiee  steps  ;  viz.,  first,  on  the  earth  at  his  rising  ;  secondly,  in  the 
heavens  at  noonday  ;  and  thirdly,  on  the  under-world  at  his  setting. 
(See  Wilson's  Rig  Veda,  Vol.  I,  p.  53,  note.)  The  legend  however 
is  exceedingly  popular,  jorobably  on  account  of  the  successful  trick 
played  against  the  giant  ;  and  a  festival  is  still  celebrated  in  memory 
of  the  so-called  event. 

Bali  then  became  the  Sovereign  of  Patala.  He  is  said  to  have 
had  a  hundred  sons. 

Bali — The  monkey  chieftain  of  Kishkindya  ;  he  had  treated  his 
brother  Sugriva  with  great  cruelty,  and  on  the  latter  securing  the 
friendship  of  Rama  they  both  proceeded  to  Kishkindya,  where  Bali 
was  killed  by  Rama,  and  Sugriva  installed  as  sovereign  of  Kish- 
kindya. 

Bana— The  eldest  of  the  hundred  sous  of  Bali.  He  had  a 
thousand  arms.  His  daughter  Usha  having  seen  Parvati  sporting 
with  her  lord  Sambhu,  was  inspired  with  a  wish  for  similar  dalli- 
ance. Parvati  promised  her  a  husband,  who  should  appear  to  her 
in  a  dream  on  a  certain  night.  This  came  to  pass,  and  by  the 
rnagic  power  of  her  companion  Chitralekka,  the  person  she  had 
beheld  in  her  dream,  Aniruddha,  (q.  v.)  was  conveyed  from 
Dwaraka  to  her  apartments  in  the  palace.  This  led  to  the  contest 
narrated  in  the  article  Aniruddha,  Avhen  Bana  wounded  Krishna, 
but  afterAvards  lost  his  thousand  arms  and  was  nearly  killed  by 
Krishna. 

Banddjias — Those  who  take  nothing  upon  authority  and  admit 
nothing  that  cannot  be  proved  ;  or  it  is  explained,  those  who  by 
argument  cast  a  doubt  upon  the  efficacy  of  acts  of  devotion. 

Banclhayanas— Followers  of  a  branch  of  the  Vajasaueiyi,  or 
white  Yajush, 


BAN— BAS  75 


Bandhya — A  disciple  of  Bashkala,  who  made  liim  a  teacher  of 
a  portion  of  the  Sauhita  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Basava — The   name   of  a  bull   in  the    Canarese  and  Teluo-u 
languages,  and  applied  to  Nandi  the  vehicle  of  Siva. 

Basava — The  founder  of  the  Liugait  sect.  He  was  originally 
an  Aradhya  brahman,  and  evidently  a  man  of  great  independency  of 
mind  and  possessed  of  great  moral  courage.  He  was  born  about 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  in  a  village  to  the  east  of 
Bijapur  in  the  Collectorate  of  Kalladighee.  "  Having  become  prime 
minister  at  the  Court  of  Kalayana,  the  capital  of  a  great  empire, 
which  then  stretched  from  ocean  to  ocean,  he  succeeded  gradually 
in  founding  a  new  sect,  called  the  Lingait,  from  its  votaries  wear- 
ing the  Linga,  which  they  consider  to  be  the  true  symbol  of  the 
Creative  divine  power.  This  great  success  may  be  attributed  to 
two,  perhaps  three  causes,  Basava  had  great  power,  popularity  and 
influence,  from  his  high  station  in  life.  Converts  from  Jainisra  to 
Lingaitism  were  unduly  favored,  though  Basava's  master,  kino- 
Bajal,  still  remained  a  Jain.  Basava  is  said  to  have  connived  at 
the  intercourse  the  king  had  with  a  beautiful  sister,  and  had  great 
power  over  him.  Pecuniary  assistance  was  largely  given  to  itinerant 
priests  of  the  sect  who  went  about  preaching  to  the  people. 
The  second  cause  of  Basava's  success  was  that  he  addressed 
himself  chiefly  to  the  lower  classes.  These  were  flattered  by  the 
prospect  of  their  social  position  being  improved  if  they  embraced 
the  new  religion.  And  indeed  taking  the  Linga  and  becoming 
a  Lingait,  was  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  Hindus,  a  step  in 
advance.  For  the  great  privilege  of  wearing  this  sacred  symbol  on 
the  body  had  been  to  that  time  confined  exclusively  to  the 
brahmans.  In  fact  Basava  at  first  merely  introduced  the  peculiar 
Linga  worship,  as  it  was  performed  by  the  Aradhya  brahmans,  to 
whom  he  himself  belonged,  among  the  diflferent  classes  of  Sudras. 

"  The  spread  of  the  sect  was  wide  and  rapid,  so  that  even  in  the 
neighbouring  Telugu  and  Tamil  countries,  many  became  the  wor- 
shippers of  Basava  ;  and  books  regarded  as  sacred,  still  extant, 
were  written  in  those  tongues  in  honor  of  him.  The  king  however 
disapproved   of  this   great    change.      He   hated   and   persecuted 


7C BAS 

the  Liugaits.  This  led  to  his  assassination  in  his  own  palace,  by 
two  fanatic  Lingaits,  who  it  is  said  were  encouraged  by  Basava. 
A  civil  war  then  broke  out,  and  the  empire  of  Kalyana  fell  to 
pieces.  Basava  was  thus  the  cause  of  great  revolutions  in  the 
Deccan.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  such  a  man  would,  after  the 
lapse  of  sometime,  be  deified  by  credulous  men,  and  the  real  facts 
of  his  history  obscured  by  a  mass  of  legendary  lore." — Woerth. 
•  Basava  Purana — The  Purana  that  narrates  the  life  of  Basava, 
the  founder  or  restorer  of  the  Jaugama  sect.  Professor  H.  H. 
Wilson  places  the  date  of  the  events  it  records  in  the  early  part  of 
the  eleventh  century. 

Basava's  parents  were  both  devout  worshippers  of  Siva.  In 
recompense  of  their  piety,  Nandi,  the  bull  of  Siva,  was  born  on 
earth  as  their  son,  becoming  incarnate  by  command  of  Siva,  on 
his  learninoj  from  Narada  the  decline  of  the  Salva  faith  and 
prevalence  of  other  less  orthodox  systems  of  religion.  The  child 
was  denominated  after  the  Basva  or  Basava,  the  bull  of  the  deity. 
On  his  arriving  at  the  age  of  investiture  he  refused  to  assume  the 
thread  ordinarily  worn  by  brahmans,  or  to  acknowledge  any  Guru 
except  IswARA  or  Siva.  He  then  departed  to  the  town  of 
Kalydn^  the  capital  of  Bijala  or  Vijala  Edya,  and  obtained  in 
marriage  Gangdmhd,  the  daughter  of  the  Dandandyah,  or  minister 
of  police.  From  thence  he  repaired  to  Sangamesvara,  where  he 
received  from  Sa7igamesvara  Svdmi  initiation  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Vira  Saiva  faith.  He  was  invited  back  from  this  place  to  succeed 
his  father-in-law  upon  his  decease  in  the  office  he  had  held. 

After  his  return  to  Kalydu,  his  sister,  who  was  one  of  his  first 
disciples,  was  delivered  of  a  son,  Chen7ia  Basava,  who  is  not  unfre- 
quently  confounded  with  his  uncle,  and  regarded,  perhaps  more 
correctly,  as  the  founder  of  the  sect. 

After  recording  these  events  the  work  enumerates  various 
marvellous  actions  performed  by  Basava  and  several  of  his  disciples, 
such  as  converting  grains  of  corn  to  pearls — discovering  hidden 
treasures — feeding  multitudes — healing  the  sick  and  restoring  the 
dead  to  life.  The  following  are  some  of  the  anecdotes  narrated  in 
the  Parana  : — 

Basava  having  made  himself  remarkable  for  the  profuse  bounties 


BAS 


( i 


he  bestowed  upou  the  Jangamas,  helping  himself  from  the  Royal 
Treasury  for  that  purpose,  the  other  ministers  reported  his  conduct 
to  Bijala,  who  called  upon  him  to  account  for  the  money  in  his 
charge.  Basava  smiled,  and  giving  the  keys  of  the  Treasury  to 
the  king,  requested  him  to  examine  it,  which  being  done,  the 
amount  was  found  wholly  uudiminished.  Bijala  thereupon  causcJ 
it  to  be  proclaimed,  that  whoever  calumniated  Basava  should  have 
liis  tongue  cut  out. 

A  Ja?igama,  who  cohabited  with  a  dancing  girl,  sent  a  slave  for 
his  allowance  of  rice  to  the  house  of  Basava,  where  the  messenger 
saw  the  w^ife  of  the  latter,  and  ou  his  return  reported  to  the  dancing 
girl  the  magnificence  of  her  attire.  The  mistress  of  the  Jangama 
was  filled  with  a  longing  for  a  similar  dress,  and  the  Jangama 
having  no  other  means  of  gratifying  her,  repaired  to  Basava,  to  beg 
of  him  his  wife's  garment.  Basava  immediately  stripped  Gangamba, 
his  wife,  and  other  dresses  springing  from  her  body,  he  gave  them 
all  to  the  Jangama. 

A  person  of  the  name  of  Kanapa,  who  regularly  worshipped  the 
image  of  Ekamresvara,  imagining  the  eyes  of  the  deity  were 
affected,  plucked  out  his  own,  and  placed  them  in  the  sockets  of 
the  figure.  Siva,  pleased  with  his  devotion,  restored  his  worship- 
per his  eyes. 

A  devout  Sniva  named  Maliddevala  3Iachdya,  who  engaged  to 
wash  for  all  the  Jangamas^  having  killed  a  child,  the  Raja  ordered 
Basava  to  have  him  secured  and  punished  ;  but  Basava  declined 
undertaking  the  duty,  as  it  would  be  unavailing  to  offer  any  harm  to 
the  worshippers  of  Siva.  Bijala  persisting,  sent  his  servants  to 
seize  and  tie  him  to  the  legs  of  an  elephant,  but  Machdya  caught 
the  elephant  by  the  trunk,  and  dashed  him  and  his  attendants  to 
pieces.  He  then  proceeded  to  attack  the  Raja,  who  being  alarmed 
applied  to  Basava,  and  by  his  advice  humbled  himself  before 
the  offended  Jangama.  Basava  also  deprecated  his  wrath,  and 
Machdya  being  appeased,  forgave  the  king  and  restored  the 
elephant  and  the  guards  to  life. 

A  poor  Jangama  having   solicited   alms   of  Kinnardyu,  one  of 


78  BAS 

Basava's  cliief  disciples,  the  latter  touched  the  stones  about  them 
with  his  staff,  and  couvertiug  them  into  gold,  told  the  Jangama  to 
help  himself. 

The  work  is  also  in  many  places  addressed  to  the  Jainas  in  the 
shape  of  a  dialogue  between  some  of  the  Jangama  saints,  and  the 
members  of  that  faith,  in  which  the  former  uai'rate  to  the  latter 
instances  of  the  superiority  of  the  Saiva  religion,  and  the  falsehood 
•f  the  Jain  faith,  which  appears  to  have  been  that  of  Bijala  Ray  a 
and  the  great  part  of  the  population  of  Kalydna,  In  order  to  con- 
vert them,  Ekdnta  Ramdya,  one  of  Basava's  disciples,  cut  off  his 
head  in  their  presence,  and  then  marched  five  days  in  solemn  pro- 
cession through  and  round  the  city,  and  on  the  fifth  day  replaced 
his  head  upon  his  shoulders.  The  Jain  Pagodas  were  thereupon, 
it  is  said,  destroyed  by  the  Jangamas.  It  does  not  appear,  how- 
ever, that  the  king  was  made  a  convert,  or  that  he  approved  of  the 
principles  and  conduct  of  his  minister.  He  seems,  on  the  contrary, 
to  have  incurred  his  death  by  attempting  to  repress  the  extension 
of  the  V'ira  Saiva  belief.  Different  authorities,  although  they 
disagree  as  to  the  manner  in  which  Bijala  was  destroyed,  concur 
in  stating  the  fact  :  the  following  account  of  the  transaction  is  from 
the  Basava  Purana  : — 

"  In  the  city  oi  Kalydna  were  two  devout  worshippers  of  Siva, 
named  Alloya  and  Madhuvaya,  They  fixed  their  faith  firmly  on 
the  divinity  they  adored,  and  assiduously  reverenced  their  spiritual 
preceptor,  attending  upon  Basava  whithersoever  he  went.  The 
king,  Bijala,  well  knew  their  merits,  but  closed  his  eyes  to  their 
superiority,  and  listening  to  the  calumnious  accusations  of  their 
enemies,  commanded  the  ej^es  of  Allaya  and  Madhuvaya  to  be 
plucked  out.  The  disciples  of  Basava,  as  well  as  himself,  were 
liighly  indignant  at  the  cruel  treatment  of  these  holy  men,  and 
leaving  to  Jagaddeva  the  task  of  putting  Bijala  to  death,  and 
denouncing  imprecations  upon  the  city,they  departed  from  Kalydna, 
Basava  fixed  his  residence  at  Sangamesvara. 

Machdya,  Bom?)iidevaya,  Kitinara,  Kannatha,  Bommadeva, 
Kakaya,  Masaiiaya,  Kolakila  Bommadeva,  Kesirajaya,  ^lathira- 
jaya,  and  others,  announced  to  the  people  that  the  fortunes  of 
Bijala  had   passed  away,  as  indicated  by  portentous  signs  ;   and 


BAS  79 

accordingly  the  crows  crowed  in  the  uight,  jackals  howled  by  day  ; 
the  sun  was  eclipsed,  storms  of  wind  and  rain  came  on,  the  earth 
shook,  and  darkness  overspread  the  heavens.  The  inhabitants  of 
Kalydna  were  filled  with  terror. 

When  Jagaddeva  repaired  home,  his  mother  met  him,  and  told 
him  that  when  any  injury  had  been  done  to  a  disciple  of  the  Saiva 
faith,  his  fellow  should  avenge  him  or  die.  When  Daksha  treated 
Siva  with  contumely,  Parvati  threw  herself  into  the  flames,  and 
so,  under  the  wrong  offered  to  the  saints,  lie  should  not  sit  down 
contented  :  thus  saying,  she  gave  him  food  at  the  door  of  his  man- 
sion. Thither  also  came  Mallaya  and  Bommaya,  two  others  of  the 
saints,  and  they  partook  of  JagaddevcCs  meal.  Then  smeariu"- 
their  bodies  with  holy  ashes,  they  took  up  the  spear,  and  sword, 
and  shield,  and  marched  together  against  Bijala.  On  their  way  a 
bull  appeared,  w^hom  they  knew  to  be  a  form  of  Basava,  came  to 
their  aid,  and  the  bull  went  first  even  to  the  court  of  the  king, 
goring  any  one  that  came  in  their  way,  and  opening  a  clear  path 
for  them.  Thus  they  reached  the  court,  and  put  Bijala  to  death 
in  the  midst  of  all  his  courtiers,  and  then  they  danced,  and  pro- 
claimed the  cause  why  they  had  put  the  king  to  death.  Jagaddeva 
on  his  way  back,  recalling  the  words  of  his  mother,  stabbed  himself. 
Then  arose  dissension  in  the  city,  and  the  people  fought  amongst 
themselves,  and  horses  with  horses,  and  elephants  with  elephants, 
until,  agreeably  to  the  curse  denounced  upon  it  by  Basava  and  his 
disciples,  Kalydna  was  utterly  destroyed. 

Basava  continued  to  reside  at  Sangamesvara,  conversing  Avitli 
his  disciples,  and  communing  with  the  divine  Essence,  and  he 
expostulated  with  Siva  saying  :  '  By  thy  command  have  I,  and 
thy  attendant  train,  come  upon  earth,  and  thou  hast  promised  to 
recall  us  to  thy  presence  Avhen  our  task  was  accomplished.'  Then 
Siva  and  Parvati  came  forth  from  the  Sanganiesvara  Lingim, 
and  were  visible  to  Basava,  who  fell  on  the  ground  before  them. 
They  raised  him,  and  led  him  to  the  sanctuary,  and  all  three  dis- 
appeared in  the  presence  of  the  disciples,  and  they  praised  their 
master,  and  flowers  fell  from  the  sky,  ami  then  the  disciples  spread 
themselves  abroad,  and  made  known  the  absorption  of  Basava  into 


80  BEE— BHA 


the  emblem  of  Siva." — Mackeiizie's  Collect.,  Vol.  2nd;  Halakauara 
MSS.  [pp.  3-12.]  ;    misoii's    Works,  Vol.  I,  p.  225. 

Beerbhoom— Properly  Vir-bMmi,  the  hero-laud.  Oil  the 
frontier  of  Lower  Bengal,  between  the  lofty  plateau  of  Central 
India,  and  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  This  country  was  the  theatre 
of  one  of  the  primitive  struggles  of  Indian  history.  It  stood  as 
the  outpost  of  the  Sanscrit  race,  on  the  west  of  Lower  Bengal,  and 
'had  to  bear  the  sharp  collisions  of  Aryan  civilization,  with  the 
ruder  types  prevailiug  among  the  aborigines.  On  its  inhabitants 
devolved,  during  three  thousand  years,  the  duty  of  holdiug  the 
passes  between  the  highlands  and  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  To 
this  day  they  are  a  manlier  race  than  their  kinsmen  of  the  plains, 
and  from  the  beginning  of  history,  one  of  the  two  kingdoms  has 
borne  the  name  of  Mala-bhiimi,  the  country  of  the  Wrestlers, — 
the  other  the  appellation  of  Vir-bhumi,  the  Hero-land. — Hunter, 
Rnral  Bengal. 

Benares — The  sacred  city  of  the  Hindus.  It  is  called  K^si, 
Varanasi,  Atimukta.  It  was  once  destroyed  by  the  discus  of 
Krishna.  "  The  whole  of  a  city  that  "was  inaccessible  to  gods, 
was  wrapped  in  fliames  by  the  discus  of  Hari,  and  was  totally 
destroyed."  V.  P.,  Chap,  xxxiv.  "  The  term  Kasi,  denomi- 
nating, if  not  a  city,  a  people  and  its  chieftains,  occurs  repeatedly 

in  Sanscrit  works  of  all  but  the  highest  antiquity The 

kingdom  of  the  Kasis  and  its  rulers,  as  is  evinced  by  the  frequency 
of  reference  to  them,  enjoyed  from  distant  ages,  more  or  less  of 
notoriety  ;  and  this  is  substantially  all  that  the  Hindu  memorials 
teach  us.  The  Puranas  specify  but  one  dynasty  of  Kasi  kings  ;  a 
goodly  catalogue,  beginning  in  the  most  authoritative  of  those 
works,  with  the  son  of  Kasa,  To  Kasa,  by  a  lapse  of  perhaps  two 
centuries,  succeeded  Divodasa,  in  whose  reign  Buddhism  seems 
still  to  have  been  acting  on  the  aggressive.  In  this  synchronism 
there  is  no  discernible  improbability  ;  and  with  some  likelihood  it 
embodies  an  historic  fact.  A  reflection  of  actual  events  may 
likewise  be  afforded  in  the  story  of  the  burning  of  Varanasi  by  the 
discus  of  Vishnu."— ^rt//. 

Bhadra— The  name  of  one  of  the  many  wives  of  Vasudeva. 


BHAD— BHAG  81 


BhadrabahU — A  sou  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Rohini. 

Bhadrabahu — The  author  of  the  Kalpa  Sutra,  the  most  sacred 
religious  work  of  the  Jainas.  He  lived  iu  the  early  part  of  the 
fifth  ceutury  of  the  Christiau  era,  but  nothiug  is  kuowu  of  his 
persoual  history,  though  his  work  is  held  iu  such  revereuce. 

Bhadrachara — A  sou  of  Krishna  by  his  wife  Rukmiui. 

Bhadradeah — A  son  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Devaki.  He 
aud  his  five  brothers  were  killed  by  Kansa. 

Bhadrakali— A  Rudra  sprung  from  the  anger  of  Devi,  and 
sent  by  Siva  to  destroy  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha,  V.  P.,  Chap,  viii, 

Bhadrasana — The  posture  in  which  the  Yogi  is  directed  to 
sit  when  engaged  in  meditation  :  viz.,  to  cross  his  legs  underneath 
him  and  to  lay  hold  of  his  feet  on  each  side  with  his  hands. 

Bhadrasena — One  of  the  six  sons  of  Vasudeva,  who  were 
killed  by  Kansa. 

Bhadrasrenya — A  Yadava  priuce,  the  son  of  Mahishmat.  He 
is  said  to  have  had  a  hundred  sons,  all  of  whom  but  one,  Durdama, 
were  slain  by  Divodasa,  the  Raja  of  Benares.  Durdama  was  spared, 
being  an  infant ;  and  he  lived  to  recover  his  patrimonial  possessions. 

Bhadraswa — A  country  to  the  east  of  Meru,  and  Ketumala 
on  the  west ;  and  between  these  two  is  the  region  of  Ilavrita. 
Four  great  lakes  are  near,  the  waters  of  which  are  partaken  of  by 
the  gods.  Bhadraswas  is  one  of  the  eight  varshas  or  countries 
described  as  places  of  perfect  enjoyment,  where  happiness  is 
spontaneous  and  uninterrupted.  In  them  there  is  no  vicissitude,  no 
dread  of  decrepitude  or  death,  there  is  no  distinction  of  virtue 
or  vice,  no  difference  of  degree  as  better  or  worse,  nor  any  of  the 
effects  produced  in  this  region  by  the  revolutions  of  ages. 

Bhadravinda — A  son  of  Krishna,  who  is  said  to  have  had  in 
all  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand. 

Bhaga — One  of  the  twelve  Adityas ;  in  the  Mauwautara  of 
Vaivaswata. 

Bhaga — An  Aditya  ;  the  fifth  of  the  eight  sons  of  Aditi. 
His  eyes  were  knocked  out  by  Rudra  (Siva).     *'  Rudra  of  dreadful 

11 


82  BHAG 


power  then  ran  up  to  the  gods,  and  in  his  rage  knocked  out  the 
eyes  of  Bhaga  with  a  blow,  and  incensed,  assaulted  Pushan  with 
his  foot,  and  knocked  out  his  teeth  as  he  Avas  eating  the  purodasa 
offeriug."*     Sec  Savitri. 

Bhaga  vat —Vishnu.  The  Supreme  Being.  The  letter  Bh 
implies  the  cherisher  and  supporter  of  the  universe.  By  ga  is 
understood  the  leader,  impeller,  or  creator.  The  dissyllable  Bhaga 
indicates  the  six  j)roperties,  dominion,  might,  glory,  splendour, 
wisdom  and  dispassion.  The  purport  of  the  letter  va  is,  that 
elemental  spirit  in  which  all  beings  exist,  and  which  exists  in  all 
beings.  And  thus  this  great  word  Bhagavat  is  the  name  of 
Vasudeva,  who  is  one  with  the  Supreme  Brahma,  and  of  no  one 
else.     V.  P.,  Book  vi.  Chapter  5, 

Bhagavata — The  name  of  a  Purana,  generally  placed  the  fifth 
in  all  the  lists,  bat  the  Padma  Purana  ranks  it  as  the  eighteenth, 
as  the  extracted  substance  of  all  the  rest.  According  to  the  usual 
specification  it  consists  of  eighteen  thousand  slokas  distributed 
amongst  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  chapters,  divided  into  twelve 
skaudas  or  books.  The  Bhagavata  is  a  work  of  great  celebrity  in 
India,  and  exercises  a  more  direct  and  powerful  influence  on  the 
opinions  and  feelings  of  the  people  than  perhaps  any  other  of  the 
Puninas.  For  an  analysis  of  its  contents,  see  Professor  Wilson's 
Preface  to  the  V.  P. 

Bhagavat  Gita— The  Bhagavat  Gita  is  an  episode  of  the 
Mahabharata,  the  great  epic  poem  of  India,  which,  from  its  popu- 
larity and  extent,  corresponds  with  the  Iliad  among  the  Greeks. 
The  leading  story  occupies  only  about  a  fourth  part  of  the  entire 
work  ;  numerous  episodes  and  legends,  chiefly  didactic,  and  believed 
lo  be  interpolations  of  a  later  date,  make  up  the  other  three-fourths 
of  the  poem.  The  whole  forms  a  collection  of  the  traditions  of 
the  early  history  of  the  Aryan  people  during  their  first  settlement 
in  India. 

According  to  the  Icgendaiy  history  of  India  two  dynasties  were 
originally  dominant  in  the  north,  called  Solar  and  Lunar,  under 

^  Muir,  0,  S.  T,,  YqI,  iv.  \\  168. 


BHAG  83 


■whom  uumerous  petty  princes  held  authority,  and  to  whom  they 
acknowledged  fealty.  The  most  famous  Raja  of  the  Lunar  race, 
who  reigned  in  Hastinupura  or  ancient  Delhi,  was  Bharata,  who  is 
d<3signated  a  Maha  Raj  a,  and  whose  Raj  is  said  to  have  included  all 
the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.  To  this  day  the  whole  continent  of 
India  is  known  to  the  Hindus  by  the  name  of  Bharata-varsha,  or 
the  country  of  Bharata. 

The  Kauravas  and  Paudavas  were  descendants  of  Bharata. 
Duryodhana  and  his  brothers  were  the  leaders  of  the  Kauravas  or 
elder  branch  of  the  tribe  ;  and  the  five  Pandava  princes,  Yudhish- 
thira,  Bhima,  Arjuna,  Nakula  and  Sahadeva,  those  of  the  Pandava 
or  younger  branch.  The  latter  had  been  banished  from  their 
country,  and  after  long  wanderings  and  many  hardships,  they 
collected  their  friends  around  them,  and  with  the  help  of  the 
neighbouring  Rajas  mustered  a  great  army,  and  prepared  to 
attack  their  oppressors,  who  had  also  assembled  their  forces. 

The  hostile  armies  met  on  the  plain  of  Kurukshetra.  Bhishma 
had  the  command  of  the  Kaurava  faction  ;  Bhima  was  the  General 
of  the  other  party.  The  scene  of  the  Bhagavat  Gita  now  opens, 
and  remains  throughout  the  same — the  field  of  battle.  The  poem 
is  in  the  form  of  a  discourse  between  the  Avatar  Krishna,  and  his 
friend  and  pupil  Arjuna.  The  fight  began  with  a  volley  of  arrows 
from  both  sides  ;  when  Arjuna  desired  Krishna  to  draw  up  the 
chariot  in  the  space  between  the  two  armies,  while  he  examined  the 
liues  of  the  enemy.  Krishna,  who  acted  as  charioteer,  did  so,  and 
pointed  out  in  those  lines  the  numerous  relatives  of  his  friend. 
Arjuna,  seeing  his  relatives  drawn  up  in  battle  array,  was  suddenly 
struck  with  compunction  at  the  idea  of  fighting  his  way  to  a 
kingdom  through  the  blood  of  his  kindred,  and  declared  that  he 
would  rather  be  killed  himself  than  continue  to  fight  them. 
Krishna  replied  in  a  long  metaphysical  dialogue,  full  of  fine 
passages,  the  moral  of  which  is  that  as  Arjuna  belongs  to  the 
military  caste,  his  duty  is  to  fight.  He  said  that  the  renunciation 
of  the  world  ought  not  to  involve  the  avoidance  of  action,  or  the 
neglect  of  professional  duties.  He  then  gave  a  full  and  most 
curious    exposition   of    the   half-mythological,    half-philosophical 


84  BHAG 


pantheism  of  the  Brahmaus,  and  a  general  view  of  the  mystic 
theology  of  the  Hindus  ;  following  with  some  modification  the 
theories  of  what  is  termed  the  Sankhya  School  of  Philosophy. 

A.  W.  Schlegel  calls  this  episode  "  the  most  beautiful,  and 
perhaps  the  only  truly  philosophical  poem  that  the  whole  range  of 
literature  known  to  us  has  produced."  Dean  Milman  says,  "It 
reads  like  a  noble  fragment  of  Empedocles  or  Lucretius,  introduced 
^nto  the  midst  of  an  Homeric  epic."  "  In  point  of  poetical  con- 
ception," he  adds,  "  there  is  something  singularly  striking  and 
magnificent  in  the  introduction  of  this  solemn  discussion  on  the 
nature  of  the  godhead  and  the  destiny  of  man  in  the  midst  of  the 
fury  and  tumult  in  which  it  occurs." 

Arjuna  is  overruled,  if  not  convinced,  by  the  arguments  of  the 
god  ;  the  fight  goes  on,  and  the  Pandavas  gain  a  complete  victory 
over  their  opponents. 

The  Bhagavat  Gita  was  first  translated  into  English  by  Sir 
Charles  Wilkins,  and  published  by  the  East  India  Company,  with 
an  Introduction  by  the  then  Governor-General  of  India,  Warren 
Hastings.  It  was  eagerly  received  in  Europe,  and  translated  into 
the  French,  German  and  Russian  languages.  Schlegel  published 
an  excellent  Latin  version.*  More  recently  a  new  English  transla- 
tion has  been  published  by  Mr.  J.  Cockburn  Thompson,  with 
valuable  notes. 

Bhagiratha — The  son  of  Raja  Dilipa,  who  spent  a  thousand 
years  in  severe  austerities  upon  a  mountain,  by  which  he  propitiated 
Brahma  and  Siva,  and  brought  the  Ganges  to  the  earth  ;  and  with 
it  watered  the  ashes  of  the  sixty  thousand  sons  of  Sagara,  who 
were  at  once  restored  to  life,  purified  by  the  sacred  water  from  all 
their  sins,  and  ascended  to  heaven. 

"  Soon  as  the  flood  their  dust  bedewed, 

Their  spirits  gained  beatitude. 

And  all  in  heavenly  bodies  dressed, 

Rose  to  the  skies'  eternal  rest. 

*The  Bhagavat  Gitain  Sanscrit,  Canarese  and  English,  with  Schlegel's  Latin 
version,  and  Humboldt's  Essay  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Gita,  was  published  in 
1847  by  the  Editor  of  this  Volume, 


BHAG— BHAL  85 


"  Then  thus  to  king  Bhagirath  said, 
Brahma,  when,  coming  at  the  head 
Of  all  his  bright  celestial  train, 
He  saw  those  spirits  freed  from  stain  : 
*  Well  done!  great  Prince  of  men,  well  done  ! 
Thy  kinsmen  bliss  and  heaven  have  won.' 
The  sons  of  Sagar  mighty-souled. 
Are  with  the  Blest,  as  Gods,  enrolled." 

—  Griffiths'  Rdmdyan» 
Bhagirathi — A  name  of  the  Ganges  in  consequence  of  haviug 
been  brought  to  the  earth  by  Bhagiratha. 

Bhaimyekadasi— The  eleventh  lunar  day  of  the  light  half  of 
Magha  ( 1 0th  February.)  This  is  also  a  festival  of  traditional  origin, 
said  to  have  been  first  observed  by  Bhima,  one  of  the  Pandu  princes, 
in  honor  of  Vishnu,  according  to  the  instructions  of  Vasudeva. 
Every  eleventh  lunar  day,  it  may  be  observed,  is  held  in  extra- 
vagant veneration  by  the  Hindus,  but  more  particularly  by  the 
Vaishnavas.  Fasting  on  the  eleventh  is  declared  to  be  equally 
efficacious  with  a  thousand  aswamedhas,  and  eating  during  its 
continuance  as  heinous  a  sin  as  parricide,  or  the  murder  of  a 
spiritual  teacher.  This  extravagance  demonstrates  its  sectarian 
character,  and  consequently  its  more  modern  origin.  The  notion 
may  have  grown,  however,  out  of  particular  appropriations  of  the 
lunar  day,  when  the  eleventh  was  set  apart,  as  in  the  present  case, 
to  the  adoration  of  Vishnu. —  Wilso?i. 

Bhairava — An  inferior  manifestation  of  some  portion  of  Siva, 
with  the  idea  of  severity  or  cruelty.  A  Bhairava  has  the  head  of 
a  dog.  There  are  eight  Bhairavas  named  respectively,  Asitanga, 
Ruru,  Chanda,  Krodha,  Unmatta,  Kupati,  Bhishana,  Sanhara,  all 
indicative  of  something  fearful. 

Bhajamana— A  son  of  Andhaka,  according  to  all  the  best 
authorities  ;  the  Agni  makes  him  the  son  of  Babhru. 

Bhajina — A  son  of  Satwata. 

Bhalandana — A  son  of  N^bhaga,  who  had  carried  off  and 
married  the  daughter  of  a  Vaisya,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 


86  BHAL— BHAR 


degraded  to  the  same  caste,  and  deprived  of  bis  share  of  the  patri- 
monial sovereignty,  which  his  son  and  successor,  Bhalandaua,  after- 
■vvards  recovered. 
Bhallada,   Bhallaka,   Bhallatta— A  king  of  Hastinapura, 

the  last  of  the  race  of  Hastin,  who  had  founded  the  city  ;  which 
was  destroyed  by  the  encroachments  of  the  Ganges. 

Bhanu — A  son  of  Krishna  and  Satyabhama. 

Bhanu — The  daughter  of  Daksha,  wife  of  Kasyapa,  who 
became  one  of  the  ten  wives  of  Dharma. 

BhanUS — The  sons  of  Bhanu,  who  became  suns,  and  deities 
presiding  over  moments  of  Muhurtta. 

Bhanumat— A  prince,  the  son  of  Kusadhwaja,  king  of  Kasi  or 
Benares  ;  or  according  to  the  Ramayana  of  Sankasya. 

Bharadwaja— A  sage,  the  son  of  Vrihaspati,  who  being  aban- 
doned by  his  natural  parent  was  brought  by  the  Maruts  or  winds 
to  Bharata,  who  called  the  child  Vitatha  (unprofitable)  in  allusion 
to  the  birth  and  loss  of  his  previous  nine  sons.  Bharata  had  by 
different  wives  nine  sons  who  were  put  to  death  by  their  own 
mothers,  because  Bharata  remarked  that  they  bore  no  resemblance 
to  him,  and  the  women  were  afraid  that  he  would  therefore  desert 
them.  From  Bharadwaja,  a  Brahman  by  birth  and  king  by  adop- 
tion, descended  Brahmans  and  Kshatriyas,  the  children  of  two 
fathers. 

Bharadwaja — One  of  the  eight  celebrated  Rishis,  the  reputed 
father  of  Droua.  His  hermitage  was  at  Prayaga,  the  modern 
Allahabad ;  he  is  said  to  have  dwelt  there  surrounded  by  a  band  of 
Brahman  disciples,  '  who  lead  the  ideal  life  of  austerity,  sacrifice, 
and  devotion,  which  is  so  frequently  described  and  lauded  by 
Brahmanical  bards,'  He  received  Rama  and  Sita  when  they  set 
forth  on  their  exile,  and  recommended  the  hill  Chitra-ktita  as  a 
residence.  The  Ramayana  says,  *the  great  Bharadwaja  com- 
manded Bharata  to  bring  his  whole  army  to  the  hermitage  that  he 
might  feast  them.' 

'  Bring  all  thy  host,'  the  hermit  cried. 
And  Bharat,  to  his  joy,  complied. 


BHAR  87 


Then  to  the  chapel  went  the  sire, 

Where  ever  burnt  the  sacred  fire, 

And  first,  in  order  due,  with  sips 

Of  water  purified  his  lips  : 

To  Visvakarma  then  he  prayed, 

His  hospitable  feast  to  aid : 

Let  Visvakarma  hear  my  call. 

The  God  who  forms  and  fashions  all : 

A  mighty  banquet  I  provide, 

Be  all  my  wants  this  day  supplied. 

Lord  Indra  at  their  head,  the  three 

Who  guard  the  worlds  I  call  to  me  : 

A  mighty  host  this  day  I  feed. 

Be  now  supplied  me  every  need. 

Let  all  the  streams  that  eastward  go. 

And  those  whose  waters  westering  flow. 

Both  on  the  earth  and  in  the  sky, 

Flow  hither  and  my  wants  supply. 

Be  some  with  ardent  liquor  filled, 

And  some  with  wine  from  flowers  distilled, 

While  some  their  fresh  cool  streams  retain 

Sweet  as  the  juice  of  sugar-cane. 

I  call  the  Gods,  I  call  the  band 

Of  minstrels  that  around  them  stand  : 

I  call  the  Haha  and  Huhu, 

I  call  the  sweet  Visvdvasu. 

I  call  the  heavenly  wives  of  these 

With  all  the  bright  Apsarases, 

Alambushii  of  beauty  rare, 

The  charmer  of  the  tangled  hair, 

Ghritachi  and  Visvachi  fair, 

Hema  and  Bhim^  sweet  to  view, 

And  lovely  Nagadanta  too, 

And  all  the  sweetest  nymphs  who  stand 

By  Indra  or  by  Brahma's  hand — 

I  summon  these  with  all  their  train 

And  Tumburu  to  lead  the  straiu. 


88  BHAR 


The  troops  of  Bharat  saw  amazed 
What  Visvakarma's  art  had  raised, 
Ou  every  side,  five  leagues  around, 
All  smooth  and  level  lay  the  ground, 
With  fresh  green  grass  that  charmed  the  sight 
Like  sapphires  blent  with  lazulite. 
I  There  the  Wood-apple  hung  its  load, 

The  Mango  and  the  Citron  glowed, 
The  Bel  and  scented  Jak  were  there. 
And  Aonla  with  fruitage  fair. 
There,  brought  from  Northern  Kuru,  stood, 
Rich  in  delights,  the  glorious  wood, 
And  many  a  stj'eam  was  seen  to  glide 
With  flowering  trees  along  its  side. 
There  mansions  rose  with  four  wide  halls, 
And  elephants  and  chargers'  stalls, 
And  many  a  house  of  royal  state. 
Triumphal  arc  and  bannered  gate. 
With  noble  doorways,  sought  the  sky. 
Like  a  pale  cloud,  a  palace  high, 
AVhich  far  and  wide  rare  fragrance  shed. 
With  wreaths  of  white  en-garlanded. 
Square  was  its  shape,  its  halls  were  wide. 
With  many  a  seat  and  couch  supplied, 
Drink  of  all  kinds,  and  every  meat 
Such  as  celestial  Gods  might  eat. —  Griffiths*  Rdmdyan. 

In  some  of  the  vernacular  versions  of  the  Ramayana  the  sage  is 
represented  as  having  provided  a  similar  entertainment  for  the 
great  army  of  monkeys  and  bears. 

Bharadwajas — Inhabitants  of  the  northern  regions  according 
to  the  Vayu,  but  Professor  Wilson  says  they  might  be  thought 
to  be  religious  fraternities  from  the  sages  Atri  and  Bharadwdja. 

Bharadwaji— A  deep  river  in  Malwa,  included  in  the  V.  P.  list. 
Bharani— A  lunar  asterism  in  Nagavithi,  the  first  Vithi   in 
Airdvathu,  or  the  northern  Avasthana. 


BHAR  89 


Bharata— -See  Mahabharata. 

Bharata — The  eldest  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Rishabha,  prince 
of  Hmiahwa.  Rishabha  having  ruled  with  equity  and  wisdom,  and 
celebrated  many  sacrificial  rites,  resigned  the  sovereignty  of  tho 
earth  to  the  heroic  Bharata.  Bharata  having  religiously  discharged 
the  duties  of  his  station,  resigned  the  kingdom  to  his  son  vSamati,  a 
most  virtuous  prince  ;  and  abandoned  his  life  at  the  holy  place 
Salagrama  to  become  an  ascetic.  His  thoughts  were  noAV  wholly 
on  God  ;  his  conduct  was  distinguished  by  kindness,  and  he 
effected  in  the  highest  degree  the  entire  control  over  his  mind. 

On  one  occasion  while  bathing,  a  doe,  being  frightened  by  a 
lion,  suddenly  brought  forth  a  fawn,  and  fell  into  the  river. 
Bharata  took  the  fawn  to  his  hermitage  and  tended  it  with  great 
care.  His  affection  for  it  became  so  strong  that  it  distracted 
his  mind  and  interrupted  his  devotions.  He  at  last  died  watched 
by  the  deer,  with  tears  in  its  eyes.  He  was  afterwards  born  again 
as  a  deer  with  the  faculty  of  recollecting  his  former  life  ;  this  gave 
him  a  distaste  for  the  world  and  he  again  repassed  to  the  holy 
place  Salagrama.  Upon  his  death  he  was  next  born  as  a  brahman, 
still  retaining  the  memory  of  his  prior  existence.  Possessed  of  all 
true  wisdom  he  beheld  soul  as  contra-distinguished  from  matter, 
(Prakriti)  he  beheld  the  gods  and  all  other  beings  as  the  same  in 
reality.  This  led  him  to  disregard  all  castes  and  distinctions,  and 
his  conduct  was  so  extraordinary  that  he  was  thought  to  be  idiotic, 
and  was  treated  with  neglect  or  contempt  :  he  worked  in  the  fields, 
and  on  one  occasion  was  pressed  as  a  palankeen  bearer  for  the  Raja 
of  Sauvira  :  being  rebuked  for  his  awkwardness,  he  replied  and 
entered  into  a  dialogue  with  the  king,  who  soon  discovered  his 
merits.  Bharata  then  expounded  the  nature  of  existence,  the  aim 
and  object  of  life,  and  the  identification  of  individual  with  univer- 
sal spirit.  The  king  then  opened  his  eyes  to  truth  and  abandoned 
the  notion  of  distinct  existence.  Bharata  also  obtained  exemption 
from  future  birth.     V.  P. 

Bharata — One  of  the  four  sons  of  Dasaratha  and  Kaikeyi.  In 
youth  he  was  sent  to  Girivraja,  with  his  uncle  Yudhajit.  He  was 
there  educated  in  the  house  of  his  grandfather  Raja  Aswapati. 

12 


90  BHAR 


During  his  absence  from  Ayodhya,  his  brother  Rama  was  installed 
as  Yuvaraja  (heir  apparent).  On  the  death  of  the  Maha  Raja  he 
returned  to  Ayodhya  and  was  deeply  grieved  when  he  ascertained 
that  his  mother,  in  order  to  secure  the  kingdom  to  him,  had 
effected  the  exile  of  Rama  whose  right  to  the  Raj  he  loudly  pro- 
claimed. He  then  went  to  Chitrakuta,  where  Rama  resided,  and 
offered  to  go  into  exile  himself  if  Rama  would  take  the  kingdom. 
•It  was  at  length  decided  that  Rama  should  ascend  the  throne  after 
the  fourteen  years  of  exile  had  expired,  and  Bharata  determined  to 
govern  Kosala  in  the  name  of  Rama.  This  he  did  by  carrying 
away  a  pair  of  shoes  which  had  been  worn  by  Rama,  and  which  he 
treated  as  symbolical  of  Rama's  presence. 

Bharata — In  the  Bhagavat  Gita  a  patronymic  from  Bharata, 
applied  to  Arjuna  as  his  descendant.  Arjuna  is  also  called  Prince 
of  the  Bharatas,  and  best  of  the  Bharatas. 

Bharata — "The  son  of  RajaDushyanta  and  Sakuntala.  The 
legend  of  his  birth  forms  the  ground-work  of  Kalidasa's  drama  of 
Sakuntala,  or  the  Lost  Ring.  The  Raja  was  hunting  in  the  forest 
when  he  saw  Sakuntala,  a  brahman's  daughter,  and  fell  in  love  with 
her.  He  induced  her  to  accept  him  as  her  husband  by  a  Gandharva 
marriage,  and  giving  her  his  ring  as  a  pledge  of  his  troth.  She 
afterwards  gave  birth  to  a  son  Avho  was  named  Bharata,  but  having 
lost  the  ring,  the  Raja  in  the  absence  of  such  evidence,  conve- 
niently forgot  his  engagement  to  marry  the  daughter  of  a  priest. 
Ultimately  when  the  ring  was  found,  and  he  either  saw  or  heard  of 
the  exploits  of  Bharata  in  taming  lions,  he  acknowledged  the  young 
hero  to  be  his  son  and  made  the  mother  his  chief  Rani ." 

"  There  is  no  reliable  information  as  to  the  extent  of  the  king- 
dom of  Bharata,  but  his  wonderful  doings  and  the  greatness  of  his 
empire,  have  been  set  forth  in  the  most  extravagant  terms.  To 
this  day  India  is  known  to  the  Hindus  by  the  name  of  Bharata- 
varsha,  or  the  country  of  Bharata.  The  Kshatriya  bards  declared 
that  the  Rijas  of  Bharata  were  descended  from  the  moon,  and  that 
one  of  their  number  conquered  Indra,  the  ruler  of  the  gods."  All 
that  is  really  known  is  that  an  Aryan  empire  was  established  by 
Bharata  amidst  an  aboriginal  population.     The  original  seat  of  the 


BHAR— BHAT  91 


empire  was  at  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  Takh-i-Bahi, 
in  the  country  of  the  Yusufzais  to  the  northward  of  Peshawar. 

Bharata-varsha — An  ancient  name  for  northern  India,  which 
was  divided  into  nine  portions. 

Bharga — A  prince,  the  son  of  Vaiuahotra,  descended  from 
Alarka- 

Bhargas,  Bharga vas— A  people  of  the  east  subdued  by  Bhima. 

Bhargabhumi— The  son  of  Bharga,  the  prince  who  is  said  to 
have  promulgated  the  four  rules  of  caste. 

•    Bharika — A  son  of  Krishna  and  Satyabhama. 

Bhartri-hari — A  Sanskrit  grammarian  who  lived  in  the  century 
preceding  the  Christian  era.  He  was  the  brother  of  Vice  am  a- 
DiTYA.  He  wrote  a  grammatical  treatise,  but  his  Vakya  Pradipa 
or  Metrical  Maxims  on  the  philosophy  of  Syntax,  are  the  best 
known.  They  are  often  cited  under  the  name  of  Harikarica,  and 
have  almost  equal  authority  wilh  the  precepts  of  Paiiitii.  His 
Satakas  or  centuries  of  verses,  are  also  much  admired. 

Bhasi — One  of  the  six  illustrious  daughters  of  Tamra,  the  wife 
of  Kasyapa.     Bhasi  gave  birth  to  kites. 

Bhatta — Bhatta.  An  honorary  title  given  to  learned  brah- 
maus  who  commit  one  of  the  Vedas  to  memory  so  as  to  be  able  to 
recite  the  whole  without  book. 

Bhatta  Murti — A  distinguished  Telugu  poet,  one  of  "  the 
eight  elephants,"  so  styled  of  Krishna-raya' s  Court.  He  wrote 
the  Narasa  Bhupaliyam  during  his  patron's  life  ;  but  his  chief 
poem,  the  Vasu  Charitramu,  after  that  patron's  death.  It  contains 
florid  descriptions  of  scenery  and  love  affairs,  in  recondite  versifica- 
tion, much  esteemed.  Bhatta  Murti  ranks  high  as  a  poet. —  Taylor. 

BhattacharyaS — The  name  of  those  Hindu  scholars  who 
not  only  learn,  as  the  Bhattas  do,  one  of  the  vedas  completely  by 
heart,  but  who  study  the  meaning  of  each  verse  and  word,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  give  orally  the  explanation  of  any  passage  required. 
The  number  of  this  class  of  scholars,  who  represent  the  doctors  of 


92  BHAT-BHAS 


Hindu  theology,  is  now  very  small.  There  are  three  or  four,  it 
is  said  at  Benares.  They  are  highly  respected,  and  as  incarna- 
tions of  Vrihaspati  (the  Pandit  of  the  gods,)  at  certain  occasions 
regularly  worshipped.— jff«M^. 

Bhattoji  Dikshita — A  grammarian,  the  son  of  a  Brahman,  and 
born  in  the  Mahratta  country.  He  applied  to  study  ;  but,  his  own 
country  ranking  low  in  literature,  he  went  to  Benares  studying 
•Sanscrit  and  philosophy.  He  is  now  chiefly  known  by  his  cele- 
brated work  on  grammar,  entitled  Siddhdnta  Kaumudi  (moon- 
light of  accuracy).  PdninVs  old  sutras  obtained  three  commenta- 
tors, Vara  ruchi,  Bhattoji,  and  Patajijali ;  the  latter  is  the  most 
diffuse  and  perfect ;  but  the  Siddhd?ita  Kaumudi,  holding  a 
medium  j^lace,  has  always  been  in  wide  and  apj^roved  use.  The 
author  lived  a  studious  and  contemplative  life  ;  and  died  at 
Benares,  aged  fifty-six —  Taylor. 

Bhaskaracharya — "  A  celebrated  Brahman  astronomer  who 
resided  at  Beder,  one  of  the  four  ancient  Mahomedan  principa- 
lities. He  applied  his  mind  chiefly  to  numerical  science.  His  Bija 
ganita  was  a  work  on  arithmetic.  He  dedicated  it  to  his  only 
child,  a  daughter  named  LUdvati,  under  date  S.  S.  1036  (a.  d. 
1114).  Singularly  enough  for  such  a  work,  it  came  to  be  called 
by  her  name  ;  Bhaskara  was  also  an  astrouomer,  in  which  science 
his  calculations  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  Pauranical  fables. 
His  Siddhdnta  Sirbmani,  (head  jewel  of  accuracy)  is  an  astro- 
logical work.  It  was  published  S.  S.  1050  (a.  d.  1128).  He 
soon  after  died,  aged  sixty-flve,  at  Beder.  The  authors  of  the 
Siddhdnta  and  Vdhja  systems  are  no  longer  known  ;  but  Bhaskara 
has  no  Indian  rival  of  mediseval,  or  modern  times."  It  has  been 
said  by  some  that  Bhaskara  was  fully  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  diff'erential  calculus,  which  was  only  discovered  in 
Europe  during  the  last  century.  In  1 859  Professor  Wilson  wrote 
to  Mr,  Spottiswoode  on  this  subject,  and  that  gentleman  replied  to 
the  inquiry  in  the  following  terms  : — 

"  I  have  read  Bapu  Deva  Sastrin's  letter  on  Bhaskaracharya's 
mode  of  determining  the  instantaneous  motion  of  a  planet,  with 
great  interest,  and  think  that  we  arc  much  indebted  to  him  for 


BHAU— BHAV  93 


calling  our  attention  to  so  important  an  element  in  the  old  Indian 
methods  of  calculation.  It  still,  however,  seems  to  me,  that  he 
has  over-stated  the  case,  in  saying  that  "  Bhaskaracharya  was  fully 
acquainted  with  the  principle  of  the  differential  calculus."  He  has 
undoubtedly  conceived  the  idea  of  comparing  the  successive  posi- 
tions of  a  planet  in  its  path,  and  of  regarding  its  motion  as  constant 
during  the  interval  ;  and  he  may  be  said  to  have  had  some  rudi- 
mentary notion  of  representing  the  arc  of  a  curve  by  means  of 
auxiliary  straight  lines.  But  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  method 
here  given,  he  makes  no  allusion  to  one  of  the  most  essential 
features  of  the  differential  calculus,  viz.,  the  infinitesimal  magnitude 
of  the  intervals  of  time  and  space  therein  employed.  Nor,  indeed, 
in  anything  specifically  said  about  the  fact,  that  the  method  is 
an  approximate  one. 

Nevertheless,  with  these  reservations  it  must  be  admitted,  that 
the  penetration  shown  by  Bhaskara  in  his  analysis,  is  in  the  highest 

degree  remarkable  ;  that  the  formula  which  he  establishes, and 

his  methods  of  establishing  it,  bear  more  than  a  mere  resemblance, 
— they  bear  a  strong  analogy, — to  the  corresponding  process  in 
modern  mathematical  astronomy  ;  and  that  the  majority  of  scien- 
tific persons  will  learn  with  surprise,  the  existence  of  such  a 
method  in  the  writings  of  so  distant  a  period  and  so  remote  a 
region." —  Wilson. 

Bhautya — The  son  of  Bhuti,  the  Mauu  of  the  fourteenth 
Manwantara. 

Bhauma — *  Mars,'  whose  splendid  car  is  of  gold,  drawn  by  eight 
horses  of  a  ruby-red,  sprung  from  fire. 

Bhava— 1,  Siva,  a  Muni  or  Rudra,  the  husband  of  Sati,  (Truth) 
who  abandoned  her  corporeal  existence  in  consequence  of  the  dis- 
pleasure of  Daksha.  She  was  afterwards  the  daughter  of  Himavat, 
(the  snowy  mountains)  by  Mena  ;  and  in  that  character,  as  the 
only  Uma,  the  mighty  Bhava  again  married  her.  V.  P.,  p.  59  ;  2, 
The  name  of  a  son  of  Pratiharttd,  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Bharata  ;  also  3,  of  a  son  of  Viloman. 

Bhavabhuti — A  celebrated  Sanscrit  author,  some  of  whose 
dramas  have  been  so  well  translated  into  English  by  Professor 


94  BHAV 


Wilson.  He  was  also  named  Srikanta,  or  he  in  whose  throat 
eloquence  resides,  was  the  son  of  a  native  of  the  South  of  India,  a 
brahman  of  Berar  or  Beder,  and  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  brahmans 
who  pretend  to  trace  their  descent  from  the  sage  Kasyapa.  The 
site  of  Bhavabhuti's  birthplace  is  fully  corroborated  by  the  pecu- 
liar talent  he  displays  in  describing  nature  in  her  magnificence,  a 
talent  very  unusual  in  Hindu  bards,  and  one  which  he  no  doubt 
•derived  from  his  early  familiarity  with  the  grand  mountains  and 
forests  of  Telingana.— 3fr5.  Ma?i7ii?ig,  A.S^-  M.  /.,  Vol  II,  p.  208. 

Bhavana— The  mental  impression  or  apprehension  following 
upon  knowledge.  The  formation  of  a  fixed  idea  of  the  object  of 
contemplation.  It  is  also  termed  Bhava-bhavana,  apprehension  of 
the  being,  the  existence  or  substantiality  of  the  object  ;  the  thing 
contemplated. 

Bhavaumanya— The  son  of  Vithatha,  and  grandson  of  Bharata. 

Bhavishya  —One  of  the  eighteen  Puranas.  "  The  Purana 
in  which  Brahma,  having  described  the  greatness  of  the  sun, 
explained  to  Manu  the  existence  of  the  world  and  the  characters 
of  all  created  beings  in  the  course  of  the  Aghora  Kalpa."  This 
Pui-ana  as  its  name  implies  should  be  a  book  of  prophecies.  Dr. 
Wilson  says  :  "  It  should  be  rather  regarded  as  a  manual  of  religious 
rites  and  ceremonies,  in  which  a  few  legends  enliven  the  series  of 
precepts. " 

Bhavishyottara  Purana — This  is  also  a  sort  of  manual  of 
religious  offices,  the  greater  portion  being  appropriated  to  vratas, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  forms  with  which  gifts  are  to  be 
presented. 

Bhavya— One  of  the  ten  sous  of  Priyavrata,  who  became  king 
of  Sakadwipa.  Also  the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Dhruva,  by 
his  wife  Sambha. 

Bhavya —A  king  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda,  who  dwelt  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sindhu  or  Indus. 

Bhavyas— One  of  the  five  classes  of  demi-gods  of  the  sixth 
Mauwantara,  when  Chakshusha  was  the  Manu  of  the  period,  and 
Mauojava  was  the  Indra. 


BHA— BHI  95 


Bhaya — (Fear).  Sou  of  Anriti  (falsehood),  and  Nikriti  (im- 
morality)- 

Bhayada — A  priuce,  the  son  of  Mauasya,  one  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Piiru. 

Bhikshuka — A  mendicant,  the  fourth  order  of  men  described 
in  the  V.  P.  He  is  to  forego  the  three  objects  of  human  existence 
(pleasure,  wealth  and  virtue) — to  be  constantly  occupied  with 
devotion,  and  abstain  from  all  wrong-doing.  He  is  to  reside  but 
for  one  night  in  a  village,  and  not  more  than  five  nights  at  a  time 
in  a  city  :  for  the  support  of  existence  he  is  to  apply  for  alms  at 
the  houses  of  the  three  first  castes,  when  the  fires  have  been 
extinguished  and  people  have  eaten.  The  mendicant  is  to  call 
nothing  his  own,  and  to  suppress  desire,  auger,  pride  and  covet- 
ousness. 

Bhils— A  tribe  of  Aborigines  who  still  occupy  the  hill  tracts  of 
Rajputaua  and  Central  India,  and  in  ancient  times  seem  to  have 
dwelt  in  nearly  the  same  localities  ;  having  Rajas  or  Chieftains  of 
their  own,  but  acknowledging  or  dreading  the  supremacy  of  the 
Kshatriyas.  In  the  Mahabharata  they  appear  to  the  south  of 
the  Jumna,  and  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Raj  of 
Bharata ;  whilst  in  the  Ramayana  they  make  their  appearance 
further  to  the  east,  near  the  junction  of  the  Jumna  and  Gauges. 
They  have  preserved  their  rude  habits  to  the  present  day,  and 
are  known  as  cattle-lifters,  robbers,  hunters  like  Nimrod  and  Esau, 
capable  of  almost  any  outrage,  yet  imbued  with  a  sense  of  truth 
and  honour  strangely  contrasting  with  their  external  character.  At 
the  same  time  they  are  perceptibly  yielding  to  the  personal 
influence  of  British  administrators  and  the  advancing  tide  of 
British  civilization. —  fV/ieele?',  Vol.  /,  p,  83. 

Bhima— "  Terrible."  The  second  of  the  five  sons  of  Pandu, 
but  mystically  begotten  by  Vayu,  the  god  of  the  wind  or  air, 
through  his  mother  Kunti,  or  Pritha.  He  is  the  principal  General 
of  the  Pandava  army,  and  is  renowned  for  his  strength  and  swift- 
ness. Duryodhana  attempted  to  take  his  life  by  poison  when  a 
youth,  but  he  escaped  through  the  agency  of  the  Nagas  ;  he  was 
instructed  in  the  use  of  the  club  by  Droua,  and  at  the  exhibition 


96  BHIM— BHIS 


of  arms  at  Hastiuapur  fought  Duiyodhana  with  the  club.  His 
wars  with  the  Asuras  are  referred  to  the  okl  wars  between  the 
Aryaus  and  Aborigines.  The  myth  of  his  marry iug  Hidimbi, 
the  sister  of  the  Asura  Hidimba,  whom  he  slew  iu  the  forest,  is 
reo-arded  as  a  later  addition  to  the  original  tradition.  The  Maha- 
bharata  also  relates  his  slaughter  of  Vaka  the  Asura,  his  conquest 
of  Jarasandha,  the  Raja  of  Magadha,  his  attempt  at  interference  in 
behalf  of  Draupadi  in  the  gambling  pavilion  ;  the  fearful  vow  he 
uttered  ao-ainst  Duryodhana  and  Dushasanas  ;  his  interview  with 
his  mythical  brother  Hanuman,  the  son  of  Vayu  ;  his  pursuit  and 
treatment  of  Jayadratha  after  the  abduction  of  Draupadi ;  his 
appearance  in  the  council  hall  of  Raja  Virata  with  a  ladle  in  one 
hand  and  a  scimitar  in  the  other  ;  his  engagement  as  head  cook  ; 
the  enormous  quantity  of  provisions  he  daily  eat  himself ;  his  battle 
with  Jimuta  whom  he  killed,  and  the  fiivour  he  consequently 
obtained  from  the  Raja  ;  his  contest  with  the  prime  minister 
Kichaka,  whom  he  killed  and  rolled  into  a  ball,  because  of  his 
ill-treatment  of  Draupadi  ;  how  he  rescued  Raja  Virata  from 
Susarman  who  was  carrying  him  into  captivity  ;  his  battle  with 
Bhishma  in  the  first  day  of  the  great  war  ;  his  slaughter  of  the 
Raja  of  Magadha  and  his  sons  ;  his  conflicts  with  Drona,  with 
Dushasana,  with  Duryodhana  ;  his  return  to  the  Maharaja  Dhrita- 
rashtra  at  Hastinapur  ;  his  slaughter  of  the  horse  at  the  Aswame- 
dha  of  Yudhishthira  ;  his  disputes  with  the  Mahdraja,  and  his 
death,  along  with  his  four  brothers,  in  the  Himalayas.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  Bhima  belongs  to. the  epic  ^peviod.— Wheeler,  Vol.  I. 

Bhima— The  Raja  of  Vidarbha  (Berar),  and  father  of  Damayanti. 
Bhima— The  fifth  of  the  eight  Rudras,  to  whom  was  assigned 
the  charge  of  fire  :  also  the  name  of  a  son  of  Amavasa. 

Bhimaratha— Son  of  Ketumat  and  grandson  of  Dhanwantari, 
the  author  of  Medical  Science.  He  was  the  father  of  Divodasa,  of 
whom  many  curious  legends  are  narrated. 

Bhimarathi— The  ancient  name  of  the  river  Bhima. 

Bhimasena— One  of  the  four  sons  of  Parikshit,  son  of  Kuru. 

Bhishma— Originally  named  Santanavu,  the  son  of  Sdntanu,  the 


BHI  97 

Raja  of  Hastiiiapur  ;  the  legeud  in  the  Mahabharata  is  that  wheu 
Raja  Sautanu  was  very  old  he  desired  to  marry  a  young  and  beau- 
tiful damsel,  but  the  parents  of  the  girl  were  unwilling  to  give  her 
to  the  Raja,  saying,  "  If  our  daughter  have  sons  they  will  not 
succeed  to  the  Raj  ;  for  when  Santanu  dies,  his  sou  Santanavu  will 
become  Raja."  Then  Santanavu  determined  to  sacrifice  himself  in 
order  to  gratify  his  father  ;  and  he  made  a  vow  to  the  parents  of 
the  damsel,  saying,  "  If  you  will  give  your  daughter  in  marriage 
to  my  father,  I  will  never  accept  the  kingdom  or  marry  a  wife,  or 
become  the  father  of  children  by  any  woman  ;  so  that  if  your 
daughter  bear  a  son  to  the  Raja,  that  son  shall  succeed  him  in  the 
kingdom."  And  the  vow  of  Santanavu  was  noised  abroad,  and 
from  that  day  he  was  called  Bhishma,  or  "the  dreadful,"  because 
of  his  dreadful  vow.  Henceforth  Bhishma  became  the  patriarch 
of  the  family,  "  and  is  represented  as  a  model  of  faithfulness  and 
loyalty,  and  indeed  stands  forth  as  one  of  the  leading  characters  in 
the  Mahabharata." 

He  educated  Dhritarashtra,  Pandu  and  Vidura  ;  and  afterwards 
made  Drona  the  preceptor  of  the  Pandavas  and  Kauravas  ;  and  at 
a  meeting  of  council  proposed  that  the  kingdom  should  be  divided 
between  the  two  parties.  In  the  great  war  he  became  the  gene- 
i-alissimo  of  the  Kauravas  and  their  allies.  On  the  tenth  day  he 
was  mortally  wounded  in  a  terrible  conflict  with  Arjuua. 

Bhishmaka— The  king  of  Vidarbha  (now  Berar)  who  resided 
at  Kuudina.  He  had  a  son  named  Rukmiu,  and  a  beautiful  daugh- 
ter named  Rukmini.  Krishna  fell  in  love  with  the  latter  and  soli- 
cited her  in  marriage  ;  but  her  brother  would  not  assent  to  the 
espousals.  At  the  suggestion  of  Jarasandha,  the  powerful  sove- 
reign, Bhishmaka  affianced  Rukmini  to  Sisupala.  Krishna  went  to 
witness  the  wedding  and  contrived  to  carry  off  the  princess. 
Rukmin,  with  a  large  force,  pursued  and  overtook  Krishna,  who 
with  his  discus  destroyed  the  host  of  Rukmin,  and  would  have 
slain  him,  but  was  withheld  by  the  entreaties  of  Rukmini. 

Bhishmashtami— The  twenty-third  of  Magha,  and  eighth  lunar 
day  of  the  light  half  (7th  February).  This  is  a  festival  which,  at 
first  sight,  appears  to  be  of  special  aud  traditional  origin,  but  which 

13 


98  BHI— BHO 


has,  probably,  its  source  in  the  primitive  institutes  of  the  Hindus, 
of  which  the  worship  of  the  Pitris,  the  patriarchs  or  progenitors, 
the  Dii  Manes,  constituted  an  important  element.  According  to 
the  Tithi  Tattwa,  this  day  is  dedicated  to  Bhishma,  the  son  of 
Ganga,  and  great  uncle  of  the  Pandava  and  Kaurava  princes  ;  who 
was  killed  in  the  course  of  the  great  war,  and  dying  childless  left 
no  descendant  in  the  direct  line,  on  whom  it  was  incumbent  to 
offer  him  obsequial  honors.  In  order  to  supply  this  defect,  persons 
in  general  are  enjoined  to  make  libations  of  water  on  this  day 
to  his  spirit,  and  to  offer  him  sesamum  seeds  and  boiled  rice.  The 
act  expiates  the  sins  of  a  whole  year  ;  one  of  its  peculiarities 
is,  that  it  is  to  be  observed  by  persons  of  all  the  four  original  castes, 
according  to  a  text  of  Dhavala,  an  ancient  lawgiver,  quoted  by 
Raghunandana,  "  Oh  twice-born  !  persons  of  all  the  Varnas  should 
on  the  eighth  lunar  day  offer  water,  sesamum  seeds  and  rice,  to 
Bhishma.  If  a  Brahman,  or  man  of  any  other  caste,  omit  to  make 
such  offerings,  the  merit  of  his  good  deeds  during  the  preceding 
year  is  annulled."  According  to  a  different  reading  of  the  text,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  rendered  :  "  Let  all  the  twice-born  castes  make 
the  oblations,"  This  excludes  Sudras,  but  extends  the  duty  to  the 
Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas  as  well  as  Brahmans.  The  intention  of  the 
rite,  as  now  understood,  is  expressed  in  the  formulae  uttered  at  the 
time  of  presenting  the  offerings  :  "  I  present  this  water  to  the 
childless  hero  Bhishma,  of  the  race  of  Vyaghrapada,  the  chief  of 
the  house  of  Sankriti.  May  Bhishma,  the  son  of  Santanu,  the 
speaker  of  truth  and  subjugator  of  his  passions,  obtain  by  this 
water  the  oblations  due  by  sons  and  grandsons,"  The  simple 
nature  of  the  offerings  which  are  sufficient  on  such  occasions,  water 
and  sesamum  seeds,  justifies  the  remark  made  by  Ovid  on  the 
Feralia,  that  the  manes  are  easily  satisfied, — Parva  petunt  manes. 

Bhiras — The  people  about  Surat ;  called  Phauni  or  Phryni, 
by  Strabo. 

Bhogavati— The  capital  of  Vasuki  in  Rasatala,  one  of  the 
seven  regions  of  PAtala. 

Bhojakata— Ihe  city  near  the  Narmada,  founded  by  Ruk- 
min,  after  his  defeat  by  Krishna,  as  he  had  vowed  never  to 
return  to  Kundani  but  as  victor. 


BHO— BHR  99 


Bhojas — luhabitunts  of  the  country  near  the  Vindhya  range  of 
mountains  ;  a  branch  of  the  Yadavas.  A  Bhoja  Raja  is  amongst 
tlie  warriors  of  the  Mahabhirata. 

Bhoja  Raja — A  prince  of  Dhdra  ;  or  Dhar,  in  Malwa  ;  supposed 
to  be  the  same  as  Vikrama.  There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to 
the  exact  time  of  Bhoja's  reign;  the  "nine  gems"  are  said  to 
have  flourished  during  his  reign  and  that  of  Vikrama.  The  period 
is  designated  the  golden  age  of  Hindu  literature.  Dr.  E.  F.  Hall 
says  it  is  high  time  to  give  up  speaking  of  this  prince  as  a  great 
patron  of  literature.  His  pretensions  to  be  so  considered  rest  on 
the  frailest  foundation  possible. — //.  H.  Wilson's  Works,  Vol,  V* 
p.  171. 

Bhraja — The  name  of  one  of  the  seven  suns  into  which  the 
seven  solar  rays  dilate  at  the  consummation  of  all  things  when  their 
radiance  is  to  set  the  three  worlds  and  Fata  la  on  fire. 

BhrajiraS — One  of  the  five  classes  of  demi-gods  on  the  four- 
teenth Manwantara. 

Bhrami — (Revolving.)  The  daughter  of  Sisumara  (the  sphere) 
wife  of  Dhruva,  according  to  the  Bhagavata,  which  converts  the 
family  of  Dhruva  into  personifications  of  divisions  of  time  and  of 
day  and  night. 

BhrigU— A  Prajapati,  or  Rishi,  chief  of  the  Maharshis  (see 
Rishi.)  Also  one  of  the  ten  Frajapatis,  sons  of  Brahma  and 
progenitors  of  mankind,  and  teacher  of  the  Dhanurveda,  or  science 
of  war,  one  of  the  Upavedas.  As  such  he  belongs  to  the  Vedic 
period.  In  the  Furanic  period  he  is  called  the  husband  of  Khyati, 
or  fome,  the  daughter  of  Daksha,  by  Prasuti. —  Vishnu  Purdna^ 
pp.  49,  284.  In  Muir's  Original  Sanscrit  Texts  there  are  many 
incidents  related  of  Bhrigu  which  illustrate  the  celebrity  he  had 
attained  and  the  great  influence  he  had  acquired.  When  king 
Nahusha  tyrannised  over  the  brahmans  and  compelled  even  the 
Rishis  to  carry  him  from  place  to  place,  it  once  came  Agastya's 
turn  to  perform  the  servile  ofiice.  Bhrigu  then  said  to  Agastya 
"Why  do  we  submit  to  the  insults  of  this  king  of  the  gods  ?" 
Agastya  answered  that  none  of  the  Rishis  had  ventured  to  curse 


100  BHK— BHU 


Nahusha  because  he  had  obtained  the  power  of  subduing  to  his 
service  every  one  upon  whom  he  fixed  his  eyes  ;  and  that  he  had 
nectar  for  his  beverage.  However  Agastya  said  he  was  prepared 
to  do  anything  that  Bhrigu  might  suggest.  Bhrigu  said  he  had 
been  sent  by  Brahma  to  take  vengeance  on  [N'ahusha,  who  was  that 
day  about  to  attach  Agastya  to  his  car,  and  would  spurn  him  with 
his  foot  ;  and  that  he  (Bhrigu)  incensed  at  this  insult,  would  by  a 
curse  condemn  Nahusha  to  become  a  serpent.  All  this  accordingly 
happened.  Bhrigu  however  on  Nahusha's  solicitation,  and  the 
intercession  of  Agastya,  placed  a  period  to  the  effects  of  the  curse, 
which  Yudhishthira  was  to  be  the  instrument  of  terminating.  Vol. 
1,  p,  315. 

Bhrihaspati — See  Vrihaspati.  This  is  not  only  the  name 
of  the  purohita  of  the  gods,  but  is  also  used  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit 
hymns  as  the  name  of  the  One  Eternal. 

Bhurishena — The  third  son  of  the  holy  sage  Chyavana,  accord- 
ing to  the  Bhagavata  ;  the  V.  P.  only  mentions  one  son  Anartta. 

Bhudevi — A  name  of  the  earth,  and  fabled  to  be  married  to 
Prithu;  the  first  king  who  taught  the  mode  of  cultivating  the 
ground.  Hence  the  earth  is  named  Pritliivi.  One  of  the  Pur  anas 
was  delivered  to  Bhu-devi^  by  Vishnu,  as  Vardha  Sivdmi.  Bhu- 
devi, or  Bhumi'devi,  is  the  secondary  wife  of  Vishnu. 

Bhumimitra— A  Kauwa  prince,  whose  father  Devabhuti,  the 
last  Sunga  king,  was  murdered  by  his  minister. 

Bhuri— A  son  of  Somadatta,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Kuru. 

Bhurloka — The  sphere  of  the  earth  comprehending  its  oceans, 
mountains  and  rivers,  and  extending  as  far  as  it  is  illuminated  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

Bhuta— A  son  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Eohini. 
Bhutadi — The  third  variety  of  Ahankara,  q.  v. 

Bhutas— Evil  spirits,  said  to  proceed  from  Brahma.  Children 
of  Krodha.  Malignant  spirits,  goblins  or  ghosts,  haunting  ceme- 
teries, lurking  iu  trees,  animating  dead  bodies,  and  deluding  and 
devouring  human  beings.     They  are  generally  coupled  with  the 


BHU-BIJ  101 


Pretas,  and  in  this  character  belong  to  the  Epic  period.  In  the 
Purdnic  period  they  are  personified  as  demi-gods  of  a  particular 
class,  produced  by  Brahma  when  incensed  ;  and  their  mother  is 
therefore  considered  in  the  Padma-purana  as  Krodha,  or  *  Anger,' 
and  their  father,  Kasyapa. —  Thompson. 

Bhutasantapana — A  powerful  Daitya,  the  son  of  Hiran- 
yaksha.  The  descendants  of  Hiranyaksha  are  said  in  the  Padma- 
purana  to  have  extended  to  seventy-seven  crores,  or  seven  hundred 
and  seventy  millions. 

Bhutatma — An  appellation  of  Vishnu,  meaning  one  with 
created  things. 

Bhutavidya — The  fourth  branch  of  Medical  Science,  treating 
of  maladies  referred  to  demoniac  possession. 

Bhutesa — A  name  of  Vishnu,  meaning  lord  of  the  elements, 
or  of  created  things. 

Bhuti — A  sage,  the  son  of  Angiras,  whose  pupil  Santi,  having 
suffered  the  holy  fire  to  go  out  in  his  master's  absence,  prayed  to 
Agni,  and  so  propitiated  him,  that  he  not  only  re-lighted  the  flame, 
but  desired  Santi  to  demand  a  further  boon.  Santi  accordingly 
solicited  a  son  for  his  Guru,  which  son  was  Bhuti,  the  father  of 
the  Manu  Bhautya.     Also  the  name  of  a  goddess,  wife  of  Kavi. 

Bhuvana — The  name  of  one  of  the  eleven  Kudras,  according 
to  the  Vayu  Purana  list. 

Bhuvar-loka — The  sphere  of  the  sky,  both  in  diameter  and 
circumference,  as  far  upwards  as  to  the  planetary  sphere,  or  Swar- 
loka. 

Bijala  Raja — A  Jaina  king  of  Kalydnapura,  otherwise  Silpa- 
giri,  who  had  the  celebrated  Basava,  for  his  minister  of  state.  He 
was  charged  with  wasting  the  state  funds,  in  gathering  around  him- 
self adherents  to  a  new  form  of  the  Saiva  religion.  When  called 
to  account,  he  made  up  the  deficiency  in  appearance  ;  but  soon  after 
caused  the  king  to  be  assassinated  by  three  men,  in  his  own  palace. 
Thereupon,  the  Jainas  were  massacred.  The  exact  date  is  not 
known ;  but  Professor  Wilson  places  it  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eleventh  century.     See  Basava. 


102  BIK— BRA 


Bikya— The  daughter  of  the  minister  of  the  Raja  of  Kutuwal 
in  the  Dekhan,  who  was  married  to  Chandrahasa,  the  fortunate 
boy.  q.  V. 

Bodha— (Uuderstaudiag).  A  son  of  Dharma,  by  one  of 
Daksha's  daughters,  Buddhi. 

Bodhana— A  mountain  to  the  east  of  Ramghur. 

Bodhas— One  of  the  tribes  of  Central  India,  according  to  the 
Vayu  Purana  ;  it  is  also  read  Bahyas. 

Brahma— The  first  deity  of  the  Hindu  triad  ;  the  creator  of 
the  world  ;  the  great  father  and  lord  of  all  ;  the  supporter  of  all  : 
yet  described  as  born  in  the  lotus  which  sprung  from  the  navel  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  as  born  from  the  golden  egg.  The  Vishnu  Purana 
says,  the  one  only  god  Janardana,  takes  the  designation  of  Brahma, 
Vishnu  and  Siva,  accordingly  as  he  creates,  preserves  or  destroys. 
Mr.  Cockburn  Thompson  says  :  "  In  the  ante-mythological  age  this 
was  probably  nothing  but  a  name  for  the  sun,  considered  as  pro- 
ducer, vivifier  and  pervader.  He  afterwards  replaced  Surya  in 
the  triad  of  elementary  gods,  and  was  coupled  with  Vishnu  and 
Siva,  who  were  substituted  for  Varuna  and  Vayu,  the  other  com- 
ponents of  that  triad.  In  the  earliest  mythological  period,  Brahma 
(always  masculine)  is  then  first  person  of  the  triad,  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva;  and^when  later  the  unity  of  these  personages  was 
established  by  referring  them  to  one  Supreme  Being,  Brahma  was 
that  being  in  his  character  of  creator  and  enlivener,  Vishnu  in  that 
of  preserver,  and  Siva  in  that  of  destroyer.  Thus  in  the  Puranas 
(Vishnu  P.,  p.  22,)  Brahma  is  said  to  live  100  of  his  own  years, 
each  of  which  consists  of  360  days  and  nights.  The  days  are 
called  Kalpas,  and  consist  of  4,320,000,000  years  of  mortals,  during 
which  the  universe  exists.  During  his  nights  the  universe  ceases 
to  exist,  and  is  reproduced  at  the  commencement  of  the  next  day  or 
Kalpa.  He  is  described  in  the  Puranas  as  having  four  faces,  and 
as  being  produced  from  the  cup  of  a  lotus,  which  sprang  from  the 
navel  of  Vishnu.  In  this  mythological  character  of  creator  of  the 
universe,  he  is  mentioned  in  the  Bhagavat  Gita  and  Vishnu  Purana. 
When,  after  the  period  of  superstitious  mythology,  the  idea  of  one 
Supreme  Being  was  again  brought  forward.  Brahma  was  considered 


BRA  103 

the  chief  of  the  existing  trinity,  and  was  at  first  identified  with 
that  idea  of  an  unl^nown  god  ;  and  though  afterwards  Siva  and 
Vishnu  were  each  in  turn  identified  with  the  Supreme  Being  by 
their  respective  followers,  the  Saivas  and  Vaishnavas,  the  name 
Brahma,  in  the  neuter,  was  still  retained  in  the  language  of  philo- 
sophy to  designate  the  universal  Supreme  One.  In  this  sense  the 
word  occurs  throughout  the  Bhagavat  Gita  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  places  where  it  is  masculine  ;  and  once  where  it  occurs  in  the 
neuter,  but  no  longer  signifies  the  Supreme  Being  in  his  complete 
character  of  the  essence  of  both  spirit  and  matter  ;  but  merely  that 
portion  of  him  which  is  the  essence  of  all  matter,  the  universal  vital 
energy.  We  have  thus  : — '  1st,  Brahma,  masculme,  the  mythological 
personage,  first  person  of  the  mythological  triad,  and  personification 
of  the  creative  power,  considered  as  a  mortal  and  material  deity  ; 
2nd,  'Qv'dh.m'd,7ieuter,  a  name  used  to  designate  the  Supreme  Being 
in  philosophic  language  ;  and  3rd,  Brahma,  neuter,  the  personifi- 
cation, in  later  philosophical  language,  of  the  material  portion  of  the 
Supreme  Being.  (The  word  has  never  been  satisfactorily  derived, 
though  commonly  supposed  to  come  from  the  root  vrih,  to  grow  or 
increase."  '• —  Thompson.  Dr,  Muir  in  the  5th  Vol.  of  his  Original 
Scmscrit  Texts,  translates  a  text  which  he  says  '  is  interesting  not 
merely  as  introducing  Brahma  but  as  containing  what  is  probably 
one  of  the  oldest  extant  expositions  of  the  conceptions  of  nama  and 
rupa  (name  and  form)  as  comprehending  the  whole  of  the  pheuo- 
minal  universe.' 

"1.  In  the  beginning  Brahma  was  this  [universe.]  He  created 
gods.  Having  created  gods,  he  placed  them  in  these  worlds,  viz., 
in  this  world  Agni,  in  the  atmosphere  Vayu,  and  in  the  sky  Surya  ; 

(2)  And  in  the  worlds  which  were  yet  higher  he  placed  the  gods 
who  are  still  higher.  Such  as  are  these  visible  worlds  and  these 
gods, — even  such  were  those  (higher)  visible  worlds  in  which  he 
placed  those  (higher)  gods,  and  such  were  those  gods  themselves  ; 

(3)  Then  Brahma  proceeded  to  the  higher  sphere  (pararddha — 
explained  by  the  commentator  to  mean  the  Satyaloka,  the  most 
excellent,  and  the  limit  of  all  the  worlds.)  Having  gone  to  that 
higher  sphere,  he  considered  '  how  now  can  I  pervade  all  these 
worlds  ?'     He  then  pervaded  them  with  two  things — with  form 


104  BRA 

aud  with  name.  Whatever  has  a  name,  that  is  name.  And  then 
that  which  has  no  name— that  which  he  knows  by  its  form,  that 
'  such  is  its  form'— that  is  form.  This  [universe]  is  so  much  as  is 
(i.  e.,  is  co-extensive  with)  form  and  name  ;  (4)  These  are  the  two 
great  magnitudes  (ahhve)  of  Brahma.  He  who  knows  these  two 
great  magnitudes  of  Brahma  becomes  himself  a  great  magnitude  ; 
(5)  These  are  the  two  great  manifestations  of  Brahma.  He  who 
,  knows  these  two  great  manifestations  of  Brahma  becomes  himself 
a  great  manifestation.  Of  these  two,  one  is  the  greater,  viz.,  form  ; 
for  whatever  is  name  is  also  form.  He  who  knows  the  greater  of 
these  two,  becomes  greater  than  him  than  whom  he  wishes  to 
become  greater  ;  (6)  The  gods  were  originally  mortal,  but  when 
they  were  pervaded  by  Brahma  they  became  immortal.  By  that 
which  he  sends  forth  from  his  mind  (mind  is  form  ;  for  by  mind  he 
knows,  '  This  is  form')— by  that,  I  say,  he  obtains  form.  And  by 
that  which  he  sends  out  from  his  voice  (voice  is  name  ;  for  by  voice 
he  seizes  name)— by  that,  I  say,  he  obtains  name.  This  universe 
is  so  much  as  is  {i.  e.,  is  co-extensive  with)  form  and  name.  A.11 
that  he  obtains.  Now  that  all  is  undecayiug.  Hence  he  obtains 
undecayiug  merit,  and  an  undecaying  world." 

"  The  deity  who  is  described  in  the  later  hymns  of  the  Big 
Veda,  aud  in  the  Atharva  Veda,  under  the  different  titles  of  Vis va- 
karman,  Hirauyagarbha  and  Prajapati,  appears  to  correspond  with 
the  Brahma  of  the  more  modern  legendary  books.  Though  this 
god  was  originally  unconnected  with  Vishnu  aud  Rudra,  while  at 
a  subsequent  period  he  came  to  be  regarded  in  systematic  mytho-. 
logy  as  the  first  person  in  the  triad  of  which  they  formed  the 
second  and  third  members,  yet  the  general  idea  entertained  of  his 
character  has  been  less  modified  in  the  course  of  his  history  than 
is  the  case  in  regard  to  the  other  two  deities." 

"  Brahma  was  from  the  beginning  considered  as  the  Creator, 
and  he  continued  to  be  regarded  as  fulfilling  the  same  function 
even  after  he  had  sunk  into  a  subordinate  position,  and  had  come 
to  be  represented  by  the  votaries  of  Vishnu  and  Mahadeva 
respectively,  as  the  mere  creature  and  agent  of  one  or  other  of  these 
two  gods.  Tn  later  times  Brahma  has  had  few  special  worship- 
pers ;  the  only  spot   where  he  is   periodically   adored   being   at 


BRA  105 

Pushkara  in  Rajputniia.  Two  of  the  acts  which  the  earlier 
legends  ascribe  to  him,  the  assumption  of  the  forms  of  a  tortoise 
and  of  a  boar  are  in  later  works  transferred  to  Vishnu." 

In  the  fourth  Volume  of  Muir's  Original  Sanscrit  Texts,  from 
which  the  above  extract  has  been  taken,  the  reader  will  find  the 
life,  character  and  attributes  of  Brahma  fully  illustrated.  In 
some  of  the  Texts  translated  it  is  maintained  that  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva,  are  three  manifestations  of  the  same  divinity.  *'  I  shall 
declare  to  thee  that  form  composed  of  Ilari  and  Hara  (Vishnu  and 
Mahadeva)  combined,  which  is  without  beginning,  middle,  or  end, 
imperishable,  undecayiug.  He  who  is  Vishnu  is  Rudra  ;  he  who 
is  Rudra  is  Pitamaha  (Brahma)  ;  the  substance  is  one,  the  gods 
are  three,  Rudra,  Vishnu  and  Pitamaha."  (O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  iv, 
p.  237.) 

Brahma-Purana — The,  gives  a  description  of  the  creation,  an 
account  of  the  Manwantaras,  and  the  history  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
dynasties  to  the  time  of  Krishna.  It  also  sets  forth  the  sanctity  of 
Orissa,  with  its  temples  and  sacred  groves,  dedicated  to  the  sun,  to 
Siva  and  Jagganath.  Its  object  seems  to  be  the  promotion  of  the 
worship  of  Krishna  as  Jagganath. 

Brahmabali — A  disciple  of  Devadersa  and  teacher  of  the 
Samaveda. 

Brahmabhuta— To  become  identified  with  the  Supreme  Spirit  : 
to  have  the  conviction  that  spirit  is  one,  universal,  and  the  same. 

Brahma  bodhya— A  river  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua, 
but  not  identified. 

Brahmachari— A  religious  student  who  has  been  invested 
with  the  sacred  thread  ;  he  is  to  prosecute  the  study  of  the  Vedas 
in  the  house  of  his  preceptor  :  and  to  wait  on  him  constantly  ;  in 
the  morning  he  is  to  salute  the  sun,  in  the  evening  fire  ;  and  then 
to  address  his  preceptor  with  respect.  He  must  stand  when  his 
preceptor  is  standing  ;  move  when  he  is  walking,  and  sit  beneath 
him  when  he  is  seated  :  he  must  never  sit,  nor  walk,  nor  stand, 
when  his  teacher  does  the  reverse.  He  is  to  read  the  Veda  atten- 
tively, placed  before  his  preceptor  ;  and  to  eat  the  food  he  has 

14 


106  BRA  

collected  as  alms,  when  permitted  by  his  teacher.  He  is  to  bathe 
in  water  which  has  first  been  used  for  his  preceptor's  ablutions  ; 
and  every  morning  bring  fuel  and  water,  and  whatever  else  may 
be  required.     V.  P. 

One  of  the  hymns  translated  by  Dr.  Muir  in  his  Original 
Sanscrit  Texts  ascribes  "  very  astonishing  powers  to  tlie  Brahma- 
charin  or  religious  student."  Dr.  Muir  says  :  "  Some  parts  of  it  are 
obecure,  but  the  translation  I  give,  though  imperfect,  will  convey 
some  idea  of  the  contents." 

"  The  Brahmacharin  works,  quickening  both  worlds.  The  gods 
are  joyful  in  him.  He  has  established  the  earth  and  the  sky.  He 
satisfies  his  acharya  (religious  teacher)  by  tapas  ;  2,  The  Fathers, 
the  heavenly  hosts,  all  the  gods  separately,  follow  after  him,  with 
the  6,333  Gandharvas.  He  satisfies  all  the  gods  by  tapas  ;  3,  The 
acharya,  adopting  him  as  a  disciple,  makes  him  a  Brahmacharin 
even  in  the  womb,  and  supports  him  in  the  belly  for  three  nights. 
When  he  is  born  the  gods  assemble  to  see  him  ;  4,  This  piece  of  fuel 
is  the  earth  (compare  verse  9),  the  second  is  the  sky,  and  he  satis- 
fies the  air  with  fuel.  The  Brahmacharin  satisfies  the  worlds  with 
fuel,  with  a  girdle,  with  exertion,  with  tapas  ;  o,  Born  before 
Brahma,  the  Brahmacharin  arose  through  tapas,  clothed  with  heat. 
From  him  was  produced  divine  knowledge  (bramana),  the  highest 
Brahma,  and  all  the  gods,  together  with  immortality  ;  6,  The 
Brahmacharin  advances,  lighted  up  by  fuel,  clothed  in  a  black 
antelope's  skin,  consecrated,  long-bearded.  He  moves  straightway 
from  the  eastern  to  the  northern  ocean,  compressing  the  worlds, 
and  again  expanding  them  ;  7,  The  Brahmacharin,  generating 
divine  science,  the  waters,  the  world,  Prajapati,  Parameshthin, 
Viraj,  having  become  an  embryo  in  the  womb  of  immortality, 
having  become  Indra,  crushed  the  Asuras  ;  8,  The  Acharya  has 
constructed  both  these  spheres,  broad  and  deep,  the  earth  and  the 
sky.  The  Brahmacharin  preserves  them  by  tapas.  In  him  the 
gods  are  joyful  ;  9,  It  was  the  Brahmacharin  Avho  first  produced 
this  broad  earth  and  the  sky  as  an  alms.  Making  them  two  pieces 
of  fuel  (compare  verse  4)  he  worships.  In  them  all  creatures  are 
contained  ;  10,  The  two  receptacles  of  divine  knowledge  are 
secretly  deposited,  the  one    on  this   side,  the  other  beyond  the 


BRA  107 

surface  of  the  sky.  The  Brahmacharin  guards  them  by  tapas.  Wise, 
he  appropriates  that  divine  knowledge  as  his  exclusive  portion...  j 
16,  The  Brahmacharin  is  the  Acharya,  the  Brahmacharin  is  Pra- 
japati;  Prajapati  shines  (virajati)  ;  the  diimng  {Virdj)  became 
Indra,  the  powerful  ;  17,  Through  self-restraint  and  tapas  a  kiog 
protects  his  dominions.  Through  self-restraint  an  Acharya  seeks 
after  a  Brahmacharin  ;  18,  By  self-restraint  a  damsel  obtains  a 
young  man  as  her  husband.  By  self-restraint  an  ox  and  a  horse 
seek  to  gain  fodder;  19,  By  self-restraint  and  tapas  the  gods 
destroyed  death.  By  self-restraint  Indra  acquired  heaven  from 
[or  for]  the  gods  ;  20,  Plants,  whatever  has  been,  whatever 
shall  be,  day  and  night,  trees,  the  year,  with  the  seasons,  have 
been  produced  from  the  Brahmacharin  ;  21,  Terrestrial  and  celes- 
tial beings,  beasts,  both  wild  and  tame,  creatures  -without  wings 
and  winged,  have  been  produced  from  the  Brahmacharin  ;  22,  All 
creatures  which  have  sprung  from  Prajapati  have  breath  separately 
in  themselves  ;  all  of  these  are  preserved  by  divine  knowledge 
(Brahma),  which  is  produced  in  the  Brahmacharin  ...;  26,  These 
things  the  Brahmacharin  formed  ;  on  the  surface  of  the  water  he 
stood  performing  tapas  in  the  sea." 

Brahmadatta — A  sage,  the  son  of  Anuha.  In  the  Hari 
Vamsam  is  a  curious  legend  of  the  different  transmigrations  of  Brah- 
madatta and  his  six  companions,  who  were  successively  as  many 
brahmans,  then  forests,  then  deer,  then  water  fowl,  then  swans,  and 
finally,  brahmans  again,  when  with  the  king  they  obtained  libera- 
tion. According  to  the  Bhdgavat,  Brahmadatta  composed  a  treatise 
on  the  Yoga,  a  yoga  tantra. 

Brahmaloka — The  highest  heaven,  the  world  of  infinite 
wisdom  and  truth,  the  inhabitants  of  which  never  again  know 
death. 

Brahman — The  name  of  the  sacerdotal  class  ;  though  a 
priestly  tribe,  all  brahmins  are  not  priests.  The  true  origin  of  the 
brahmans  is  not  distinctly  known.  The  ftibulous  tradition  current 
amongst  them  derives  them  from  the  head  of  Brahma.  A  brah- 
man is  in  a  very  different  situation  from  a  Kshatriya,  a  Vaisya  or  a 
Sudra.     These  arc  born  in  the  condition  in  which  they  continue  to 


108  BRA 

live.  But  a  Brahman  becomes  such  only  by  the  ceremony  of  the 
cord  with  which  he  is  invested  at  an  early  age.  (See  Upanayaua). 
They  are  after  this  rite  designated  Dwija,  twice-born. 

The  seven  castes  of  the  brahmans  have  for  their  special  origin 
the  seven  famous  Rishis  or  penitents.  These  seven  Eishis  are 
highly  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  the  count^3^  They  are  the 
holiest  and  most  venerated  personages  the  Hindus  acknowledge. 
Their  names  are  held  sacred  and  invoked  by  all  the  people.  (See 
Rishis). 

"  If  the  fabulous  stories  which  are  told  of  the  origin  of  certain 
great  families  in  Europe,  shed  a  lustre  upon  them  by  proving  their 
antiquity,  how  much  more  reason  has  the  brahman  to  vaunt  his 
noble  pedigree  ?  and  if  the  honor  of  being  sprung  from  an  illus- 
trious family  sometimes  leads  its  descendants  to  look  down  with 
contempt  upon  the  lower  ranks,  we  cannot  wonder  at  the  haughti- 
ness of  the  brahman,  and  the  high  disdain  which  he  shows  to  every 
caste  but  his  own."* 

Every  bi-ahman  professes  to  know  from  which  of  the  seven 
Rishis  he  has  descended.  There  is  another  and  more  general  divi- 
sion which  separates  them  into  four  distinct  classes,  each  of  which 
appertains  to  one  of  the  four  Vedas.  But  in  the  ordinary  inter- 
course of  life  little  attention  is  paid  to  this  distinction.  There  are 
several  sectarian  divisions  which  are  practically  more  operative. 
These  are  Vishnuvite,  Smarta  or  Saiva  brahmans  ;  and  in  different 
parts  of  India  other  sub-divisions  are  found. 

Brahmanas— The  portions  of  the  Vedas  which  comprise  pre- 
cepts inculcating  religious  duties,  maxims  which  explain  these 
precepts,  and  arguments  which  relate  to  theology.  "  The  Brah- 
manas represent  no  doubt  a  most  interesting  phrase  in  the  history 
of  the  Indian  mind,  but  judged  by  themselves,  as  literary  produc- 
tions, they  are  most  disappointing.  No  one  would  have  supposed 
that  at  so  early  a  period,  and  in  so  primitive  a  state  of  society, 
there  could  have  risen  up  a  literature  which  for  pedantry  and 
downright  absurdity  can  hardly  be  matched  anywhere.  There  is 
no  lack  of  striking  thoughts,  of  bold  expressions,  of  sound  reason- 


Abbe  Dubois, 


BRA  109 

iccr  and  curious  traditions  in  these  collections.  But  these  are 
only  like  the  fragments  of  a  torso,  like  precious  gems  set  in  brass 
and  lead.  The  general  character  of  these  works  is  marked  by- 
shallow  and  insipid  grandiloquence,  by  priestly  conceit  and  anti- 
quarian pedantry.  It  is  most  important  to  the  historian  that  he 
should  know  how  soon  the  fresh  and  healthy  growth  of  a  nation 
can  be  blighted  by  priestcraft  and  superstition.  It  is  most 
important  that  we  should  know  that  nations  are  liable  to  those 
epidemics  in  their  youth  as  well  as  in  their  dotage.  These  works 
deserve  to  be  studied  as  the  physician  studies  the  twaddle  of 
idiots,  and  the  raving  of  madmen.  They  will  disclose  to  a 
thoughtful  eye  the  ruins  of  faded  grandeur,  the  memories  of  noble 
aspirations.  But  let  us  only  try  to  translate  these  works  into  our 
own  language,  and  we  shall  feel  astonished  that  human  language 
and  human  thought  should  ever  have  been  used  for  such  purposes."* 
Brahmanda  Purana — That  which  has  declared  in  twelve 
thousand  two  hundred  verses,  the  magnificence  of  the  egg  of 
Brahma,  and  in  which  an  account  of  the  future  Kalpas  is  con- 
tained, is  called  the  Brahmanda  Purana,  and  was  revealed  by 
Brahma.  V.  P. 

Brahmas  or  Brahmarishis— According  to  the  V.  P.  the 

names  of  the  nine  Brahmans,  or  Brahmarishis,  are  Brighu, 
Pulastya,  Pulaha,  Kratu,  Angiras,  Marichi,  Daksha,  Atri  and 
Vasishta.  They  are  also  called  Prajapatis  and  Brahmaputras. 
Considerable  variety  prevails  in  the  lists  of  them  in  the  different 
books  :  but  the  variations  are  of  the  nature  of  additions  made 
to  an  apparently  original  enumeration  of  but  seven,  whose 
names  generally  recur.  In  the  V.  P.  they  are  termed  the 
mind-engendered  progeny  of  Brahma  :  born  from  his  con- 
tinued meditations.  In  the  South  of  India  they  are  usually 
termed  the  Seven  Penitents.  Two  it  is  said  were  not  originally 
brahmans,  but  they  practised  so  long  and  severe  a  penance  that 
they  obtained  the  remarkable  favor  of  being  raised  to  that  rank 
by  the  ceremony  of  the  cord.  From  penitent  Rajas  they  became 
penitent  brahmans  :   their  rise  was  from  a  still  lower  rank  accord- 

*  Max  Muller. 


110  BRA— BUD 


ing  to  the  philosophical  poet  Vernana.  These  Rishis  existed 
prior  to  the  Vedas,  in  which  they  are  often  mentioned.  The 
Abbe  Dubois  thinks  they  were  the  seven  sons  of  Japhet. 

Brahma-savarni — The  Mauu  of  the  tenth  Mauwantara. 

Brahmavaivartta-Purana— "  That  Purana  which  is  related 

by  Savarne  to  JS^arada,  and  contains  the  account  of  the  greatness 

of  Krishna,    with  the  occurrences    of  the  Rathantantara  Kalpa, 

*where  also  the  story  of  Brahma  Varahais  repeatedly  told,  is  called 

the  Brahma  vaivartta  and  contains  eighteen  thousand  stanzas."  V.  P. 

Brahmajna — Sacred  Study,  that  which  communicates  to 
soul  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  :  one  of  the  five  great 
sacrifices  or  obligations  of  the  Brahmachari. 

Bramharshis — Descendants  of  the  five  patriarchs  who  were 
the  founders  of  races  or  Gotras  of  brahmans,  or  Kasyapa, 
Vasishtha,  Angiras,  Atri  and  Brighu.  The  Brahmarshis  dwell  in 
the  sphere  of  Brahma. 

Brammedhya— The  name  of  a  river  in  the  Vishnu  Purana 
not  yet  identified. 

Buddha — "  Buddha,  or  more  correctly,  the  Buddha, — for 
Buddha  is  an  appellative  meaning  Enlightened, — Avas  born  at 
Kapilavastu,  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  of  the  same  name,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Nepal,  north  of  the  present  Oude. 
His  father,  the  king  of  Kapilavastu,  was  of  the  family  of  the 
Sakyas,  and  belonged  to  the  clan  of  the  Gautamas.  His  mother 
was  Mayadevi,  daughter  of  king  Suprabuddha,  and  need  we  say 
that  she  was  as  beautiful  as  he  was  powerful  and  just  ?  Buddha 
was  therefore  by  birth  of  the  Kshatrya,  or  warrior  caste,  and  he 
took  the  name  of  Sakya  from  his  family,  and  that  of  Gautama 
from  his  clan,  claiming  a  kind  of  spiritual  relationship  with  the 
honoured  race  of  Gautama.  The  name  of  Buddha,  or  the  Bud- 
dha, dates  from  a  later  period  of  his  life,  and  so  probably  does  the 
name  Siddhartha  (he  whose  objects  have  been  accomplished), 
though  we  are  told  that  it  was  given  hhn  in  his  childhood.  Hia 
mother  died  seven  days  after  his  birth,  and  the  father  confided  the 
child  to  the  care  of  his  deceased  Avife's  sister,  who,  however,  had 


BUD  111 

been  his  wife  even  before  the  mother's  death.  The  child  grew  up 
a  most  beautiful  and  most  accomplished  boy,  who  soon  knew  more 
than  his  masters  could  teach  him.  He  refused  to  take  part  in  the 
games  of  his  playmates,  and  never  felt  so  happy  as  when  he  could 
sit  alone,  lost  in  meditation  in  the  deep  shadows  of  the  forest.  It 
was  there  that  his  father  found  him  when  he  had  thought  him  lost, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  the  young  prince  from  becoming  a  dreamer, 
the  king  determined  to  marry  him  at  once.  When  the  subject 
was  mentioned  by  the  aged  ministers  to  the  future  heir  to  the 
throne,  he  demanded  seven  days  for  reflection,  and  convinced  at 
last  that  not  even  marriage  could  disturb  the  calm  of  his  mind,  he 
allowed  the  ministers  to  look  out  for  a  princess.  The  princess 
selected  was  the  beautiful  Gopa,  the  daughter  of  Dandapani. 
Though  her  father  objected  at  first  to  her  marrying  a  young  prince 
who  was  represented  to  him  as  deficient  in  manliness  and  intellect, 
he  gladly  gave  his  consent  when  he  saw  the  royal  suitor  dis-' 
tancing  all  his  rivals  both  in  feats  of  arms  and  power  of  mind.  Their 
marriage  proved  one  of  the  happiest,  but  the  prince  remained  as 
he  had  been  before,  absorbed  in  meditation  on  the  problems  of  life 
and  death.  '  JN'othing  is  stable  on  earth,'  he  used  to  say,  '  nothing 
is  real.  Life  is  like  the  spark  produced  by  the  friction  of  wood. 
It  is  lighted  and  is  extinguished — we  know  not  whence  it  came  or 
whither  it  goes.  It  is  like  the  sound  of  a  lyre,  and  the  wise  man 
asks  in  vain  from  whence  it  came  and  whither  it  goes.  There 
must  be  some  supreme  intelligence  where  we  could  find  rest.  If 
I  attained  it,  I  could  bring  light  to  man  ;  if  I  were  free  myself, 
I  could  deliver  the  world.'  The  king,  who  perceived  the  melan- 
choly mood  of  the  young  prince,  tried  everything  to  divert  him 
from  his  speculations  :  but  all  was  in  vain.  Three  of  the  most 
ordinary  events  that  could  happen  to  any  man,  proved  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  the  career  of  Buddha.  We  quote  the 
description  of  these  occurrences  from  M.  Barthelemy  Saint  Hilaire  : 
*  One  day  Avhen  the  prince  with  a  large  retinue  was  driving 
through  the  eastern  gate  of  the  city  on  the  way  to  one  of  his 
parks,  he  met  on  the  road  an  old  man,  broken  and  decrepit.  One 
could  see  the  veins  and  muscles  over  the  whole  of  his  body,  his 
teeth  chattered,  he  was  covered  with   wrinkles,  bald,  and  hardly 


112  BUD 

able  to  utter  hollow  and  unmelodious  sounds.  He  was  bent  on  his 
stick,  and  all  his  limbs  and  joints  trembled.  "  Who  is  that  man  ?" 
said  the  prince  to  his  coachman.  "  He  is  small  and  weak,  his 
flesh  and  his  blood  are  dried  up,  his  muscles  stick  to  his  skin,  his 
head  is  white,  his  teeth  chatter,  his  body  is  wasted  away  ;  leaning 
on  his  stick  he  is  hardly  able  to  walk,  stumbling  at  every  step.  Is 
there  something  peculiar  in  his  family,  or  is  this  the  common  lot 
of  all  created  beings  ?" 

*  "  Sir,"  replied  the  coachman,  "  that  man  is  sinking  under  old 
age,  his  senses  have  become  obtuse,  suffering  has  destroyed  his 
strength,  and  he  is  despised  by  his  relations.  He  is  without  sup- 
port and  useless,  and  people  have  abandoned  him,  like  a  dead  tree 
in  a  forest.  But  this  is  not  peculiar  to  his  family.  In  every 
creature,  youth  is  defeated  by  old  age.  Your  father,  your  mother, 
all  your  relations,  all  your  friends,  will  come  to  the  same  state  ; 
this  is  the  appointed  end  of  all  creatures.'  " 

*  "  Alas  !"  replied  the  prince,  "  are  creatures  so  ignorant,  so 
weak  and  foolish,  as  to  be  proud  of  the  youth  by  which  they  are 
intoxicated,  not  seeing  the  old  age  which  awaits  them  !  As  for 
me,  I  go  away.  Coachman,  turn  my  chariot  quickly.  What  have 
I,  the  future  prey  of  old  age, — what  have  I  to  do  with  pleasure  ?'  " 
And  the  young  prince  returned  to  the  city  without  going  to  his 
park. 

'  Another  time  the  prince  was  driving  through  the  southern 
gate  to  his  pleasure  garden,  when  he  perceived  on  the  road  a  man 
suffering  from  illness,  parched  with  fever,  his  body  wasted,  covered 
with  mud,  without  a  friend,  without  a  home,  hardly  able  to  breathe, 
and  frightened  at  the  sight  of  himself  and  the  approach  of  death. 
Having  questioned  his  coachman,  and  received  from  him  the 
answer  which  he  expected,  the  young  prince  said,  "  Alas  !  health 
is  but  the  sport  of  a  dream,  and  the  fear  of  suffering  must  take 
this  frightful  form.  Where  is  the  wise  man  who,  after  having 
seen  what  he  is,  could  any  longer  think  of  joy  and  pleasure  ?" 
The  prince  turned  his  chariot  and  returned  to  the  city. 

*  A  third  time  he  was  driving  to  his  pleasure  garden  through 
the  western  gate,  when  he  saw  a  dead  body  on  the  road,  lying  on 
a  bier,  and  covered  with  a  cloth.     The  friends  stood  about  crying, 


BUD  113 

sobbing,  tearing  their  hair,  covering  their  heads  with  dust,  strik- 
ing their  breasts,  and  uttering  wild  cries.  The  prince,  again, 
calling  his  coachman  to  witness  this  painful  scene,  exclaimed, 
"  Oh  !  woe  to  youth,  which  must  be  destroyed  by  old  age  !  Woe 
to  health,  which  must  be  destroyed  by  so  many  diseases  !  Woe 
to  this  life,  where  a  man  remains  so  short  a  time  !  If  there  were 
no  old  age,  uo  disease,  no  death  ;  if  these  could  be  made  captive 
forever  !"  Then  betraying  for  the  first  time  his  intention?,  the 
young  prince  said,  "  Let  us  turn  back,  1  must  think  how  to 
accomplish  deliverance.'  " 

'  A  last  meeting  put  an  end  to  his  hesitation.  He  was  driving 
through  the  northern  gate  on  the  way  to  his  pleasure  gardens, 
when  he  saw  a  mendicant  who  appeared  outwardly  calm,  subdued, 
looking  downwards,  wearing  with  an  air  of  dignity  his  religious 
vestment,  and  carrying  an  alms-bowl.' 

*  "  Who  is  this  man  ?'  "  asked  the  prince. 

*  "  Sir,"  replied  the  coachman,  "  this  man  is  one  of  those  who 
are  called  bhikshus,  or  mendicants.  He  has  renounced  all  plea- 
sures, all  desires,  and  leads  a  life  of  austerity.  He  tries  to  conquer 
himself.  He  has  become  a  devotee.  Without  passion,  without 
envy,  he  walks  about  asking  for  alms.'  " 

*  "  This  is  good  and  well  said,"  replied  the  prince.  "  The  life 
of  a  devotee  has  always  been  praised  by  the  wise.  It  will  be  my 
refuge  and  the  refuge  of  other  creatures  ;  it  will  lead  us  to  a  real 
life,  to  happiness  and  immortality." 

*  With  these  words  the  young  prince  turned  his  chariot  and 
returned  to  the  city.' 

After  having  declared  to  his  father  and  his  wife  his  intention  of 
retiring  from  the  world,  Buddha  left  his  palace  one  night  when  all 
the  guards  that  were  to  have  watched  him  were  asleep.  After 
travelling  the  whole  night  he  gave  his  horse  and  his  ornaments  to 
his  groom,  and  sent  him  back  to  Kapilavastu.  *  A  monument,' 
remarks  the  author  of  the  Lalita-Vistara  (p.  270),  *  is  still  to  be 
seen  on  the  spot  where  the  coachmun  turned  back.'  Hioueu- 
Thsang  (II,  330)  saw  the  same  monument  at  the  edge  of  a  large 
forest,  on  his  road  to  Ku^inagara,  a  city  now  in  ruins,  and  situated 
about  fifty  miles  E.  S.  E.  from  Govakpur. 

15 


114  BUD 

Buddha  first  went  to  Vaisali  and  became  the  pupil  of  a  famous 
Brahmau,  who  had  gathered  round  him  300  disciples.  Having 
learnt  all  that  the  Brahman  could  teach  him,  Buddha  went  away 
disappointed.  He  had  not  found  the  road  to  salvation.  He  then 
tried  another  Brahman  at  Ragagriha,  the  capital  of  Magadha  or 
Behar,  who  had  700  disciples,  and  there  too  he  looked  in  vain  for  the 
means  of  deliverance.  He  left  him,  followed  by  five  of  his  fellow- 
students,  and  for  six  years  retired  into  solitude,  near  a  village  named 
Uruvilva,  subjecting  himself  to  the  most  severe  penances,  previous 
to  his  appearing  in  the  world  as  a  teacher.  At  the  end  of  this 
period,  however,  he  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  asceticism,  far 
from  giving  peace  of  mind  and  preparing  the  way  to  salvation, 
was  a  snare  and  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  truth.  He  gave 
up  his  exercises,  and  was  at  once  deserted  as  an  apostate  by  his 
five  disciples.  Left  to  himself  he  now  began  to  elaborate  his  own 
system.  He  had  learnt  that  neither  the  doctrines  nor  the  auste- 
rities of  the  Brahmans  were  of  any  avail  for  accomplishing  the  deli- 
verance of  man,  and  freeing  him  from  the  fear  of  old  age,  disease 
and  death.  After  long  meditations  and  ecstatic  visions,  he  at  last 
imagined  that  he  had  arrived  at  that  true  knowledge  which 
discloses  the  cause,  and  thereby  destroys  the  fear  of  all  the  changes 
inherent  in  life.  It  was  from  the  moment  when  he  arrived  at 
this  knowledge,  that  he  claimed  the  name  of  Buddha,  the  enlight- 
ened. At  that  moment  we  may  truly  say  that  the  fate  of  millions 
of  millions  of  human  beings  trembled  in  the  balance.  Buddha 
hesitated  for  a  time  whether  he  should  keep  his  knowledge  to 
himself,  or  communicate  it  to  the  world.  Compassion  for  the 
sufferings  of  man  prevailed,  and  the  young  prince  became  the 
founder  of  a  religion  which,  after  more  than  2,000  years,  is  still 
professed  by  455,000,000  of  human  beings. 

The  further  history  of  the  new  teacher  is  very  simple.  He 
proceeded  to  Benares,  which  at  all  times  was  the  principal  seat  of 
learning  in  India,  and  the  first  converts  he  made  were  the  five 
fellow-students  who  had  left  him  when  he  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
the  Brahmanical  observances.  Many  others  followed  ;but  as  the 
Lalita-Vistara  breaks  off  at  Buddha's  arrival  at  Benares,  we  have 
no    further    consecutive    account    of   the  rapid   progress   of  his 


BUD  115 

doctrine.  From  what  we  can  gatlier  from  scattered  notices  in  the 
Buddhist  canon,  he  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Magadha,  Bimbi- 
sara,  to  his  capital,  Ragagriha.  Many  of  his  lectures  are  repre- 
sented as  having  been  delivered  at  the  monastery  of  Kalantaka, 
with  which  the  king  or  some  rich  merchant  had  presented  him  ; 
others  on  the  Vulture  Peak,  one  of  the  five  hills  that  surrounded 
the  ancient  capital. 

Three  of  his  most  famous  disciples,  Sariputra,  Katyayana,  and 
Maudgalyayaua,  joined  him  during  his  stay  in  Magadha,  where  he 
enjoyed  for  many  years  the  friendship  of  the  king.  That  king 
was  afterwards  assassinated  by  his  son,  Agatasatru,  and  then  we 
hear  of  Buddha  as  settled  for  a  time  at  Sravasti,  north  of  the 
Ganges,  where  Anathapindada,  a  rich  merchant,  had  offered  him 
and  his  disciples  a  magnificent  building  for  their  residence.  Most 
of  Buddha's  lectures  or  sermons  were  delivered  at  Sravasti,  the 
capital  of  Kosala  ;  and  the  king  of  Kosala  himself,  Prasenagit, 
became  a  convert  to  his  doctrine.  After  an  absence  of  twelve 
years  we  are  told  that  Buddha  visited  his  father  at  Kapilavastu,  on 
which  occasion  he  performed  several  miracles,  and  converted  all 
the  Sakyas  to  his  faith.  His  own  wife  became  one  of  his  followers, 
and,  with  his  aunt,  offers  the  first  instance  of  female  Buddhist 
devotees  in  India.  We  have  fuller  particulars  again  of  the  last 
days  of  Buddha's  life.  He  had  attained  the  good  age  of  three- 
score and  ten,  and  had  been  on  a  visit  to  Ragagriha,  where  the 
king,  Agatasatru,  the  former  enemy  of  Buddha,  and  the  assassin 
of  his  own  father,  had  joined  the  congregation,  after  making  a 
public  confession  of  his  crimes.  On  his  return  he  was  followed 
by  a  large  number  of  disciples,  and  when  on  the  point  of  crossing 
the  Ganges,  he  stood  on  a  square  stone,  and  turning  his  eyes  back 
towards  Ragagriha,  he  said,  full  of  emotion,  '  This  is  the  last  time 
that  I  see  that  city.*  He  likewise  visited  Vaisatli,  and  after  taking 
leave  of  it,  he  had  nearly  reached  the  city  of  Kusinagara,  when 
his  vital  strength  began  to  fail.  He  halted  in  a  forest,  and  while 
sitting  under  a  sal  tree,  he  gave  up  the  ghost,  or,  as  a  Buddhist 
would  say,  entered  into  Nirvana. 

This  is  the  simple  story  of  Buddha's  life.  It  reads  much  better 
in  the  eloquent  pages  of  M.  Bartheiemy  Saint  Hilaire,  than  in  the 


116  BUD 

turgid  language  of  the  Buddhists.  If  a  critical  historian,  with  the 
materials  we  possess,  entered  at  all  on  the  process  of  separating 
truth  from  falsehood,  he  would  probably  cut  off  much  of  what  our 
biographer  has  left.  Professor  Wilson,  in  his  Essay  on  Buddha 
and  Buddhism,  considers  it  doubtful  whether  any  such  person  as 
Buddha  ever  actually  existed.  He  dwells  on  the  fact  that  there 
are  at  least  twenty  different  dates  assigned  to  his  birth,  varying 
6-om  2420  to  453  b.  c.  He  points  out  that  the  clan  of  the  Sakyas 
18  never  mentioned  by  early  Hindu  writers,  and  he  lays  much 
stress  on  the  fact  that  most  of  the  proper  names  of  the  persons 
connected  with  Buddha  suggest  an  allegorical  signification.  The 
name  of  his  father  means,  he  whose  food  is  pure  ;  that  of  his 
mother  signifies  illusion  ;  his  own  secular  appellation,  Siddhartha, 
he  by  whom  the  end  is  accomplished.  Buddha  itself  means,  the 
Enlightened,  or,  as  Professor  Wilson  translates  it  less  accurately, 
he  by  whom  all  is  known.  The  same  distinguished  scholar  goes 
even  further,  and  maintaining  that  Kapilavastu,  the  birth-place  of 
Buddha,  has  no  place  in  the  geography  of  the  Hindus,  suggests 
that  it  may  be  rendered,  the  substance  of  Kapila  ;  intimating,  in 
fact,  the  Sankhya  philosophy,  the  doctrine  of  Kapila  Muni,  upon 
which  the  fundamental  elements  of  Buddhism,  the  eternity  of 
matter,  the  principles  of  things,  and  the  final  extinction,  are 
supposed  to  be  planned.     '  It  seems  not  impossible,'  he  continues, 

*  that  Sakya  Muni  is  an  unreal  being,  and  that  all  that  is  related 
of  him  is  as  much  a  fiction,  as  is  that  of  his  preceding  migrations, 
and  the  miracles  that  attended  his  birth,  his  life,  and  his  departure.' 
This  is  going  far  beyond  Niebuhr,  far  even  beyond  Strauss.  If  an 
allegorical  name  had  been  invented  for  the  father  of  Buddha,  one 
more  appropriate  than  '  clean-food'  might  surely  have  been  found. 
His  mother  is  not  the  only  queen  known  by  the  name  of  Maya, 
Mayade\^i,  or  Mayavati.  Why,  if  these  names  were  invented, 
should  his  Avife  have  been  allowed  to  keep  the  prosaic  name  of 
Gopa   (cowherdess),    and  his   father-in-law,   that  of  Dandapani, 

*  stick-hand  ?'  As  to  his  own  name,  Siddhartha,  the  Tibetans 
maintain  that  it  was  given  him  by  his  parent,  whose  wish  (artha) 
had  been  fulfilled  (siddha),  as  we  hear  of  Desires  and  Dieu-donnes 
in  French.     One  of  the  ministers  of  Dasaratha  had  the  same  name. 


BUD  117 

It  is  possible  also  that  Buddha  himself  assumed  it  in  after-life,  as 
was  the  case  with  many  of  the  Roman  surnames.  As  to  the  name 
of  Buddha,  no  one  ever  maintained  that  it  was  more  than  a  title, 
the  Enlightened,  changed  from  an  appellative  into  a  proper  name, 
just  like  the  name  of  Christos,  the  Anointed  ;  or  Mohammed,  the 
Expected.  Kapilavastu  would  be  a  most  extraordinary  compound 
to  express  *  the  substance  of  the  Sankhya  philosophy.'  But  all 
doubt  on  the  subject  is  removed  by  the  fact  that  both  Fabian  in 
the  fifth,  and  Hiouen-Tshang  in  the  seventh  centuries,  visited  the 
real  ruins  of  that  city. 

Making  every  possible  allowance  for  the  accumulation  of  fiction 
which  is  sure  to  gather  round  the  life  of  the  founder  of  every  great 
religion,  we  may  be  satisfied  that  Buddhism,  which  changed  the 
aspect  not  only  of  India,  but  of  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia,  had  a 
real  founder  ;  that  he  was  not  a  Brahman  by  birth,  but  belonged 
to  the  second  or  royal  caste  ;  that  being  of  a  meditative  turn  of 
mind,  and  deeply  impressed  Avith  the  frailty  of  all  created  things, 
he  became  a  recluse,  and  sought  for  light  and  comfort  in  the  different 
systems  of  Brahman  philosophy  and  theology.  Dissatisfied  with 
ihe  artificial  systems  of  their  priests  and  philosophers,  convinced 
of  the  uselessuess,  nay  of  the  pernicious  influence,  of  their  cere- 
monial practices  and  bodily  penances,  shocked,  too,  by  their  world- 
liness  and  pharisaical  conceit,  which  made  the  priesthood  the  exclu- 
sive property  of  one  caste  and  rendered  every  sincere  approach 
of  man  to  his  Creator  impossible  without  their  intervention, 
Buddha  must  have  produced  at  once  a  powerful  impression  on  the 
people  at  large,  when  breaking  through  all  the  established  rules  of 
caste,  he  assumed  the  privileges  of  a  Brahman,  and  throwing  away 
the  splendour  of  his  royal  position,  travelled  about  as  a  beggar, 
not  shrinking  from  the  defiling  contact  of  sinners  and  publicans. 
Though  when  we  now  speak  of  Buddhism,  we  think  chiefly  of  its 
doctrines,  the  reform  of  Buddha  had  originally  much  more  of  a 
social  than  of  a  religious  character.  Buddha  swept  away  the  web 
with  which  the  Brahmans  had  encircled  the  whole  of  India. 
Beginning  as  the  destroyer  of  an  old,  he  became  the  founder  of  a 
new  religion."* 

*  Max  Miillcr.  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  Vol.  I,  p.  210. 


118  BUD 

According  to  Buddhist  belief  when  a  mau  dies  he  is  immediately 
bora  agaiu,  or  appears  in  a  new  shape,  according  to  his  merit  or 
demerit,  he  may  be  born  in  the  form  of  a  woman,  or  a  slave,  a  quad- 
ruped, a  bird,  a  fish,  an  insect,  a  plant,  or  even  a  piece  of  inorganic 
matter.  He  may  be  born  in  a  state  of  punishment  in  one  of  the 
many  Buddhist  hells  ;  or  in  the  condition  of  a  happy  spirit  or  even 
divinity  in  heaven  ;  but  whatever  the  position  be,  and  however  long 
he  may  live  in  it,  the  life  will  have  an  end,  and  the  individual  must 
be  born  again,  and  may  again  be  either  happy  or  miserable — 
"  either  a  god,  or  it  may  be  the  vilest  inanimate  object.  The  Bud- 
dha himself,  before  his  last  birth  as  Sakyamuni,  had  gone  through 
every  conceivable  form  of  existence,  on  the  earth,  in  the  air,  and 
in  the  water,  in  hell  and  in  heaven,  and  had  filled  every  condition 
in  human  life.  When  he  attained  the  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
Buddha,  he  was  able  to  recall  all  these  existences  ;  and  a  great 
part  of  the  Buddhist  legendary  literature  is  taken  up  in  narrating 
his  exploits,  when  he  lived  as  an  elephant,  as  a  bird,  as  a  stag,  and 
so  forth." — Goldst'ucker. 

The  Buddhist  does  not  regard  these  various  transmigrations, 
•whether  punishments  or  rew^ards,  as  caused  by  the  Creator  or 
Euler  of  the  Universe.  "  They  do  not  conceive  any  god  or  gods 
as  being  pleased  or  displeased  by  the  actions,  and  as  assigning  the 
actors  their  future  condition  by  way  of  punishment  or  reward." 
The  very  idea  of  a  god  as  creating  or  in  any  way  ruling  the  world, 
is  utterly  absent  in  the  Buddhist  system.  God  is  not  so  much  as 
denied  ;  he  is  simply  not  known."  The  power  that  controls  the 
world  is  expressed  by  the  word  Karma,  literally  action,  including 
both  merit  and  demerit.  *'The  future  condition  of  the  Buddhist, 
then,  is  not  assigned  him  by  the  Ruler  of  the  Universe ;  the  Karma 
of  his  actions  determines  it  by  a  sort  of  virtue  inherent  in  the 
nature  of  things — by  the  blind  and  unconscious  concatenation  of 
cause  and  effect." 

Buddhism  inculcates  morality.  The  most  essential  virtues  are 
truthfulness,  benevolence,  kindness,  purity,  patience,  courage,  and 
contemplation.  All  offensive  and  gross  language  is  forbidden  ; 
nothing  is  ever  to  be  said  to  stir  up  ill-will,  or  excite  enmity,  or 
that  would  cause  quarrels  ;  it  is  a  duty  on  all  occasions  to  act  as  a 


BUD  119 

peace-maker.  "Humility  holds  a  no  less  prominent  place  among 
Buddhist  graces  than  it  does  among  the  Christians." — Goldstiicker, 
Chamber's  E7icy. 

Buddhi — Understanding,  synonyme  of  Mahat  ;  also  the  name 
of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  who  became  the  wife  of  Dharma. 

Budha — (Mercury.)  The  son  of  Soma,  the  moon.  JBudha 
married  //a,  whose  sex  had  been  changed  by  Siva.  Thence  the 
lunar,  as  distinguished  from  the  solar,  line  of  kings  ;  and  to  that 
point  is  to  be  referred  many  important  opinions  and  results, 
very  widely  disseminated.     See  lid. 

There  exists  a  doubt  whether  the  names  of  planetary  bodies 
were  given  to  early  men,  or  whether  the  planets  were  named  after 
distinguished  men  of  the  earliest  age.  The  puranas  give  a  brief 
legend,  which  has  been  deemed  astronomical,  but  of  a  doubtful 
school  ;  such  as  reduced  Abraham  to  a  constellation.  This  legend 
is  that  Chandra  (the  moon)  was  placed  in  the  house  of  Vrihas- 
pati  (Jupiter)  as  his  pupil,  and  that  Tara  (the  lunar  path  of  27 
asterisms)  fell  in  love  with  Chandra,  and  seduced  him  while 
Vrihaspati  was  away  at  a  sacrifice  made  by  Indra  (the  firmament)  ; 
the  result  was  the  birth  of  Budha  (Mercury).  If  there  be  any 
astronomical  meaning,  it  would  imply  that  the  old  Chaldeans 
thought  that  the  moon  in  some  part  of  its  orbit  attracted  a  satel- 
lite of  Jupiter,  detached  it  from  that  planet,  and  was  the  occasion 
of  its  finding  an  orbit  around  the  sun,  as  a  primary  planet.  How- 
ever, this  interpretation  has  great  improbabilities. 

The  poets,  and  especially  Telugu  poets,  have  paraphrased  the 
legend  in  their  own  way  ;  and  very  freely  too.  If  the  parties 
were  men  on  earth  we  get  at  one  of  the  earliest  known  wars. 
For,  the  claim  to  the  parentage  and  right  of  Budha  by  Vrihas- 
pati and  Chandra,  led  to  a  fierce  war,  dividing  gods  and  men  into 
two  parties. 

In  a  variety  of  works  published,  writers,  though  oriental 
scholars,  confound  Budha  and  Buddha.  This  appears  so  late 
down  as  Major  Cunningham's  book  on  the  Bhilsa  Topes  ;  published 
in  1855.  But  the  persons  are  distinct,  the  sense  of  the  words 
different,  the  spelling  different,  the  pronunciation  still  more  so. — 
Taylor. 


Caste — The  term  Caste,  derived  from  the  Portuguese  Casta, 
expressive  of  the  Indian  word  Jati,  has  been  universally  adopted 
by  Europeans  to  denote  the  different  classes  or  tribes  into  which 
the  people  of  India  are  divided.  "  The  permanent  division  of  the 
community  into  classes,  with  hereditary  professions  assigned  to 
each,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  institutions  of  Hindustan. 
There  are  four  great  divisions.  The  most  distinguished  of  all  is 
that  of  Brahmana  or  Brahmans,  who  are  said  to  have  come  from 
th(}  mouth  of  Brahma  :  the  second  in  rank  is  that  of  Kshatriya  or 
Rajas,  from  the  arm  of  Brahma  ;  the  third  the  Vaisya,  or 
merchants,  from  the  thigh  of  Brahma  ;  the  fourth  the  Sudras,  or 
workmen,  from  his  foot :  all  with  their  females.  Each  of  these 
four  tribes  is  subdivided  into  several  more  ;  the  Sudras  especially 
have  an  almost  endless  number  of  distinctions  ;  such  as  herdsmen 
who  keep  the  cows  ;  shepherds  who  tend  the  sheep  ;  weavers  ; 
jfive  castes  of  Artizans,  viz.,  carpenters,  goldsmiths,  blacksmiths, 
stone-cutters,  founders.  The  several  castes  of  cultivators  take 
precedence  of  other  Sudras,  and  look  with  contempt  on  tradesmen 
and  labourers.  There  is  a  Caste  of  Kallaru,  or  robbers,  who 
consider  their  profession  as  no  way  discreditable  to  themselves  or 
their  tribe.  Each  caste  exhibits  some  particular  and  local  varieties 
of  its  own  by  which  it  is  discriminated  from  the  rest  :  Some 
distinguish  themselves  by  the  cut  and  colour  of  their  clothes  ; 
some  by  the  manner  in  which  they  put  them  on.  But  however 
extravagant  their  modes  and  customs  are,  they  never  excite  from 
castes  of  the  most  opposite  habits  and  fashions  the  least  appearance 
of  contempt  or  dislike.  Upon  this  point  there  seems  to  be  the 
most  perfect  toleration. 

In  the  South  of  India  there  is  another  division  of  the  different 
tribes  still  more  general  than  those  which  have  been  yet  mentioned. 
It    is  that  of  Right-hand   and    Left-hand   Castes.     The  greater 


CAS  121 

number  of  Hindu  castes  belong  either  to  the  Right-hand  or  the 
Left.  The  Brahmans,  the  Pariahs  (or  outcastes)  and  several 
tribes  of  the  Sudras,  are  considered  neutral,  and  enjoying  all  the 
privileges  and  honors  attached  to  both  hands,  they  take  no  part 
with  either.  These  neutral  castes  are  frequently  called  upon  to 
arbitrate  in  the  fierce  disputes  that  occur  between  the  Right  and 
Left-hand  parties.  Both  parties  lay  claim  to  certain  privileges  ; 
and  when  any  encroachment  is  made  by  either  it  is  followed  by 
tumults  that  spread  through  a  district,  accompanied  with  every 
excess  ;  and  generally  with  bloody  contests.  The  Hindu,  usually 
so  gentle  and  timid,  seems  to  change  his  nature.  There  is  no 
danger  he  fears  to  encounter  in  maintaining  these  rights." — Dubois, 

Dr.  Muir  in  the  first  volume  of  his  O.  S.  Texts,  has  very  fully 
investigated  the  mythical  accounts  of  the  creation  of  man  and  of 
the  origin  of  the  four  castes.  He  says  *'  it  will  be  seen  from  the 
texts  adduced  that  from  a  very  early  period  the  Indian  writers 
have  propounded  a  great  variety  of  speculations  regarding  the 
origin  of  mankind,  and  of  the  classes  or  castes  into  which  they 
found  their  own  community  divided.  The  most  commonly  received 
of  these  explanations  is  the  fable  which  represents  the  Brahmans, 
Kshatriyas,  Vaisyas  and  Sudras,  to  have  been  separately  created 
from  the  head,  the  breast  or  arms,  the  thighs,  and  the  feet  of  the 
Creator.  Of  this  mythical  account  no  trace  is  to  be  found  in  any 
of  the  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda,  except  one,  the  Purusha  Sukta." 

Dr.  Muir  is  of  opinion  that  this  hymn  belongs  to  the  most 
recent  portion  of  the  Rig  Veda.  Mr.  Colebrook,  Professors  Max 
Miiller  and  Weber  concur  on  this  view  ;  which  however  is  con- 
troverted by  Dr.  Haug. 

After  quoting  a  great  number  of  texts  from  the  oldest  authorities, 
Dr.  Muir  remarks.  "  When  we  discover  in  the  most  ancient  Indian 
writings  such  different  and  even  discrepant  accounts  of  the  origin 
of  man,  all  put  forth  with  equal  positiveness,  it  is  impossible  to 
imagine  that  any  uniform  explanation  of  the  diversity  of  castes 
could  have  been  received  at  the  period  when  they  were  composed, 
or  to  regard  any  of  the  texts  which  have  been  cited  as  more 
orthodox  and  authoritative  than  the  rest.  Even,  therefore,  if  we 
should  suppose  that  the  author  of  the  Purusha  Sukta  meant  to 

16 


122  CAS 

represent  the  four  castes  as  having  literally  sprung  from  separate 
parts  of  Purusha's  body,  it  is  evident  that  the  same  idea  was  not 
always  or  even  generally  adopted  by  those  who  followed  him,  as 
a  revealed  truth  in  which  they  were  bound  to  acquiesce.  In  fact, 
nothing  is  clearer  than  that  in  all  these  cosmogonies,  the  writers, 
while  generally  assuming  certain  prevalent  ideas  as  the  basis 
of  their  descriptions,  gave  the  freest  scope  to  their  individual 
«fancy  in  the  invention  of  details.  In  such  circumstances,  perfect 
coincidence  cannot  be  expected  in  the  narratives." 

The  following  are  the  results  of  Dr.  Muir's  careful  investiga- 
tion of  all  the  Texts  bearing  on  the  subject : — 

"  The  details  which  I  have  supplied  in  the  course  of  this 
chapter  must  have  rendered  it  abundantly  evident  that  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindus  contain  no  uniform  or  consistent  account  of 
the  origin  of  castes  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  present  the  greatest 
varieties  of  speculation  on  this  subject.  Explanations  mystical, 
mythical,  and  rationalistic,  are  all  offered  in  turn  ;  and  the  freest 
scope  is  given  by  the  individual  writers  to  fanciful  and  arbitrary 
conjecture. 

First  :  we  have  the  set  of  accounts  in  which  the  four  castes  are 
said  to  have  sprung  from  progenitors  who  were  separately  created  ; 
but  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  their  creation  we  find  the  greatest 
diversity  of  statement.  The  most  common  story  is  that  the  castes 
issued  from  the  mouth,  arms,  thighs,  and  feet  of  Purusha,  or 
Brahma.  The  oldest  extant  passage  in  which  this  idea  occurs, 
and  from  which  all  the  later  myths  of  a  similar  tenor  have  no 
doubt  been  borrowed,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  to  be  found  in  the 
Purusha  Sukta  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether,  in  the  form  in  which 
it  is  there  presented,  this  representation  is  anything  more  than  an 
allegory.  In  some  of  the  texts  which  I  have  quoted  from  the 
Bhigavata  Purana,  traces  of  the  same  allegorical  character  may 
be  perceived  ;  but  in  Manu  and  the  Puranas  the  mystical  import 
of  the  Vedic  text  disappears,  and  the  figurative  narrative  is 
hardened  into  a  literal  statement  of  fact.  In  other  passages,  where 
a  separate  origin  is  assigned  to  the  castes,  they  are  variously  said 
to  have  sprung  from  the  words  Bhuh,  Bhuvah,  Svah  ;  from 
different  Vedus  j  from   different  sets  of  prayers  :  from  the  gode, 


CHA  123 

aud  the  asuras  ;  from  nonentity,  and  from  the  imperishable,  the 
perishable,  and  other  priaciples.  In  the  chapters  of  the  Vishnu, 
Vayu,  and  Markaudeya  Puranas,  where  castes  are  described  as 
coeval  with  the  creation,  aud  as  having  been  naturally  distinguished 
by  different  gunas,  or  qualities,  involving  varieties  of  moral 
character,  we  are  nevertheless  allowed  to  infer  that  those  qualities 
exerted  no  influence  on  the  classes  in  Avhom  they  were  inherent, 
as  the  condition  of  the  whole  race  during  the  Krita  age  is  described 
as  one  of  uniform  perfection  aud  happiness  ;  while  the  actual 
separation  into  castes  did  not  take  place,  according  to  the  Vayu 
Purana,  until  men  had  become  deteriorated  in  the  Treta  age. 

Second  :  in  various  passages  from  the  Brahmanas,  Epic  poems, 
and  Puranas,  the  creation  of  mankind  is,  as  we  have  seen,  described 
without  the  least  allusion  to  any  separate  production  of  the 
progenitors  of  the  four  castes.  And  whilst  in  the  chapters  where 
they  relate  the  distinct  formation  of  the  castes,  the  Puranas,  as 
has  been  observed,  assign  different  natural  dispositions  to  each 
class,  they  elsewhere  represent  all  mankind  as  being  at  the  creation 
uniformly  distinguished  by  the  quality  of  passion.  In  one  of  the 
texts  I  have  quoted,  men  are  said  to  be  the  offspring  of  Vivasvat  ; 
in  another  his  son  Manu  is  said  to  be  their  progenitor  ;  whilst  in  a 
third  they  are  said  to  be  descended  from  a  female  of  the  same 
name.  The  passage  which  declares  Manu  to  have  been  the  father 
of  the  human  race  explicitly  affirms  that  men  of  all  the  four  castes 
were  descended  from  him.  In  another  remarkable  text  the 
Mahabharata  categorically  asserts  that  originally  there  was  no 
distinction  of  classes,  the  existing  distribution  having  arisen  out  of 
differences  of  character  and  occupation.  Similarly,  the  Bhagavata 
Purana  in  one  place  informs  us  that  in  the  Krita  age  there  was 
but  one  caste  ;  and  this  view  appears  also  to  be  taken  in  some 
passages  which  I  have  adduced  from  the  Epic  poems. 

In  these  circumstances  we  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  separate 
origination  of  the  four  castes  was  far  from  being  an  article  of 
belief  universally  received  by  Indian  antiquity." — Vol.  I,  p.  160. 

Chaidyas — A  race  of  kings,  descendants  of  Chedi,  amongst 
whom  were  Damagosha  and  Si^jupala. 


124  CHA       

Chaitra— The  uame  of  the  third  lunar  month  (Feb. -March). 
Chaitraratah— A  large  forest,  in  the  east  of  lUvrita. 
Chakora— One  of  the  thirty  Andhrabhritya  kings  ;  he   only 
reigned  six  months. 

Chakora— The  name  of  a  mountain  in  the  eastern  ghauts. 
Chakra— 1,    The  discus   of    Vishnu  ;  a   sharp-edged  quoit  ; 

*  Arjuua  performed  wonderful  feats  with  his  chakra.  It  was  with 
this  weapon  that  Krishna  slew  Sisupala.  It  is  always  seen  in  one 
of  the  four  hands  of  Vishnu.  The  Chakra  has  also  been  converted 
into  the  prayer  wheel  of  the  Buddhists  ;  2,  The  name  of  one  of 
the  chanters  of  the  Sdma  Veda. 

Chakras — A  race  of  people  who  about  the  commencement  of 
our  era,  extended  along  the  West  of  India,  from  the  Hindu  Kosh 
to  the  mouths  of  the  Indus. 

Chakra vartti — One  on  whom  the  Chakra,  the  discus  of 
Vishnu,  abides  ;  such  a  figure  being  delineated  by  the  lines  of  the 
hand.  The  grammatical  etymology  is  *  he  who  abides  in  or  rules 
over,  an  extensive  country  called  a  chakra.'    Chakravartti  is  there- 

•  fore  a  universal  emperor.  On  the  death  of  such  an  emperor  it 
was  the  custom  to  collect  and  deposit  the  ashes  of  the  body,  after 
burning,  in  a  pyramidal  monument, —  Wilson. 

Chakravaka — A  Brahmani  goose  :  the  name  of  a  wise  coun- 
sellor in  the  Pancha  Tantra  ;  Hiranyagarbha,  the  king  of  the 
water-fowl,  was  anxious  to  make  war,  when  his  minister,  Chakra- 
vaka, made  many  speeches  to  prevent  it,  suggesting  that  victory 
was  ever  doubtful,  &c. 

Chakshu — One  of  the  four  great  rivers,  made  by  the  division 
of  the  Ganges,  and  which  is  said  in  the  V.  P.  to  flow  into  the 
sea  after  traversing  all  the  western  mountains,  and  passing  through 
the  country  of  Ketumala. 

Chakshu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Purujanu,  one  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Dwimidha. 

Chakshupa— A  prince  renowned  for  his  valour,  the  son  of 
Khanitra,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Nedishta. 


CHA  125 

Chakshusha — The  Manu  of  the  sixth  Manwantara,  son  of 
Ripu  by  Vrihati.  The  Markandeya  has  a  legend  of  his  birth  as  a 
son  of  Kshatriya  ;  of  his  being  exchanged  at  his  birth  for  the  son 
of  Visranta  Raja,  and  being  brought  up  by  the  prince  as  his  own  ; 
of  his  revealing  the  business  when  a  man,  and  propitiating  Brahma 
by  his  devotions,  m  consequence  of  which  he  became  a  Manu  ; 
In  his  former  birth  he  was  born  from  the  eye  of  Brahma ;  whence 
his  name  from  Chakshush  *  the  eye.* 

Chakshushas — The  first  of  the  five  classes  of  gods  in  the 
fourteenth  Manwantara. 

Chandrayana — Penances,  which,  according  to  the  Veddnta, 
cause,  not  the  acquisition  of  any  thing  positive,  but  merely  the 
removal  of  sin.  They  are  regulated  by  the  moon's  age  ;  and 
consist  in  diminishing  the  daily  consumption  of  food  every  day, 
by  one  mouthful,  for  the  dark  half  of  the  month,  beginning  with 
fifteen  at  the  full  moon,  until  it  is  reduced  to  one  at  the  new 
moon  ;  and  then  increasing  in  like  manner  during  the  fortnight  of 
the  moon's  increase  :  there  are  other  forms  of  this  penance. 

Champa — The  son  of  Pritulaksha,  a  descendant  of  Ann,  who 
founded  the  city  of  Champapuri,  a  city  of  which  traces  still  remain 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bhaghulpur.  Champa  is  everywhere  recognised 
as  the  capital  of  Anga. 

Champa — A  town  on  the  Ganges  in  which  is  a  Vihara,  or  Bud- 
dhist convent.  It  is  described  in  the  Dasukumaru  as  notoriously 
abounding  in  rogues. 

Chamunda — A  name  of  the  consort  of  Siva.  Her  temple  is 
represented  as  a  dreadful  place  ;  whither  victims  are  conveyed  to 
be  offered  in  sacrifice  to  the  cruel  goddess.  In  the  drama  of 
Malati  and  Madhava,  the  heroine  Malati  is  kidnapped  by  the  priest 
of  Chamunda  and  carried  to  the  dreaded  temple,  but  is  rescued 
by  her  lover  just  as  the  fatal  stroke  is  about  to  descend  on  her. 

Chanakko  or  Chanakya— A  brahman  of  the  city  of  Takka- 
sila  who  lived  about  330  b.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  achieved  the 
knowledge  of  the  three  Vedas  ;  could  rehearse  the  mantra ;  was 
skilful  in  stratagems,  and  dexterous  in  intrigue  as  well  as  policy. 


126  CHA 

After  his  father's  death  he  became  celebrated  as  the  filial  protector 
of  his  mother.  A  long  legend  is  told  of  the  way  iu  which  he 
brought  up  Chandragupta  and  ultimately  placed  him  on  the  throne 
about  315  B.  c.  When  Chandragupta  was  a  wandering  adven- 
turer, the  ambitious  intriguing  brahman  became  his  ardent  friend, 
and  promised  to  open  for  him  a  pathway  to  the  throne.  Nine 
brothers,  called  the  nine  Nandas,  then  reigned  at  Magadha. 
*'  Chandragupta  was  looked  upon  as  their  half-brother  by  a  Sudra 
mother.  He  is  called  a  Takshaka,  or  descendant  of  the  great 
snake  Seshanaga.  Feeling  unsafe  amongst  his  relatives  in  Behar 
he  had  wandered  forth  to  seek  his  fortune  elsewhere."  It  was 
then  he  met  with  Chanakya,  who  in  pursuance  of  his  intention  to 
place  Chandragupta  on  the  throne  "  contrived  to  give  dire  offence 
to  the  nine  Nandas."  He  entered  their  dining-room  unannounced, 
and  with  the  cool  assumption  of  a  powerful  brahman,  took  posses- 
sion of  the  place  of  honour.  The  kings,  having  '  their  understand- 
ings bewildered  by  fate,'  regarded  him  as  a  mere  wild  scholar  ;  and 
not  heeding  the  remonstrances  of  their  wise  minister,  they  dragged 
him  from  his  seat  with  scorn. 

"  Then  Chanakya,  blind  with  indignation,  stood  up  iu  the  centre 
of  the  hall,  loosened  the  knot  of  hair  on  the  top  of  his  head,  and 
thus  vowed  the  destruction  of  the  Nanda  race. 

*  Until  I  have  exterminated  these  haughty  and  ignorant  Nandas, 
who  have  not  known  my  worth,  I  will  not  again  tie  up  these  hairs.' 
Having  thus  declared  war  he  sought  out  the  discontented  Chan- 
dragupta. 

'•  In  the  meantime,  Rakshasa,  who  was  the  prime  minister  of 
the  Nandas,  did  all  for  his  princes  that  could  be  done  either  by 
valour  or  sagacity.  But  all  in  vain,  the  Nandas  '  perished  like 
moths  in  the  flame  of  Chanakya's  revenge.' " 

The  drama  entitled  "  Mudra  Rakshasa,"  attributed  to  Visakha- 
datta,  is  founded  on  this  story  of  Chanakya.  Hindu  Theatre.  Mrs. 
Man?ii?ig  ;  A,  Sf'  M.  I.,  Vol  II,  p.  221. 

Chandana—  A  river  in  Bhagulpur. 

Chandana  Dasa  —A  banker  and  intimate  friend  of  Rakshasa 
in  the  drama  of  the  "  Sio^not  of  the  Minister."    He  was  condemned 


CHA  127 

and  dressed  for  execution,  bearing  the  stake  upon  his  shoulder, 
followed  by  his  wife  and  child  ;  when  he  was  rescued,  pardoned 
and  made  provost  of  the  merchants. 

Chandala — An  outcaste  or  pariah  ;  one  of  the  lowest  of  the 
mixed  tribes  descended  from  a  Sudra  mother  and  a  Brahman  father. 

Chando— The  name  of  the  bull  that  protected  Chandragupta 

in  infancy. 

Chandanodakadundhubi — A  Yadava  chief  called  also 
Bhava,  a  friend  of  the  Gandharba  Tumburu. 

Chandrag^ri — A  prince  descended  from  Kusa,  the  son  of  Rama. 

Chandrabhaga — The  name  of  a  river,  that  takes  its  rise  in 
the  Himalayas  and  which  Professor  Wilson  identifies  as  the  Chinab. 

Chadragupta — King  of  Magadha,  a  most  important  name,  as 
it  has  been  proved  by  Professor  Wilson  and  others  that  he  is  the 
Sandracoptus  of  the  Greeks,  who  visited  the  camp  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  we  are  thus  able  to  determine  the  chronology  satis- 
factorily. "  The  relative  positions  of  Chandragupta,  Vidmisara, 
or  Bimbisara,  and  Ajatasatru,  serve  to  confirm  the  indentification. 
Sakya  was  contemporary  with  both  the  latter,  dying  in  the  eighth 
year  of  Ajatasatru's  reign.  The  Mahawanso  says  he  reigned 
twenty-four  years  afterwards  ;  but  the  Vayu  makes  his  whole  reign 
but  twenty -five  years,  which  would  place  the  close  of  it  b,  c.  526. 
The  rest  of  the  Saisunaga  dynasty,  according  to  the  Vayu  and 
Matsya,  reigned  143  or  140  years  ;  bringing  their  close  to  b.  c. 
383,  Another  century  being  deducted  for  the  duration  of  the 
Nandas,  would  place  the  accession  of  Chandragupta  b.  c.  283. 
Chandragupta  was  the  contemporary  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  who 
began  his  reign  b.  c.  310,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  him  b.  c. 
305.  Although  therefore  his  date  may  not  be  made  out  quite 
correctly  from  the  Pauranic  premises,  yet  the  error  cannot  be  more 
than  twenty  or  thirty  years.  The  result  is  much  nearer  the  truth 
than  that  furnished  by  the  Buddhist  authorities.  According  to  the 
Mahawanso  a  hundred  years  had  elapsed  from  the  death  of  Buddha 
to  the  tenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Kalasoko  (p.  15).  He  reigned 
other  ten  years,  and  his  sons  forty-four,  making  a  total  of  154  years 


128  CHA 

between  the  death  of  Sakya  and  the  accession  of  Chandragupta, 
which  is  consequently  placed  b.  c.  389,  or  above  seventy  years  too 
early.  According  to  the  Buddhist  authorities,  Chan-ta-kutta  or 
Chandragupta,  commenced  his  reign  396  b.  c.  Burmese  Table  ; 
Prinsep's  Useful  Tables.  Mr.  Tumour,  in  his  Introduction,  giving 
to  Kalasoko  eighteen  years  subsequent  to  the  century  after  Buddha, 
places  Chandragupta's  accession  b.  c.  381,  which,  he  observes,  is 
sixty  years  too  soon  ;  dating,  however,  the  accession  of  Chandra- 
gupta from  323  b.  c.  or  immediately  upon  Alexander's  death, 
a  period  too  early  by  eight  or  ten  years  at  least.  The  discrepancy 
of  dates,  Mr.  Tumour  is  disposed  to  think,  proceeds  from  some 
intentional  perversion  of  the  Buddhistical  chronology."     V.  P. 

Chandrahasa — In  the  farthest  extremity  of  the  Dekhan  there 
lived  a  Raja  who  was  doomed  to  the  severest  adversity.  He  had 
a  son  born  at  a  propitious  period,  but  was  himself  soon  after  slain 
in  battle,  and  his  Rani  perished  in  the  funeral  pile.  The  nurse  fled 
away  with  the  infant  to  Kutuwal,  but  died  herself  in  three  years 
without  having  made  known  the  secret  of  the  child's  birth.  The 
boy  "svas  now  quite  destitute  and  suffered  much ;  but  one  day 
happening  to  go  to  the  house  of  the  prime  minister,  the  astrologers 
present  declared  that  the  boy's  face  had  all  the  signs  of  royalty. 
The  minister  hearing  this,  determined  that  the  lad  should  be 
assassinated.  But  the  men  employed  for  the  purpose  took 
compassion  on  him  and  resolved  not  to  kill  him.  He  was  found 
in  the  jungle  and  adopted  by  a  certain  dependant  of  the  Minister, 
who  called  the  boy  Chandrahasa  because  when  he  laughed  it  w^as 
said  his  face  resembled  the  moon. 

As  Chandrahasa  grew  up  he  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  and 
courage,  and  his  achievements  came  to  the  ears  of  the  Raja.  The 
Minister  became  jealous  and  determined  to  visit  the  Zamindar  who 
had  adopted  Chandrahasa,  when  he  discovered  that  the  young  man 
was  the  very  boy  he  had  sent  into  the  jungle  to  be  murdered. 
Still  bent  on  the  youth's  destruction  he  wrote  a  letter  to  his  son 
Madan  and  requested  Chandrahasa  to  carry  it  to  the  city  ;  the 
letter  was  as  follows  : — 

"  May  my  son  cat  the  fruits  of  youth,  and  know  that  this  same 


CHA  129 

Chaudraliasa  is  my  enemy,  and  that  he  is  eager  to  get  possession 
of  all  my  property  :  Look  not  you  to  his  youth  or  comeliness,  nor 
trouble  yourself  as  to  whose  son  he  is,  or  whether  he  be  a  man  of 
rank  or  learning  or  abilities,  but  give  him  poison.'' 

As  he  approached  the  city  he  entered  a  pleasant  garden  belong- 
ing to  the  Minister,  and  being  very  Aveary,  he  tied  his  horse  to 
a  tree,  laid  down  in  the  shade  and  fell  asleep.  That  veiy  morning 
the  Minister's  daughter  Bikya,  with  the  Princess  and  her  maids, 
had  come  to  amuse  themselves  in  the  garden.  Bikya,  wandering 
away  from  the  others,  saw  a  young  man  asleep  with  such  a  charm- 
ing face  that  her  heart  burnt  towards  him.  Seeing  a  letter  falling 
from  his  bosom  and  perceiving  that  it  was  in  her  father's  hand- 
writing, and  addressed  to  her  brother,  she  opened  and  read  it, 
Havin"-  compassion  on  the  youth  she  determined  to  alter  the 
letter,  and  as  the  word  signifying  enemy  was  such  that  by  taking 
away  a  single  letter  she  could  turn  it  into  a  word  meaning  friend, 
she  did  so.  The  word  signifying  poison  was  Eika,  which,  as  the 
young  man  was  very  good-looking,  she  altered  into  her  own  name 
of  Bikya  ;  and  re-sealing  the  letter  placed  it  again  on  the  youth's 
bosom,  and  returned  to  her  companions. 

Soon  after  Chandrahdsa  rose  from  his  sleep,  found  his  way  to  the 
house  of  the  Minister,  and  gave  the  letter  to  his  son.  Madan  read 
the  letter  with  great  surprise,  but  saw  that  the  orders  were  very 
positive  and  that  he  must  obey  them  without  delay. 

Chandrahasa  who  was  more  confounded  than  any  one,  was  pre- 
sented with  a  bridegroom's  dress,  and  directed  to  prepare  himself 
to  be  married  that  evening  to  the  beautiful  daughter  of  the 
Minister.  There  was  the  usual  distribution  of  presents,  and  great 
rejoicing  throughout  the  city. 

The  Minister  on  his  return  home  was  congratulated  by  eveiy 
one  he  met,  and  "  entered  his  house  in  a  state  bordering  on  mad- 
ness," when  he  found  what  had  occurred.  His  own  letter  was 
produced,  and  as  he  could  not  discover  the  alterations  that  had 
been  made,  he  ''could  only  wonder  at  the  greatness  of  his  own 
blunder."  Early  next  morning  he  hired  some  assassins  to  secrete 
themselves  in  the  temple  of  the  goddess  Durga  which  was  outside 
the  city,  and  murder  the  mau  who  should  come  at  evening  time  to 

17 


180  CHA 

present  a  golden-pot  of  incense  to  the  goddess.  He  then  told  Chan- 
drahasa  it  was  the  fixed  rule  for  every  man  who  married  into  his 
family  to  offer  a  golden-cup  of  incense  at  the  temple  of  Durga, 
and  Chandrahasa  readily  promised  to  comply  with  the  custom  that 
same  evening. 

But  that  very  day,  the  R^ja,  in  consequence  of  a  dream,  deter- 
mined to  resign  his  kingly  authority,  and  not  knowing  of  the 
minister's  return  sent  for  Madan,  to  whom  he  communicated  his 
intention,  and  his  determination  to  make  Chandrahasa  his  successor. 
He  desired  Madan  to  bring  his  new  brother-in-law  to  the  palace 
with  all  speed.  Madan  gladly  set  out  in  search  of  Cliandrahasa  and 
found  him  in  the  road  to  the  temple  of  Durga  with  the  golden-cup 
in  his  hand  ;  and  having  briefly  explained  to  him  the  urgent  neces- 
sity for  his  immediate  presence  at  the  palace,  he  took  the  cup  from 
his  hand  and  promised  to  present  it  himself  to  the  goddess. 
Madan  thus  sent  back  Chandrahasa  to  the  palace  of  the  Raja  and 
proceeded  alone  with  the  golden-cup  to  the  temple  of  Durga.  On 
enteriug  it  he  was  cut  down  by  the  swords  of  the  assassins  and 
killed  on  the  spot.  Chandrahasa  on  arriving  at  the  palace,  was 
crowned  by  the  Raja  himself.  The  minister  on  hearing  how  his 
plot  had  been  again  defeated,  and  his  own  son  killed,  destroyed 
himself  in  the  same  temple. —  Wkeele7''s  Mahdbhiirata, 

ChandraketU — The  son  of  Lakshmana,  and  king  of  Chandra- 
vaktra,  a  country  near  the  Himalaya. 

Chandrama — A  river  mentioned  in  the  V.  P.,  but  which  has 

not  been  identified. 

Chandrasri— One  of  the  thirty  Andhrabhritya  kings,  who 
reigned  three  years.     V.  P. 

Chandrasukta — One  of  the  islands  into  which  the  Varsha  of 
Bharata  is  divided,  as  enumerated  in  the  Bhagavata  and  Padma. 
It  has  not  been  identified. 

Chandravaloka — A  prince  descended  from  Kusa,  the  son  of 
Rama. 

Chandraswa— One  of  the  three  ?ons  of  Dhundhumara,  who 
survived  the  conflict  with  the  demon  Dhundu.   Dhimdii  hid  himself 


CHA  131 

beneath  a  sea  of  sand  which  king  Kuvalayaswa,  aided  hy  twenty- 
one  thousand  sons,  dug  up,  undeterred  by  the  flames  which  checked 
their  progress  and  finally  destroyed  all  but  three  of  them,  Kuva- 
layaswa  was  hence  called  Dhundumara.  Professor  Wilson  thinks 
that  the  legend  originates  probably  in  the  occurrence  of  some 
physical  phenomena,  as  an  earthquake  or  volcano. 

Chanura — A  demon  who  was  killed  by  Krishna,  after  a  very 
severe  contest,  in  which  Chanura  was  whirled  round  a  hundred 
times,  until  his  breath  was  expended  in  the  air,  and  Krishna 
dashed  him  on  the  ground  with  such  violence  as  to  smash  his  body 
into  a  hundred  fragments,  and  strew  the  earth  with  a  hundred 
pools  of  gory  mire.     V.  P. 

Charaka — A  renowned  medical  writer  of  great  antiquity. 
"  Charaka  appears  to  have  been  a  person  of  varied  thought  and 
culture,  and  to  have  had  an  earnest  desire  to  teach  men  so  to 
manage  their  bodies,  as  not  only  to  avoid  all  unnecessary  pain  on 
earth  ;  but  so  as  to  ensure  happiness  after  death.  Charaka  states 
that  originally  the  contents  or  material  of  his  work  was  communi- 
cated by  Atreya  to  Agnivesa.  By  Agnivesa  it  was  taught  to 
Charaka,  and  by  him  condensed  "  where  it  was  too  prolix  and 
expanded  where  it  seemed  too  brief."  The  result  of  Charaka's 
labour  was  a  work  of  considerable  extent,  no  less  than  one  hundred 
and  twenty  chapters  in  eight  divisions. — Mrs.  Manning  ;  A.  and 
M.  /.,  vol.  i,  p.  342,  where  the  reader  will  find  an  abstract  of 
Charaka's  work  ;  made  from  the  Sanskrit  manuscripts  of  the  IndLa 
Office  Library. 

Charakas — The  students  of  a  Sakha  so  denominated  from  its 
teacher  Charaka. 

Charana — A  sect  pledged  to  the  reading  of  a  certain  Sakha  of 
the  Vedas.  Charana  means  an  ideal  succession  of  pupils  and 
teachers  who  learn  and  teach  a  certain  branch  of  the  Veda.  See 
Gotra. 

Charanavyaha— The  name  of  a  '  Parisishta'  work,  which  is 
considered  to  have  been  composed  later  than  the  Sutras,  and 
representing  a  distinct  period  of  Hiudu  literature.     See  Pari^^ishta. 


132  CHA 

Chariot — The  suu,  moon  and  planets  are  all  represented  in  the 
Puranas  as  having  chariots  or  cars.  That  of  the  suu  is  stated  in 
the  V.  P.  to  be  nine  thousand  leagues  in  length,  and  the  pole  of 
twice  that  longitude  :  that  of  the  moon  has  three  wheels  and  is 
drawn  hy  ten  white  horses.  The  chariot  of  Mercury  is  composed 
of  air  and  fire  and  is  drawn  by  eight  bay  horses.  The  chariots  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter  are  of  gold. 

Charishnu— A  son  of  the  sage  Kirttimat. 

Charudatta — An  impoverished  brahman  who  is  one  of  the 
principal  characters  in  the  drama  of  the  Toy  Cart.  On  one 
occasion  Charudatta  says  : — 

My  friend, 
The  happiness  that  follows  close  on  sorrow, 
Shows  like  a  lamp  that  breaks  upon  the  night, 
But  he  that  falls  from  affluence  to  poverty, 
May  wear  the  human  semblance,  but  exists 
A  lifeless  form  alone. 
On  being  further  questioned,  Charudatta  declares  that  he  would 
much  prefer  death  to  poverty. 

"  To  die,  is  transient  suffering,  to  be  poor 
Interminable  anguish." 

And  he  further  explains  that  he  does  not  grieve  for  the  lost 
wealth  : 

"  But  that  the  guest  no  longer  seeks  the  dwelling 
whence  wealth  has  vanished. 

********** 

And  then  with  poverty  comes  disrespect  ; 
From  disrespect  does  self-dependence  fail  ; 
Then  scorn  and  sorrow  following,  overwhelm 
The  intellect  ;  and  when  the  judgment  fails 
The  being  perishes.     And  thus  from  poverty 
Each  ill  that  pains  humanity  proceeds." 

— A.  a7id  M.  /.,  vol.  2,  jt?.  157. 
Charmamandalas~A  northern  people,  living  in  the  district 

of  Mandala  or  Khanaa  of  Charma.     Pliny  mentions  a  king  of  a 

people  ?o  called.  Charmaru  rex, 


CHA— CHE  133 


Charmanvati— The  name  of  a  river,  the  Chambal. 

Charu,  Charudeha,  Charudeshna,  Charugupta,  Charu- 
vinda— Five  sons  of  Krishna  by  Rukmiui,  one  is  termed  in  the 
V.  P.  the  mighty  Charu. 

Charumati — A  daughter  of  Krishna  by  Rukmini. 

Charvaka— A  philosopher  who  about  the  third  ceutuiy, 
founded  a  new  school  of  undisguised  materialism— maintaining  that 
perception  is  the  one  only  source  of  knowledge  and  means  of  proof  : 
that  wliile  there  is  body  there  is  thought  and  sense  of  pleasure  and 
pain  ;  none  when  body  is  not  ;  and  hence,  as  well  as  from  self- 
conciousness,  it  is  concluded  that  self  and  body  are  identical.  In 
the  Vedanta  Sara  there  is  a  refutation  of  no  less  than  four  followers 
of  Charvaka,  who  assert  his  doctrine  under  various  modifications  ; 
one  maintaining  that  the  gross  corporeal  frame  is  identical  with 
soul  ;  another  that  the  corporeal  organs  constitute  the  soul  ;  a 
third  affirming  that  the  vital  functions  do  so  ;  and  the  fourth 
insisting  that  the  mind  and  the  soul  are  the  same. 

Charvaka— A  Rakshasa  who  disguised  himself  as  a  mendicant 
brahman  and  reviled  Yudhishthira  at  his  installation  as  Raja.  The 
real  brahmans,  says  the  Mahabharata,  were  so  enraged  with 
Charvaka  that  they  looked  upon  him  with  such  angry  eyes  that  he 
fell  upon  the  ground  like  a  tree  struck  with  lightning,  and  was 
burnt  to  ashes  on  the  spot. 

Chatakas— Pupils  of  Vaisampayana.  The  Vayii  states  that 
they  were  styled  Chatakas  from  Chat  Uo  divide,'  because  they 
shared  amongst  them  their  master's  guilt.  Those  pupils  of 
Vaisampayana  were  called  Chatakas  by  whom  the  crime  of 
Brahmanicide  was  shared. 

Chaturunga— A  Prince,  the  son  of  Romapada,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Anu. 

Chaturmasya — Sacrifices  every  four  months. 

Chedi — Sou  of  Kaisika,  whose  descendants  were  called  the 
Chaidva  kiuo-s. 


134  CHE— CHH 


Chedyas— The  inhabitants  of  Chedi,  which  is  usually  consi- 
dered as  Chaudail,  on  the  west  of  the  Jungle  mehals,  towards 
Nagpore.  It  is  known  in  times  subsequent  to  the  Puranas  as 
Rauastambha. 

Chhala— A  Prince,  the  son  of  Dala,  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Kusa. 

•  Chhandajas— The  vasus  and  similar  divinities.  They  have 
the  epithet  Chhandaja  as  born  in  different  Manwantaras  of  their 
own  will. 

Chhandas— An  Auga  of  the  four  Vedas,  the  one  which  relates 
to  metre. 

Chhaya— The  wife  of  the  sun.  Saujna,  daughter  of  Viswakar- 
man,  was  the  wife  of  the  sun  and  bore  him  three  children,  the 
Manu  Vaivaswata,  Yama,  and  the  goddess  Yami  (or  the  Yamuna 
i-iver.)  Unable  to  endure  the  fervours  of  her  lord,  Saujna  gave 
him  Chhaya*  as  his  handmaid,  and  repaired  to  the  forests  to 
practice  devotion.  The  sun  supposing  Chhaya  to  be  his  wife, 
Sanjna,  begot  by  her  three  other  children,  Sanaischara  (Saturn)  ; 
another  Manu  (Savarni),  and  a  daughter  Tapti  (the  Tapti  river.) 
Chhaya  upon  one  occasion  being  offended  with  Yama,  the  son 
of  Saujna,  denounced  an  imprecation  upon  him,  and  thereby  let  it 
be  seen  that  she  was  not  Sanjna,  his  mother.  Chhaya  informed 
the  sun  that  his  wife  had  gone  to  the  wilderness,  and  he  brought 
her  back  to  his  own  dwelling.     V.  P. 

Chhandoga-brahmana — In  the  Brahmana  of  the  Chhan- 
dogas  it  is  evident  that,  after  the  principal  collection  was  finished 
(called  the  praudha  or  Pauchaviusa-brahmana,  i.  e.,  consisting  of 
twenty-five  sections,)  a  twenty-sixth  Brahmana  was  added  which 
is  known  by  the  name  of  Shadvinsa-brahmaria.  This  Brahmana 
together  with  the  Adbhuta-brahmana  must  be  of  very  modern 
date.  It  mentions  not  only  temples  (Devayatanani,)  but  images 
of  gods  (daivata-pratima)  which  are  said  to  laugh,  to  cry,  to  sing, 
to  dance,  to  burst,  to  sweat  and  to  twinkle.  These  two  have  long 
been  supposed  to  be  the  only  Brahmanas  of  the  Chhandogas, 

*  That  is  her  shadow  or  ima2;e.     It  also  means  shade. 


CHH-CHI  185 


and  they  constitute,  no  doubt,  the  most  important  part  of  tiiat 
class  of  literature.  It  is  curious,  however,  that  whenever  the 
Brahmanas  of  the  Chhandogas  are  quoted,  their  number  is  invari- 
ably fixed  at  eight.  Kumjirila  Bhatta  says,  "in  the  eight  Brah- 
manas, together  with  the  Upanishads,  which  the  Chhandogas  read, 
no  single  accent  is  fixed."  — A.  S.  L. 

Chhandoga-priestS— The  second  class  of  priests  at  sacrifices. 
Chikitsa — One  of  the  eight  branches  of  medical  science  ;  that 
which  treats  of  the  administration   of  medicines,  or  medical  treat- 
ment in  general. 

Chintamani — An  Epic  poem  in  Tamil,  of  considerable  merit, 
and  regarded  as  the  highest  classical  authority  in  that  language. 
It  contains  the  heroic  story  of  a  king  named  Jivagan,  and  is 
probably  founded  on  a  similar  story  found  in  the  Maha  Purana,  a 
sacred  work  of  the  Jains  written  in  Sanscrit. 

Chintamani  is  a  compound  of  two  Sanscrit  words  Chintd,  thought 
or  reflection,  and  inani  a  jewel.  It  is  generally  applied  to  a 
fabulous  gem  which  is  supposed  to  yield  its  possessor  whatever 
may  be  required.  The  design  of  the  work  is  to  represent  the 
Jaina  system  in  an  attractive  form. 

Chitar — A  chief  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  living  with 
other  chiefs  near  the  Sarasvati. 

Chiti— Syuonyme  of  Mahat,  "  is  that  by  which  the  consequences 
of  acts  and  species  of  knowledge  are  selected  for  the  use  of  soul." 
—  Wilson.     V.  P.  p.  15. 

Chitra — The  name  of  a  lunar  mansion  in  Govithi,  in  the 
Central  Avasthana. 

Chitrabaha — A  Purana  river,  not  identified. 
Chitragupta— The  Registrar  of  Yama  ;  all  that  die  appear 
before  Yama,  and  are  confronted  with  Chitragupta  by  whom  their 
actions  have  been  recorded.  *'  Chitragupta  is  described  in  the 
following  tasteless  and  extravagant  style  in  the  Vrihanndradiya 
Purana.  '  The  dreadful  Chitragupta  with  a  voice  like  that 
issuing  from  the  clouds  at  the  mundane  dissolution,  gleaming  like 
a  mountain  of  collyrium,  terrible  with   lightning-like  weapons:, 


136 CHI 

having  thirty-two  arms,  as  big  as  three  yojanas,  red-eyed,  long- 
nosed,  his  face  furnished  with  grinders  and  projecting  teeth, 
his  eyes  resembling  oblong  ponds,  bearing  death  and  disease.'  " 
O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  302. 

Chitraka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prisni,  a  descendant  of  Sini. 

ChitraketU— A  sou  of  Vasishtha,  the  great  sage,  according  to 
^he  list  in  the  Bhagavata. 

Chitrakuta— An  isolated  hill  situated  on  a  river  called  the 
Pisaui,  fifty  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of  Eanda  in  Bundelkund. 
It  is  a  sacred  spot  crowded  with  temples,  and  shrines  of  Rama  and 
Lakshmaria  ;  celebrated  too  as  the  seat  of  Vahniki,  the  sage  and 
poet,  who  became  famous  in  after  years  as  the  author  of  the 
Ramayana. 

"  We  have  often  looked  on  that  green  hill  :  it  is  the  holiest 
spot  of  that  sect  of  the  Hindu  faith  who  devote  themselves  to  this 
incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  whole  neighbourhood  is  Rama's 
country.  Every  head-land  has  some  legend,  every  cavern  is 
connected  with  his  name  ;  some  of  the  wild  fruits  are  still  called 
SHdphal,  being  the  reputed  food  of  the  exiles.  Thousands  and 
thousands  annually  visit  the  spot,  and  round  the  hill  is  a  raised 
foot-path,  on  which  the  devotee,  with  naked  feet,  treads  full  of 
pious  awe." — Calcutta  EevieiVy  Vol.  XXIII. 

The  following  extracts  from  Mr.  Griffith's  translation  of  the 
Ramayana  will  serve  to  show  how  this  sacred  character  has  been 
acquired  : — 

"  Then,  as  he  saw  the  morning  break, 

In  answer  Bharadvaja  spake, 
*  Go  forth  to  Chitrakuta's  hill, 

Where  berries  grow,  and  sweets  distil  : 

Full  well,  I  deem,  that  home  will  suit 

Thee,  Rama,  strong  and  resolute. 

Go  forth,  and  Chitrakuta  seek, 

Famed  mountain  of  the  Varied  Peak. 

In  the  wild  woods  that  gird  him  round, 

All  creatures  of  the  chase  are  found  ; 


CHI  137 

Thou  in  the  glades  shalt  see  appear 
Vast  herds  of  elephants  and  deer. 
With  Sita  there  shalt  thou  deliglit 
To  gaze  upon  tlie  woody  lieight  ; 
There  with  expanding  heart  to  look 
On  river,  table-land,  and  brook. 
And  see  the  foaming  torrent  rave 
Impetuous  from  the  mountain  cave. 
Auspicious  hill  !  where  all  day  long 
The  lapwing's  cry,  the  Koil's  song 

Make  all  who  listen  gay  : 
Where  all  is  fresh  and  fair  to  see, 
Where  elephants  and  deer  roam  free, 
There,  as  a  hermit,  stay." 
"  Then  on  from  wood  to  wood  they  strayed, 
O'er  many  a  stream,  through  constant  shade^ 
As  Bharadvaja  bade  them,  till 
They  came  to  Chitrakuta's  hill. 
And  Rama  there,  with  Lakshman's  aid, 
A  pleasant  little  cottage  made, 
And  spent  his  days  with  Sita,  dressed 
In  coat  of  bark  and  deerskin  vest. 
And  Cliitraktita  grew  to  be 
As  bright  with  those  illustrious  three 
As  Meru's  sacred  peaks  that  shine 
With  glory,  when  the  gods  recline 
Beneath  them  :  Siva's  self  between 
The  Lord  of  Grold  and  Beauty's  Queen.'* 

Chitralekha — The  companion  and  friend  of  the  princess 
Usha,  to  whom  Usha  related  her  dream,  and  who  by  her  magic 
power  brought  Aniruddha  to  the  palace. 

Chitrangada — The  son  of  Santanu  by  his  wife  Satyavati.  He 
was  killed  when  young,  in  a  conflict  with  a  Gaudarbha,  who  was 
-also  named  Chitrangada. 

Chitrangada— The  daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Manipura   wIjo 

18 


138  CHI— CHR 


was  married  to  Arjuna  in  his  travels,  but  remained  in  her  own 
city  with  her  son  Babhru-vahana,  when  Arjuna  returned  to 
Hastinapur. 

Chitraratha — The  king  of  the  celestial  choristers  ; 
"  On  Chitraratha,  true  and  dear 
My  tuneful  bard  and  charioteer 
Gems,  robes,  and  plenteous  wealth  confer 
Mine  ancient  friend  and  minister." 

—  Griffith's  Rdmdf/a7ia. 

Chitraratha  was  also  the  name  of  the  son  of  Rushadru  and  father 
of  Sasavinda  who  was  lord  of  the  fourteen  great  gems.  There  was 
another  Chitraratha,  son  of  the  Dharmaratha,  who  drank  the  Soma 
juice  along  with  ludra.  A  fourth  Chitraratha  is  mentioned  in  the 
V.  P.  as  the  son  of  Ushna,  a  descendant  of  Parikshit. 

Chitraratha,  Chitrasena,  Chitropala— The  names  of  three 
rivers  in  the  V.  P.  which  have  not  been  yet  identified. 

Chitravama— The  name  of  the  peacock  king  in  the  Pancha- 
tautra  stories. 

Cholas — The  inhabitants  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Coromandel 
coast ;  so  called  after  them  Cholamandala. 

Chronology — The  Vishnu  Purana  says,  "  Time  is  a  form  of 
Vishnu  :  hear  how  it  is  applied  to  measure  the  duration  of  Brahma, 
and  of  all  other  sentient  beings.  Fifteen  twinklings  of  the 
eye  make  a  Kash'tha  ;  thirty  Kash'thas,  one  Kald  ;  and  thirty 
Kalus,  one  Muhurtta.  Thirty  Muhurttas  constitute  a  day  and 
night  of  mortals  :  thirty  such  days  make  a  month,  divided  into 
two  half-months  :  six  months  form  an  Ayana  (the  period  of 
the  sun's  progress  north  or  south  of  the  ecliptic  :)  and  two 
Ay  anas  compose  a  year.  The  southern  Ayana  is  a  night,  and 
the  northern  a  day,  of  the  gods.  Twelve  thousand  divine  years, 
each  composed  of  (three  hundred  and  sixty)  such  days,  constitute 
the  period  of  the  four  Yugas,  or  ages.  They  are  thus  distributed  : 
the  Krita  age  has  four  thousand  divine  years  ;  the  Treta  three 
thousand  ;  the  Dwapara,  two  thousand  ;  and  the  Kali  age,  one 
thousand  :  so  those  acquainted  with  antiquity  have  declared."    The 


CHU— CHY  139 

period  that  precedes  a  Yuga  is  called  a  Saudhyu,  aud  it  is 
of  as  many  hundred  years  as  there  are  thousands  in  the  Yuga  : 
and  the  period  that  follows  a  Yuga,  termed  the  Sandhyansa, 
is  of  similar  duration.  The  interval  between  the  Sandhya,  and 
the  Sandh^^ausa  is  the  Yuga,  denominated  Krita,  Treta,  &c.  The 
Krita,  Treta,  Dwapara  and  Kali,  constitute  a  great  age,  or 
aggregate  of  four  ages  :  a  thousand  such  aggregates  are  a  day  of 
Brahma,  and  fourteen  Manus  reign  within  that  term.  Hear  the 
division  of  time  which  they  measure. 

Seven  Rishis,  certain  (secondary)  divinities,  ludra,  Manu,  and 
the  kings  his  sons,  are  created  and  perish  at  one  period  ;  aud 
the  interval,  called  a  Manwantara,  is  equal  to  seventy-one  times 
the  number  of  years  contained  in  the  four  Yugas,  with  some 
additional  years  :  this  is  the  duration  of  the  Manu,  the  (attendant) 
divinities,  and  the  rest,  which  is  equal  to  8,52,000  divine  years,  or 
to  3,06,720,000  years  of  mortals,  independent  of  the  additional 
period.  Fourteen  times  this  period  constitutes  a  Brahma  day,  that 
is,  a  day  of  Brahma  ;  the  term  (Brahma)  being  the  derivative 
form.  At  the  end  of  this  day  a  dissolution  of  the  universe  occurs, 
when  all  the  three  worlds,  earth,  and  the  regions  of  space,  are 
consumed  with  fire.  The  dwellers  of  Maharloka  (the  region 
inhabited  by  the  saints  who  survive  the  world,)  distressed  by  the 
heat,  repair  then  to  Janaloka  (the  region  of  holy  men  after 
their  decease.)  When  the  three  worlds  are  but  one  mighty  ocean, 
Brahma,  who  is  one  with  Narayana,  satiate  with  the  demolition  of 
the  universe,  sleeps  upon  his  serpent-bed — contemplated,  the  lotus 
born,  by  the  ascetic  inhabitants  of  the  Janaloka— for  a  night  of 
equal  duration  with  his  day  ;  at  the  close  of  which  he  creates  anew. 
Of  such  days  and  nights  is  a  year  of  Brahma  composed  ;  aud  a 
hundred  such  years  constitute  his  whole  life.  One  Pararddha, 
or  half  his  existence,  has  expired,  terminating  with  the  Maha  Kalpa 
called  Padma.  The  Kalpa  (or  day  of  Brahma)  termed  Varaha 
is  the  first  of  the  second  period  of  Brahma's  existence." 

Chunchu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Harita,  a  descendant  of  Haris- 
chandra. 

Chyavana~A  celebrated  sage,  who  in  old  age  was  restored  to 


140  CHY 

youth  by  the  Asvins.  The  legend  is  related  at  length  in  the 
Satapatha  Brahmaria,  and  translated  by  Muir  in  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V, 
p.  250.  The  substance  of  the  story  as  told  in  the  Mahabharata  is 
thus  given  by  Muir  :  "  We  are  there  told  that  the  body  of 
Chyavaun,  when  performing  austerity  in  a  certain  place,  became 
encrusted  with  an  ant-hill  ;  that  king  Saiyati  came  then  to 
the  spot  with  his  4,000  wives  and  his  single  daughter  Sukanya  ; 
'  that  the  rishi,  seeing  her,  became  enamoured  of  her  and  endeavoured 
to  gain  her  affections,  but  without  eliciting  from  her  any  reply. 
Seeing,  however,  the  sage's  eyes  gleaming  out  from  the  ant-hill, 
and  not  knowing  what  they  were,  the  princess  pierced  them  with 
a  sharp  instrument,  whereupon  Chyavana  became  incensed,  and 
afflicted  the  king's  army  with  a  stoppage  of  urine  and  of  the 
necessary  functions.  When  the  king  found  out  the  cause  of  the 
infliction,  and  supplicated  the  rishi  for  its  removal,  the  latter 
insisted  on  receiving  the  king's  daughter  to  wife,  as  the  sole 
condition  of  his  forgiveness.  Sukanya  accordingly  lived  with  the 
rishi  as  his  spouse.  One  day,  however,  she  was  seen  by  the 
Asvins,  who  endeavoured,  but  without  effect,  to  persuade  her 
to  desert  her  decrepit  husband,  and  choose  one  of  them  in 
his  place.  They  then  told  her  they  were  the  physicians  of  the 
gods,  and  would  restore  her  husband  to  j^outh  and  beauty, 
when  she  could  make  her  choice  between  him  and  one  of  them. 
Chyavaua  and  his  wife  consented  to  this  proposal  ;  and,  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  Asvins,  he  entered  with  them  into  a 
neighbouring  pond,  when  the  three  came  forth  of  like  celestial 
beauty,  and  each  asked  her  to  be  his  bride.  She,  however, 
recognized  and  chose  her  own  husband.  Chyavana,  in  gratitude 
for  his  restoration  to  youth,  then  offered  to  compel  Indra  to  admit 
the  Asvins  to  a  participation  in  the  Soma  ceremonial,  and  fulfilled 
his  promise  in  the  course  of  a  sacrifice  which  he  performed  for 
king  Saryati.  On  that  occasion  Indra  objected  to  such  an  honor 
being  extended  to  the  Asvins,  on  the  ground  that  they  wandered 
about  among  men  as  physicians,  changing  their  forms  at  will ;  but 
Chyavana  refused  to  listen  to  the  objection,  and  carried  out  his 
iutentiou,  staying  the  arm  of  Indra  when  he  was  about  to  launch  a 
thunderbolt,  and  creating  a  terrific  demon,  who  was  on  the  point 


CLE— CLO  Ul 


of  devouring  the  king  of  the  gods,  and  was  only  prevented  by  the 
timely  submission  of  the  latter." — Vol.  V,  p.  254. 

Clepsydra — A  Avater-clock,  is  thus  described  in  an  extract  from 
a  commentary,  given  in  a  note  to  the  Vishnu  Purana.  "  A  vessel 
made  of  twelve  Palas  and  a  half  of  copper,  and  holding  a  Prastha, 
Magadha  measure,  of  water,  broad  at  top,  and  having  at  bottom  a 
tube  of  gold,  of  four  Mashas  weight,  four  fingers  long,  is  placed  in 
water,  and  the  time  in  which  the  vessel  is  filled  by  the  hole  in  the 
bottom,  is  called  a  Nadika.  The  common  measure  of  the  Nadi  is 
a  thin  shallow  brass-cup,  with  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom.  It  is 
placed  in  the  surface  of  water,  in  a  large  vessel,  where  nothing  can 
disturb  it,  and  where  the  water  gradually  fills  the  cup  and  sinks 
it."     Page  631. 

Clouds — Clouds,  in  the  Puranas,  are  of  three  classes  : — 1, 
Agneya,  originating  from  fire  or  heat,  or  in  other  words  evapora- 
tion :  they  are  charged  with  wind  and  rain  and  are  of  various 
orders  ;  2,  Brahmaja,  born  from  the  breath  of  Brahma  ;  these 
are  the  clouds  whence  thunder  and  lightning  proceed  :  and  3, 
Pakshaja,  or  clouds  which  were  originally  the  wings  of  the 
mountains,  and  which  were  cut  off  by  Indra  ;  these  are  the  largest 
of  all,  and  are  those  which  at  the  end  of  the  Kalpas  and  Yugas, 
pour  down  the  waters  of  the  deluge.  The  shell  of  the  egg  of 
Brahma,  or  of  the  universe,  is  formed  of  the  primitive  clouds. 
The  Vishnu  Purana  states  that  "  during  eight  months  of  the  year 
the  sun  attracts  the  waters  and  then  pours  them  upon  earth  as 
rain."  Consequently  the  Linga  Purana  observes  there  is  no  waste 
of  water  in  the  universe  as  it  is  in  constant  circulation.  The 
Vishnu  Purana  adds,  "The  water  that  the  sun  has  drawn  up 
from  the  Ganga  of  the  skies  he  quickly  pours  down  with  his  rays, 
and  without  a  cloud  ;  and  men  who  are  touched  by  this  pure  rain 
are  cleansed  from  the  soil  of  sin  and  never  see  hell :  this  is  termed 
celestial  ablution."  "  The  water  which  the  clouds  shed  upon  the 
earth  is  the  Ambrosia  of  living  beings,  for  it  gives  fertility 
to  the  plants  which  are  the  support  of  their  existence.  By  this, 
all  vegetables  grow  and  are  matured,  and  become  the  means  of 
maintaining  life." 


Dabhiti — A  king  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  who  was  saved 
by  Indra  from  being  carried  off  by  the  Asuras  or  Dasyus.  "  Indra 
burnt  all  their  weapons  in  a  kindled  fire,  and  enriched  Dabhiti 
with  their  cattle,  horses  and  chariots." 

Dadhicha — A  celebrated  sage  who  reproved  Daksha  on  the 
occasion  of  his  great  sacrifice,  saying,  "  The  man  who  worships 
what  ought  not  to  be  worshipped,  or  pays  not  reverence  where 
veneration  is  due,  is  guilty  of  heinous  sin." 

Dadhikra— ^The  name  given  in  the  Big  Veda  to  a  divine  horse, 
described  as  the  straight-going,  the  graceful-moving,  the  resplen- 
dent, the  rapid,  the  destroyer  of  enemies  like  a  heroic  prince.  In 
a  second  hymn  the  Rishi  says,  "  May  Aditi,  consentient  with  Mitra 
and  Varuna,  render  him  free  from  sin  who  has  performed  the 
worship  of  the  steed  Dadhikra,  when  the  fire  has  been  kindled  at 
the  opening  of  the  dawn." 

Dadhividarchas,  Dahas  —Two  tribes  of  people  mentioned  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana  but  not  identified. 

Dadu — The  founder  of  a  Vaishnava  sect,  who  taught  that 
Bhakti,  or  implicit  faith,  was  more  efiicacious  than  subjugation  of 
the  passions,  charity,  or  knowledge.  Dadu  was  originally  a  cotton- 
cleaner  at  Ajmir. 

Dadu-panthis — The  designation  of  the  disciples  or  followers 
of  the  above.  One  of  the  Vaishnava  sects  in  Hindustan.  It  had 
its  origin  from  Dadu,  a  cotton-cleaner  by  profession,  who,  having 
been  admonished  by  a  voice  from  heaven  to  devote  himself  to 
a  religious  life,  retired  with  that  view  to  the  Baherana  mountain, 
where,  after  some  time,  he  disappeared,  and  no  traces  of  him  could 
be  found.  His  followers  believed  him  to  have  been  absorbed  into 
the  Deity.  He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  a.  d.  1600. 
The  followers  of  Dadu  wear  no  peculiar  mark  on  the  forehead, 
but  carry  a  rosary,  and  are  further  dis^tinguitfhed  by  a  round  white 


DAG  14n 

cap  accordiug  to  some  ;  but,  according  to  others,  one  with  four 
corners,  and  a  flap  hanging  down  behind.  This  cap  each  man  is 
required  to  manufacture  for  himself — Wilson. 

Da^oba — A  conical  erection  surmounting  relics  among  the 
Buddhists.  The  name  is  said  by  Mr.  Hardy  to  be  derived  from 
da,  datu,  or  dhatu,  an  osseous  relic,  and  geba  or  garbha,  the  womb. 
These  buildings  are  sometimes  of  immense  height,  of  circular 
form,  and  composed  of  stone  or  brick,  faced  with  stone  or  stucco. 
They  are  built  upon  a  platform,  which  again  rests  upon  a  natural 
or  artificial  elevation,  which  is  usually  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
The  utmost  respect  is  felt  fordagobas  among  the  Buddhists,  chiefly 
because  they  contain  relics  of  different  kinds.  Professor  Wilson, 
in  his  '  Ariana  Antiqua,'  thus  describes  the  ordinary  contents  of 
a  dagoba  :  "  The  most  conspicuous  objects  are,  in  general,  vessels 
of  stone  or  metal  ;  they  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  ;  some  of 
them  have  been  fabricated  on  a  lathe.  They  commonly  contain  a 
silver  box  or  casket,  and  within  that,  or  sometimes  by  itself,  a 
casket  of  gold.  This  is  sometimes  curiously  wrought.  One  found 
by  Mr.  Masson  at  Deh  Bimaran  is  chased  with  a  double  series  of 
four  figures,  representing  Gautama  in  the  act  of  preaching  ;  a 
mendicant  is  on  his  right,  a  lay-follower  on  his  left,  and  behind  the 
latter  a  female  disciple  ;  they  stand  under  arched  niches  resting 
on  pillars,  and  between  the  arches  is  a  bird  ;  a  row  of  rubies  is  set 
round  the  upper  and  lower  edge  of  the  vessel,  and  the  bottom  is 
also  chased  with  the  leaves  of  the  lotus  :  the  vase  had  no  cover. 
Within  these  vessels,  or  sometimes  in  the  cell  in  which  they  are 
placed,  are  found  small  pearls,  gold  buttons,  gold  ornaments  and 
rings,  beads,  pieces  of  white  and  coloured  glass  and  crystal,  pieces 
of  clay  or  stone  with  impressions  of  figures,  bits  of  bone,  and  teeth 
of  animals  of  the  ass  and  goat  species,  pieces  of  cloth,  and  folds  of 
Tuz  or  Bhurj  leaf,  or  rather  the  bark  of  a  kind  of  birch  on 
which  the  Hindus  formerly  wrote  ;  and  these  pieces  bear  some- 
times characters  which  may  be  termed  Bactrian  ;  but  they  are  in 
too  fragile  and  decayed  a  state  to  admit  of  being  unfolded  or  read. 
Similar  characters  are  also  found  superficially  scratched  upon  the 
stone,  or  dotted  upon  the  metal  vessels.  In  one  instance  they 
were  found  traced   upon  the  stone  with  ink.     Within  some  of  the 


144  DAG 

vessels  was  also  found  a  liquid,  which  upon  exposure  rapidly 
evaporated,  leaving  a  brown  sediment,  which  was  analysed  by  Mr. 
Prinsep,  and  offered  some  traces  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters." 

The  principal  dagobas  in  Ceylon,  as  we  learn  from  Mr.  Hardy, 
are  at  Auuradhapura,  and  it  would  a23pear  that  it  was  accounted  a 
ceremony  of  great  importance  among  the  ancient  ascetics  to  walk 
round  one  of  these  sacred  structures.  It  is  regarded  by  the  Hiudu 
Brahmans  as  a  most  meritorious  walk  to  circumambulate  a  temple, 
raising  the  person  who  performs  this  pious  act  to  a  place  in  the 
heaven  of  the  god  or  goddess  to  whom  the  temple  belongs.  The 
Nepaulese  also  account  it  one  of  the  most  devout  employments 
in  which  a  Buddhist  can  be  engaged  to  march  round  a  dagoba, 
repeating  mental  prayers,  and  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  small 
cylinder  fixed  upon  the  upper  end  of  a  short  staffer  handle,  which 
he  keeps  in  perpetual  revolution.  The  reverence  in  which  these 
structures  are  held  is  thus  noticed  by  Mr.  Hardy,  in  his  valuable 
work,  entitled  '  Eastern  Monachism  :'  "  Any  mark  of  disrespect  to 
the  dagoba  is  regarded  as  being  highly  criminal,  whilst  a  contrary 
course  is  equally  deserving  of  reward.  When  Elaro,  one  of  the 
Malabar  sovereigns,  who  reigned  in  Ceylon  b.  c.  205,  was  one  day 
riding  in  his  chariot,  the  yoke-bar  accidentally  struck  one  of  these 
edifices,  and  displaced  some  of  the  stones.  The  priests  in  attend- 
ance reproached  him  for  the  act  ;  but  the  monarch  immediately 
descended  to  the  ground,  and  prostrating  himself  in  the  street,  said 
that  they  might  take  off  his  head  with  the  wheel  of  his  carriage. 
But  the  priests  replied,  '  Great  king!  our  divine  teacher  delights 
not  in  torture  ;  repair  the  dagoba.'  For  the  purpose  of  replacing 
the  fifteen  stones  that  had  been  dislodged,  Elaro  bestowed  1 5,000 
of  the  silver  coins  called  kahapana.  Two  wox-nen  who  had  worked 
for  hire  at  the  erection  of  the  great  dagoba  by  Dutugamini  were 
for  this  meritorious  act  born  in  Tawntisa.  The  legend  informs  us 
that  on  a  subsequent  occasion  they  went  to  worship  at  the  same 
place,  when  the  radiance  emanating  from  their  persons  was  so  great 
that  it  filled  the  whole  of  Ceylon." 

The  ground  on  which  a  dagoba  is  held  in  so  high  estimation  is 
simply  because  it  contains  relics  which  have  from  remote  times  been 
worshipped  by  the  Biiddliist^.    As  far  back  ns  the  fourth  century, 


D  AH— DAI  145 


Fa  Hian,  a  Chinese  traveller,  mentions  such  a  practice  as  then 
prevailing.  "  The  bones  of  Gautama,  the  garments  he  used,  the 
utensils  he  used,  and  the  ladder  by  which  he  visited  heaven,  were 
worshipped  by  numbers  of  devout  pilgrims  ;  and  happy  did  the 
country  consider  itself  that  retained  one  of  these  precious  remains." 
The  most  celebrated  relic  which  is  still  to  be  found  among  the 
worshippers  of  Gautama  Buddha  is  the  Dalada  (which  see).  To 
make  a  present  or  offering  to  a  dagoba  is  viewed  as  an  act  of  the 
highest  virtue,  which  will  be  rewarded  both  in  this  world  and  the 
next,  and  will  lead  to  the  attainment  of  Nirioana  or  annihilation. 
Buddha  himself  declared  while  on  earth,  "  Though  neither  flowers 
nor  anything  else  should  be  offered,  yet  if  any  one  will  look  with  a 
pleasant  mind  at  a  ddgoba  or  the  court  of  the  bo-tree,  he  will 
undoubtedly  be  born  in  a  Deva-loka  (which  see)  ;  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  say  that  he  who  sweeps  these  sacred  places,  or  makes  offer- 
ings to  them,  will  have  an  equal  reward  ;  furthermore,  should  any 
one  die  on  his  way  to  make  an  offering  to  a  dagoba,  he  also  will 
receive  the  blessedness  of  the  Deva-lokas."  Some  dagobas  are 
alleged  to  have  the  power  of  working  miracles,  but  this  privilege  is 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  those  which  have  been  built  in  honor 
of  the  rahats,  or  beings  who  are  free  from  all  evil  desire,  and 
possess  supernatural  powers. 

"It  was  not  till  the  year  1837  in  which  Mr.  Jas.  Prinsep  deci- 
phered the  written  character  of  king  Asoka's  edicts,  that  anything 
was  known  of  the  Buddhism  of  ancient  India.  Then  first  was  it 
understood  when  and  by  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  these 
dagobas  were  erected." — A.  and  M.  I. 

Dahana— The  name  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  according  to 
the  enumeration  in  the  Matsya  Purana. 

Dahragni — A  name  of  the  sage  Agastya. 

Daityas— Demons.  The  Daityas  are  thought  to  have  been,  in 
the  epic  period,  personifications  of  the  Aborigines  of  India,  more 
particularly  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Peninsula  ;  who,  to  increase 
the  glories  of  the  heroes  who  conquered  them,  were  represented  aa 
giants  and  demons.  They  are  associated  with  the  Danavas,  who 
bear  the  same  character.    In  the  Purauic  period  they  play  a  very 

19 


146  DAK     

important  part,  as  the  enemies  who  are  constantly  at  war  with  the 
deities  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  heaven.  They 
are  there  cousideretl  as  the  descendants  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti  (from 
whom  the  name  Daitya  is  called  a  matronymic).  At  the  churuiug 
of  the  ocean  they  attempted  to  seize  the  cup  of  Amrita  or  Ambi-osia 
which  was  then  produced,  and  was  in  the  hand  of  Dhanwantari  : 
but  Vishnu,  assuming  a  female  form,  fascinated  and  deluded  them  ; 
and  recovering  the  Amrita  from  them  delivered  it  to  the  gods. 
Sakra  and  the  other  deities  quaifed  the  Ambrosia.  The  incensed 
demons,  grasping  their  weapons,  fell  upon  them  ;  but  the  gods, 
into  whom  the  ambrosial  draught  had  infused  new  vigour,  defeated 
and  put  their  host  to  flight ;  they  then  fled  through  the  regions  of 
space,  and  plunged  into  the  subterraneous  realms  of  Patala.  The 
gods  thereat  greatly  rejoiced,  did  homage  to  the  holder  of  the 
discus  and  mace,  and  resumed  their  reign  in  heaven.  The  Daityas 
then  inhabited  Patala.  Hiranyakasipu  was  their  king,  but  when 
deposed  by  Vishnu,  his  illustrious  son  Prahlada  received  the 
sovereignty.  The  Vishnn  Purana  relates  other  legends  of  the 
Daityas  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  the  earth,  and  being  deluded 
from  the  tenets  of  the  Vedas  were  easily  conquered. 

Daksha— A  celebrated  Prajapati,  born  from  the  thumb  of 
Brahma  ;  he  was  the  chief  of  the  patriarchs.  He  had  twenty- 
four  daughters  by  his  wife  Prasuti,  and  twenty-seven  other 
daughters  who  were  afterwards  stellar ised  in  the  lunar  mansions. 
The  Vayu  Purana  contains  a  full  account  of  the  great  sacrifice 
offered  by  Daksha.  One  of  his  daughters,  Sati,  was  married  to 
Siva ;  but  neither  she  nor  her  husband  were  invited  to  the 
sacrifice,  as  Daksha  had  been  offended  with  Siva  not  long  before. 
Sati,  however,  attended,  and  on  being  affronted  threw  herself  into 
the  flames  of  the  sacrifice  and  perished.*  Siva  exasperated,  tore 
off  a  lock  of  his  hair  and  cast  it  with  violence  to  the  ground.  It 
started  up  in  the  shape  of  Vira  Bhadra  with  a  thousand  hands, 
whom  Siva  sent  to  destroy  the  sacrifice.  He  did  so,  and  according 
to  some  accounts  cut  oft'  Daksha's  head.     According  to  the  Vishnu 

*  Hence  in  modern  times  a  widow  consentary  to  be  bound  with  the  corpse 
of  her  husband  is  called  a  Sati.  The  common  word  suttee  is  not  the  act 
of  burninij,  but  the  female  burnt. 


DAK  147 

Purana,  Vira  Bhadra,  was  created  from  Siva's  moutli,  a  being 
like  the  fire  of  fate,  a  divine  being  with  a  thousand  heads,  a 
thousand  feet,  &c.,  &c.  It  is  only  the  Kasi  Khanda,  however, 
that  makes  Sati  throw  herself  into  the  fire,  and  Professor  Wilson 
thinks  this  an  improvement  indicative  of  a  later  age.  In  other 
legends  she  is  represented  as  killing  herself  on  account  of  a  quarrel 
with  her  father.  The  conduct  of  Vira  Bhadra  in  interfering  with 
and  destroying  the  sacrifice,  displeased  the  gods  who  were  present, 
and  they  complained  of  it  to  Brahma  ;  whereupon  he  with  them 
proceeded  to  Siva,  interceding  on  behalf  of  Daksha.  Siva  then 
went  personally  to  the  scene  of  disorder,  and  having  resuscitated 
Daksha,  whose  head  could  not  be  found,  replaced  it  by  the  head  of 
a  ram.  The  exploits  of  the  Rudras  on  the  occasion  are  parti- 
cularly specified  in  the  Kurma  and  Bhagavnta  Puranas.  Indra  is 
knocked  down  and  trampled  on  ;  Yama  has  his  staff  broken  ; 
Saraswati  and  the  Matris  have  their  noses  cut  off.  Mitra  or 
Bhaga  has  his  eyes  pulled  out :  Pusha  has  his  teeth  knocked  down 
his  throat ;  Chandra  is  pummelled  ;  Vahni's  hands  are  cut  off ; 
Bhrigu  loses  his  beard  ;  the  Brahmans  are  pelted  with  stones  ; 
the  Prajapatis  are  beaten  ;  and  the  gods  and  demi-gods  are  run 
through  with  swords  or  stuck  with  arrows.  Other  accounts  state 
that  Daksha  himself  propitiated  the  mighty  god,  the  holder  of  the 
trident,  Maheshwara."     V.  P. 

"  The  sacrifice  of  Daksha  is  a  legend  of  some  interest,  from  its 
historical  and  archoeological  relations.  It  is  obviously  intended  to 
intimate  a  struggle  between  the  worshippers  of  Siva  and  of  Vishnu, 
in  which  at  first  the  latter,  but  finally  the  former,  acquired  the 
ascendancy.  It  is  also  a  favourite  subject  of  Hindu  sculpture, 
at  least  with  the  Hindus  of  the  Saiva  division,  and  makes  a 
conspicuous  figure  both  at  Elephanta  and  Ellora.  A  representa- 
tion of  the  dispersion  and  mutilation  of  the  gods  and  sages  by 
Virabhadra,  at  the  former,  is  published  in  the  Arch?eologia,  vir, 
326,  where  it  is  described  as  the  Judgment  of  Solomon  !  a  figure 
of  Virabhadra  is  given  by  Niebuhr,  Vol.  II,  tab.  10  :  and  the 
entire  group  in  the  Bombay  Transactions,  Vol.  I,  p.  220.  The 
legend  of  Daksha  therefore  was  popular  when  those  cavern  temples 
were  excavated."     V.  P. 


148  DAK— DAL 


"  Daksha,"  "  says  Mrs.  Maoniug,"  is  a  shadowy  god.  He  is 
an  Aditya,  one  of  the  sons  of  Aditi. 

"  Daksha  sprang  from  Aditi,  and  Aditi  from  Daksha.  In  the 
Rig  Veda,  Mitra  and  Varuna  are  celebrated  as  the  sons  of 
Daksha. 

"  Mr.  Muir  relieves  us  from  some  of  our  perplexity  concerning 
this  mysterious  Daksha,  by  suggesting  that  possibly  in  some 
of  these  passages,  the  word  Daksha  was  used  figuratively  for 
strength."—^,  aiid  M.  I. 

Daksha-savami—The  name  of  the  Manu  of  the  Ninth  Man- 
•wantara  ;  described  in  the  Vdyu  as  one  of  the  mind-engendered 
sons  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  by  himself  and  the  three  gods 
Brahma,  Dharma  and  Rudra,  to  whom  he  presented  her  on  Mount 
Meru. 

Dakshayana— One  of  the  names  of  the  goddess  Parvati.  It 
is  also  the  name  of  a  lunar  asterism  in  general.  The  grammarian 
Vyadi,  author  of  the  Saugraha,  is  sometimes  called  Dakshayana. 

Dakshi — The  name  of  the  mother  of  the  celebrated  Sanscrit 
grammarian  Panini. 

Dakshina— One  of  the  twin  daughters  of  Ruchi  and  Akuti. 
These  descendants  of  the  first  pair  are  evidently  allegorical  :  thus 
Yajni  (the  name  of  the  other  twin  daughter)  is  '  sacrifice  ;'  and 
Dakshina,  *  donation'  to  brahmans.     See  V.  P.,  Chap.  viii. 

Dakshinacharis — A  leading  division  of  the  sect  of  Saktas, 
the  followers  of  the  right-hand  ritual ;  often  popularly  called  the 
right-hand  caste  ;  the  followers  of  the  left-hand  ritual  being 
termed  Vamacharis. 

Dala — A  prince,  the  son  of  Kusa,  a  descendant  of  Rama. 

Dalada— The  left  canine  tooth  of  Buddha,  the  most  highly 
venerated  relic  among  the  Buddhists,  particularly  in  Ceylon.  To 
preserve  this,  the  only  portion  which  remains  of  the  body  of  the 
holy  sage,  a  temple  has  been  erected,  in  which  it  is  deposited, 
being  placed  in  a  small  chamber,  enshrined  in  six  cases,  the  largest 
of  them  being  upwards  of  five  feet  in  height  and  formed  of  silver. 


DAL  149 

All  the  cases  are  constructed  in  the  conical  shape  of  a  dagoba,  and 
two  of  them  are  inlaid  with  rubies  and  precious  stones.  The  outer 
case  is  ornamented  with  gold  and  jewels,  which  have  been  offered 
by  devotees.  Mr.  Hardy  describes  the  relic  itself  as  '  a  piece  of 
discoloured  ivory  or  bone,  slightly  curved,  nearly  two  inches  in 
length,  and  one  in  diameter  at  the  base  ;  and  from  thence  to  the 
other  extremity,  which  is  rounded  and  blunt,  it  considerably 
decreases  in  size.'  The  vihara  or  temple  which  contains  the 
sanctuary  of  this  relic,  is  attached  to  the  palace  of  the  former 
kings  of  Kandy.  From  a  work  composed  on  the  subject  of 
Buddha's  tooth,  dating  as  far  back  as  a.  d.  310,  it  is  said  that  one 
of  the  disciples  of  the  sage  procured  his  left  canine  tooth  when  his 
relics  were  distributed.  This  much-valued  treasure  he  conveyed 
to  Dantapura,  the  chief  city  of  Kalinga,  where  it  reminded  for  800 
years.  Its  subsequent  history  we  quote  from  Mr.  Hardy's 
*  Eastern  Monarchism  :'  "  The  Brahmans  informed  Pandu,  the  lord 
paramount  of  India,  who  resided  at  P^taliputra,  that  his  vassal, 
Guhasiwa  worshipped  a  piece  of  bone.  The  monarch,  enraged  at 
this  intelligence,  sent  an  army  to  arrest  the  king  of  Kalinga,  and 
secure  the  bone  he  worshipped.  This  commission  was  executed, 
but  the  general  and  all  his  army  were  converted  to  the  faith  of 
Buddhism.  Pandu  commanded  the  relic  to  be  thrown  into  a 
furnace  of  burning  charcoal,  but  a  lotus  arose  from  the  flame,  and 
the  tooth  appeared  on  the  surface  of  the  flower.  An  attempt  was 
then  made  to  crush  it  upon  an  anvil,  but  it  remained  embedded  in 
the  iron,  resisting  all  the  means  employed  to  take  it  therefrom, 
until  Subaddha,  a  Buddhist,  succeeded  in  its  extraction.  It  was 
next  thrown  into  the  common  sewer  ;  but  in  an  instant  this 
receptacle  of  filth  became  sweet  as  a  celestial  garden,  and  was 
mantled  with  flowers.  Other  wonders  were  performed,  by  which 
Pandu  also  became  a  convert  to  Buddhism.  The  relic  was 
returned  to  Dantapura  ;  but  an  attempt  being  made  by  the  princes 
of  Sewet  to  take  it  away  by  force,  it  was  brought  to  Ceylon,  and 
deposited  in  the  city  of  Auuridhapura.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
it  was  again  taken  to  the  continent,  but  was  rescued  by  Prakrama 
Bahti,  IV.  The  Portuguese  say  that  it  was  captured  by  Constautine 
de  Braganza,  in  1560,  and  destroyed  ;  but  the  native  authorities 


150  DAL— DAM 


assert  that  it  was  concealed  at  this  time  at  a  village  in  Saffragam. 
In  1815,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  British  Government  ; 
and  although  surreptitiously  taken  away  in  the  rebellion  of  1818, 
it  was  subsequently  found  in  the  possession  of  a  priest,  and 
restored  to  its  former  sanctuary.  From  this  time  the  keys  of  the 
shrine  in  which  it  was  deposited  were  kept  in  the  custody  of  the 
British  agent  for  the  Kandian  provinces,  and  at  night  a  soldier 
belonging  to  the  Ceylon  Rifle  Regiment  mounted  guard  in  the 
temple,  there  being  from  time  to  time  public  exhibtions  of  the 
pretended  tooth,  under  the  sanction  of  the  British  authorities. 
The  relic  has  since  been  returned  to  the  native  chiefs  and  priests, 
by  a  decree  from  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies." 

The  Dalada  is  worshipped  with  great  reverence  by  all  Buddhists, 
but  the  inhabitants  of  Kandy  more  especially  attach  the  highest 
importance  to  the  possession  of  the  sacred  relic,  regarding  it  as  in 
fact  the  very  glory  and  security  of  their  country. 

Dalaki — One  of  the  four  pupils  of  Sakapurni,  and  teacher  of 
the  Rig  Veda. 

Dama — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Narishyanta,  whose  fjither  Marutta, 
was  a  Chakravartti  or  universal  monarch.  The  Markandeya  has 
the  following  curious  story  of  Dama.  His  bride  Sumana,  daughter 
of  the  king  Dasarha,  was  rescued  by  him  from  his  rivals.  One 
of  them  Bapushmat,  afterwards  killed  Marutta,  Avho  had  retired 
into  the  woods  after  relinquishing  his  crown  to  his  sou.  Dama 
in  retaliation  killed  Bapushmat,  and  made  the  Pinda  or  obsequial 
offering  to  his  father,  of  his  flesh  :  with  the  remainder  he  fed  the 
brahmaus  of  Rakshasa's  origin  ;  such  were  the  kings  of  the  solar 
race.     See  Vishnu  Purana,  Book  IV. 

Damaghosha — The  Raja  of  Chedi  and  father  of  Sisupala,  q.  v. 

Damanaka — The  name  of  one  of  the  jackals  in  the  Pancha- 
tautra. 

Damaliptas,  or  Tamaliptas— The  people  at  the  western 
mouth  of  the  Ganges,  in  Mediuipur  and  Tamluk.  Tamralipti 
was  a  celebrated  seaport  in  the  fourth  century  and  retained  its 
character  in  the  ninth  and  twelfth. 


DAM  151 

Damayanti— The  daughter  of  Bhima,  Raja  of  Vidarbha.  The 
name  is  ah'eady  familiar  to  many  English  readers  through  Dr. 
Milman's  metrical  translation  of  the  story,  "Nala  and  Dama- 
yanti"— and  a  translation  in  blank  verse  by  Mr.  Chas.  Bruce, 
which  appeared  in  Fraser^s  Magazine  a  few  years  ago.  The  story 
itself  is  referred  to  the  Vcdic  period  of  Hindu  history.  Dama- 
yanti Avas  famous  amongst  all  the  Rajas  for  her  radiant  charms 
and  exceeding  grace.  Nala,  the  Raja  of  Nishadha,  had  so  often 
heard  of  the  exquisite  loveliness  of  Damayanti,  the  pearl  of 
maidens,  that  he  was  enamoured  without  having  seen  her  ;  and 
the  soul-disturbing  Damayanti  had  in  like  manner,  so  often  been 
told  of  the  god-like  comeliness  and  virtues  of  the  hero  Nala,  that 
she  secretly  desired  to  become  his  bride.  Nala  one  day  wandering 
in  a  grove,  caught  a  swan  of  golden  plumage  ;  the  bird  cried  out, 
*  Slay  me  not  O  gentle  Raja,  and  I  will  so  praise  thee  to  Damayanti 
that  she  shall  think  of  no  other  man  but  thee.  So  Nala  set  it  free, 
and  the  bird  flew  away  with  its  companions  and  entered  the  garden 
of  Raja  Bhima.  It  took  an  opportunity  of  saying  to  Damayanti, 
'  O  Damayanti,  thou  art  the  loveliest  of  maidens,  and  Nala  is 
the  handsomest  of  heroes  ;  if  the  peerless  wed  the  peerless  how 
happy  will  be  the  union.'  Then  the  royal  maiden  whispered, 
'  Say  the  same  words  to  Nala.'  And  the  bird  flew  away  to 
Nishadha  and  told  all  to  Nala. 

Meantime  the  beautiful  maiden  grew  pale  and  dejected.  She 
could  not  sleep,  she  often  wept,  she  found  no  joy  in  banquets 
or  in  conversation.  The  father  saAv  that  she  must  be  married,  and 
at  the  proclamation  of  her  Swayamvara  all  the  Rajas  assembled. 
Nala  repairs  as  a  suitor  to  Vidarbha  ;  but  Indra  and  three  other 
gods  become  incarnate  for  the  same  purpose,  and,  meeting  Nala  in 
the  way,  they  beg  him  to  be  the  bearer  of  their  message  of  love. 
He  remonstrates,  but  at  last  consents.  He  delivers  it,  but 
Damayanti  declares  that,  even  in  the  presence  of  the  gods,  she 
shall  select  the  noble  Nala.  The  assembly  meets,  and  all  the 
royal  suitors  are  in  array  ;  but  Damayanti  discovers,  to  her 
dismay,  five  Nalas,  each  of  the  deities  having  assumed  the  form, 
features,  and  dress  of  the  king  of  Nishadha.  She  utters  a  suppli- 
catory prayer  to  the  gods  to  reveal  to  her  the  true  object  of 


152  DAM 

her  choice.  They  are  moved  with  compassion,  and  stand  con- 
fessed, their  spiritual  bodies  being  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
human  hero  by  their  casting  no  shadow,  nor  touching  the  ground, 
and  otherwise.  Damayanti  throws  the  wreath  of  flowers  around 
the  neck  of  the  real  Nala  in  token  of  her  choice.  The  assembly 
breaks  up  amid  the  applause  of  the  gods,  and  the  lamentations  of 
the  disappointed  suitors.  The  nuptials  are  celebrated  and  Nala 
and  his  bride  are  blessed  with  two  lovely  children. 

Nala,  the  model  of  virtue,  and  piety,  and  learning,  at  length 
performs  the  Aswameda,  or  sacrifice  of  a  horse,  the  height  of 
Indian  devotion.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  Nala  is  induced 
by  an  evil  spirit  to  play  at  dice  with  his  brother,  Pushkara,  and 
loses  his  kingdom,  his  wealth,  his  very  clothes.  One  stake  only 
remains,— Damayanti  herself.  This  Pushkara  proposes,  but  Nala 
refuses.  The  ill-fated  pair  are  driven  together  into  the  wilderness 
all  but  naked.  Nala  persuades  his  wife  to  leave  him,  and  return 
to  her  father's  court,  but  she  will  not  forsake  him.  The  frantic 
man,  however,  resolves  to  abandon  her  while  asleep.  He  does  so. 
Each  passes  through  a  series  of  strange  and  stormy  adventures, 
ending  in  Nala  becoming  master  of  the  horse  to  the  King  of 
Ayodhya  (Oude,)  and  Damayanti  returning  to  her  father's  house. 
After  some  time,  Damayanti,  in  order  to  discover  the  retreat  of 
Nala,  proclaims  her  intention  to  hold  another  Swayatnvara,  and 
to  form  a  second  marriage,  though  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Manu. 
Kituparna,  the  King  of  Oude,  resolves  to  become  a  suitor,  and  sets 
forth  with  his  charioteer — the  disguised  Nala,  As  they  enter  the 
city  of  Bhima,  Damayanti  recognises  the  sound  of  her  husband's 
trampling  steeds,  his  driving  could  not  be  mistaken  by  her  ear. 
She  employs  every  artifice  to  discover  her  lord  ;  she  suspects  the 
charioteer  ;  she  procures  some  of  his  food,  and  recognises  the 
flavour  of  her  husband's  cookery  ;  she  sends  her  children  to  him. 
Nala  can  conceal  himself  no  longer  ;  but  the  jealous  thought  that 
his  wife  was  about  to  take  a  second  husband,  rankles  in  his  heart, 
and  he  rebukes  her  with  sternness.  Damayanti  solemnly  denies 
any  such  design,  declaring  that  she  had  only  employed  the 
artifice  to  win  back  her  lord.  Nala  re-assumes  his  proper 
form    and   character — wins  back  his  wife  and  all  that  he  had 


DAM— DAN  153 


lost  to  his  unprincipled  brother,  and,  rc-ascending  his  ancestral 
throne,  recommences  a  reign  of  piety,  justice  and  felicity.— 
Mrs.  Manning,  A.  Sf  M.  I. 

Dambha — PTypocrisy.  The  son  of  Adharma  (vice,)  and  Hinsa 
(violence.) 

Damodas — The  name  of  one  of  the  nine  divisions  of  the 
Atharva  Veda. 

Danavas— Enemies  of  the  gods,  who,  "  incapable  of  steadiness 
and  animated  by  ambition,  put  forth  their  strength  against  the 
gods.  They  were  the  descendants  of  Kasyapa  by  his  wife  Danu, 
hence  their  name.  They  were  a  class  of  mythological  giants  ;  in 
the  Epic  period  they  were  probably  personifications  of  the 
Aborigines  of  India  ;  in  the  Puranic  period  they  are  regarded 
as  the  inhabitant  of  Patala  and  enemies  of  the  gods.  See  Daityas. 
—  Thomson. 

Danda — The  name  of  a  son  of  Dharma  by  Kriya.  Also  the 
name  of  one  of  the  hundred  sous  of  Ikshwaku.  Professor  Wilson 
thinks  that  by  these  sons  of  Ikshwaku  we  are  to  understand 
colonies  or  settlers  in  various  parts  of  India.  In  thePadma  P.,  and 
the  Uttara  Khanda  of  the  Ramayana,  there  is  a  detailed  narrative 
of  Danda,  whose  country  was  laid  waste  by  an  imprecation  of 
Bhargava,  whose  daughter  Danda  had  violated.  His  kingdom 
became  in  consequence  the  Dandaka  forest.  The  Ilari  Vausa 
states  that  Danda  w\is  killed  by  Sudyumna. 

Danda — A  measure  of  time— sixty  Vikalas.  Sixty  Dandas 
make  one  siderial  day. 

Dandaka — An  extensive  forest  near  the  Godavery,  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Ramayana  as  the  scene  of  Rama's  wanderings. 
Rama  was  living  in  a  hermitage  in  this  forest  when  Ravana 
carried  off  Sita.  The  river  which  the  unhappy  Sita  loved  was  a 
tributary  to  the  Godavery,  running  through  the  dense  forests  and 
wild  districts  not  yet  entirely  explored,  which  lie  to  the  north  of 
Bombay  and  stretch  away  towards  Orissa.  The  plash  of  the 
water-fowl  bathing  in  the  bright  waters  of  the  Godavery  is  the 
most  cheerful  feature  of  the  scene  ;  but,  unlike  the  Gogra,  it  i.s 

20 


154  DAN 

skirted  by  sea-bright  hills,  with  flashing  torrents,  but  hemmed  in 
by  the  weary  woods  of  "  the  pathless  Dandaka  ;"  where  twining 
creeper  plants,  hanging  and  climbing  from  bough  to  bough,  alone 
relieve  the  "  forest  gloorn."  The  country  is  said  to  be  still  the 
«  pathless  Dandaka."     A.  and  M.  I.,  vol  II,  p.  22. 

Dandaka— "A  class  of  metre  in  Sanskrit  which  admits  an 
inordinate  length  of  the  verse,  which  may  consist  of  any  number 
of  syllables  from  twenty-seven  to  nine  hundred  and  ninety -nine  ; 
and  the  specific  name  varies  accordingly.  The  construction  of  the 
metre  requires  that  the  first  six  syllables  be  short,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  verse  be  composed  of  cretic  feet,  or  the  bacchus. 
These  two  kinds  of  metre  are  distinguished  by  different  names, 
A  verse  consisting  of  any  number  of  anapaests  within  the  limitation 
above  mentioned,  is  also  comprehended  under  this  general  desigua- 
tion  ;  as  are  verses  of  similar  length  consisting  exclusively  of 
iambic  or  trochaic  feet.     They  have  their  peculiar  denominations." 

Dandaniti— Policy  ;  one  of  the  four  branches  of  royal  know- 
ledge ;  originally  written  by  Vishnugupta  in  six  thousand  stanzas 
for  the  use  of  the  Maurya  kings. 

Dandis~One  of  the  Vaishuava  or  Saiva  sects  among  the 
Hindus,  and  a  legitimate  representative  of  the  fourth  Asrama  or 
mendicant  life,  into  which  the  Hindu  is  believed  to  enter  after 
passing  through  the  previous  stages  of  student,  householder,  and 
hermit.  A  Brahman,  however,  does  not  require  to  pass  through 
the  previous  stages,  but  is  allowed  to  enter  at  once  into  the  fourth 
order.  The  Dandi  is  distinguished  by  carrying  a  small  dand  or 
wand,  with  several  projections  from  it,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  dyed 
with  red  ochre,  in  which  the  Brahmanical  cord  is  supposed  to  be 
enshrined,  attached  to  it ;  he  shaves  his  hair  and  beard,  wears  only 
a  cloth  around  the  loins,  and  subsists  upon  food  obtained  ready- 
dressed  from  the  houses  of  the  Brahmans  once  a  day  only,  which 
be  deposits  in  the  small  clay-pot  that  he  always  carries  with  him. 
He  should  live  alone,  and  near  to,  but  not  within  a  city  ;  but  this 
rule  is  rarely  observed,  and,  in  general,  the  Dandis  are  found  in 
cities,  collected  like  other  mendicants  in  3Iaths,  The  Dandi  has 
i;o  particular  time  or  mode  of  worship,  but  employs  himself  chiefly 


BAN  155 

in  meditation  and  in  the  study  of  the  Vedanta  works.  He  reverences 
Siva  and  his  incarnations  in  preference  to  the  other  members  of 
the  Hindu  Triad,  and  Iience  the  Dandis  are  reckoned  among  the 
Saivas.  Tliey  bear  the  Siva  mark  upon  the  forehead,  smearing 
it  with  the  Tripwidra,  that  is,  a  triple  transverse  line  formed 
with  the  ashes  of  fire  made  with  burnt  cow-dung.  This  mark, 
beginning  between  the  eyebrows  and  carrying  it  to  their  extremity, 
is  made  with  the  thumb  reverted  between  the  middle  and  third 
fingers.  Tlie  genuine  Dandi,  however,  is  not  necessarily  of  the 
Siva  or  any  other  sect,  and  in  their  establishments  they,  are 
usually  found  to  adore  Nirguna  or  Niranjana,  the  deity  devoid  of 
attribute  or  passion.  The  Dandis  have  usually  great  influence  and 
authority  among  the  Siva  Brahraaus  of  the  North  of  India,  and 
they  are  the  Sanyasis  or  monastic  portion  of  the  Smarta  sect  of 
Brahmans  in  the  south. 

It  is  not  so  much  the  speculative  as  the  practical  Dandis  that  are 
worshippers  of  Siva,  and  the  form  in  which  they  adore  him  is  that 
of  Bhairava  (which  see),  or  Lord  of  Terror.  In  the  case  of  those 
who  thus  worship  Siva,  part  of  the  ceremony  of  initiation  consists 
in  inflicting  a  small  incision  on  the  inner  part  of  the  knee,  and 
drawing  the  blood  of  the  novice  as  an  acceptable  offering  to  the 
god.  The  Dandis  of  every  description  differ  from  the  great  mass 
of  Hindus  in  their  treatment  of  the  dead,  as  they  put  them'  into 
coffins  and  bury  them,  or  when  practicable  cast  them  into  some 
sacred  stream.  Hindus  of  all  castes  are  occasionally  found  assuming 
the  life  and  emblems  of  the  order  of  Dandis.  There  are  even 
Brahmans  who,  without  connecting  themselves  with  any  com- 
munity, take  upon  them  the  character  of  this  class  of  mendicanls. 
There  is,  however,  a  sect  of  Dandis  termed  Dasnamis  (which  see), 
which  admit  none  but  Brahmans  into  their  order. —  Wilson. 

Danshtrinas — The  progeny  of  Krodarasa,  carnivorous  animals, 
birds  and  fishes — all  sharp-toothed  monsters. 

Dantavaktra— A  fierce  Asura,tlie  son  of  prince  Vriddhasarman. 
Danu — The  daughter  of  Daksha  and  mother  of  the  Danavas. 
Danu— The  mother  of  Vrittra  who  was  slain  bv  Indra,  aloDi? 


156  DAN— DAR 


Avith  her  sou,  and  when  slaughtered,  lay  over  him  like  a  cow  over 
her  calf.   O.  S.  T.  Vol.v,  p.  95. 

Danus — Another  name  for  Danavas,  the  sons  of  Danu. 

Danusha—  An  unerring  bow  ; — one  of  the  fourteen  gems 
obtained  at  the  churning  of  the  milk  sea  in  the  second  or  Kurma 
Avatar  of  Vishnu. 

Dapple-skin — The  name  of  the  wonderful  cow  of  plenty 
belouo-ing  to  the  great  sage  Vasishtha,  and  which  Raja  Viswimitra 
took  away  by  force. 

Daradas — The  inhabitants  of  the  country  along  the  course  of 
the  Indus  above  the  Himalaya,  just  before  it  descends  to  India. 
This  is  the  locality  they  occupied  in  the  days  of  Strabo  and 
Ptolemy,  and  at  the  date  of  the  V.  P.  They  reside  there  still  and 
are  now  called  Durds. 

Dabhasayana — A  place  between  Rameshwara  and  Cape 
Comorin,  where  Rama,  reclining  on  a  couchof  sacred  grass,  prayed 
to  the  sea  for  a  passage. 

Darpa — (Pride).     The  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Dharma. 

Darsapaurnamasa — One  of  the  five  great  sacrificial  cere- 
monies :  viz.,  new  and  full-moon,  those  at  which  four  priests  officiate. 

Darsanas — The  name  given  to  the  six  systems  of  Hindu 
Philosophy : — 

I.  The  Sankya  system  of  Kapila,  to  which  is  appended 

II.  The  Yoga  system  of  Patanjali. 

III.  The  Nyaya  system  of  Gautama,  to  Avhich  is  appended 

IV.  The  Vaiseshika  system  of  Kanada. 

V.     The  Piirva  Mimansa  system  by  Jaimiui. 
VI.     The  Uttara  Mimansa,  or  Vedanta,  by  Veda  Vyasa. 

A.  ^  M.  L 

Darsapumamasa — The  small  festivals  held  at  the  new  moon 
and  full  moon.  "  In  the  beginning  of  the  Darsapurnamdsa  sacrifice, 
the  Adhivarya  priest  having  called  the  cows  and  calves  together^ 
touches  the  calves  with  a  branch,  and  sayg,  '  You  are  like  the 
winds.'  ^'—Max  Miiller, 


DAR— DAS  157 


Daruka — The  charioteer  of  Krishna.  He  was  sent  to  apprise 
Arjima  of  Krishna's  approaching  eutl,  when  he  was  about  to  quit 
the  body,  aud  "  uuite  himself  to  his  own  pure,  spiritual,  iuex- 
haustible,  imperishable  aud  uuiversal  spirit — to  become  Nirguna, 
devoid  of  all  qualities." 

Daruna — The  name  of  one  of  the  Narakas,  or  liells,  described 
in  the  Puranas. 

Darvan — The  son  of  Usinara,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Auu. 

Dasa-bala — Ten  powers  or  modes  of  ^visdom  possessed  by 
Buddha.  ]\Jr.  Spence  Hardy,  to  whose  excellent  works  we  are 
indebted  for  our  information  on  the  principles  aud  rites  of  the 
Buddhists,  thus  enumerates  the  Dasabala,  in  his  '  Manual  of 
Buddhism  :' — "  1,  The  wisdom  that  understands  what  knowledge 
is  necessary  for  the  right  fulfilment  of  any  particular  duty, 
in  whatsoever  situation  ;  2,  That  which  knows  the  result  or 
consequences  of  karma,  or  moral  action  ;  3,  That  which  knows 
the  way  to  the  attainment  of  nirw^ana  or  annihilation  ;  4,  That 
which  sees  the  various  sakwalas  or  systems  of  worlds  ;  5,  That 
which  knows  the  thoughts  of  other  beings  ;  6,  That  which  knows 
that  the  organs  of  sense  are  not  the  self  ;  7,  That  which  knows 
the  purity  produced  by  the  exercise  of  the  dhyanas  or  abstract 
meditation  ;  8,  That  which  knows  where  any  one  was  born  in 
all  his  former  births  ;  9,  That  which  knows  where  any  one  will  be 
born  in  ail  future  births  ;  10,  Th^t  which  knows  how  the  results 
proceeding  from  karma,  or  moral  action,  may  be  overcome." 

Dasa-dandu — Ten  prohibitions  which  are  enjoined  upon  the 
Buddhist  monks  to  be  studied  during  their  noviciate.  Mr.  Hardy, 
in  his  '  Eastern  Monarchism,'  thus  describes  them  : — "  1,  The 
eating  of  food  after  mid-day  ;  2,  The  seeing  of  dances  or  the 
hearing  of  music  or  singing  ;  3,  The  use  of  ornaments  or 
perfumes  ;  4,  The  use  of  a  seat  or  couch  more  than  a  cubit  high  ; 
5,  The  receiving  of  gold,  silver,  or  money  ;  6,  Practising  some 
deception  to  prevent  another  priest  from  receiving  that  to  which 
he  is  entitled  ;  7,  Practising  some  deception  to  injure  another 
priest,  or  bring  him  into  danger  ;  8,  Practising  some  deception  in 
Older  to  caube  another  prie>)t  to  be  expelled  from  the  community  j 


158  DAS 

9,  Speaking  evil  of  another  priest  ;  10,  Uttering  slanders,  in  order 
to  excite  dissension  among  the  priests  of  the  same  community. 
The  first  five  of  these  crimes  may  be  forgiven,  if  the  priest  bring 
sand  and  sprinkle  it  in  the  court-yard  of  the  vihara,  and  the  second 
five  may  be  forgiven  after  temporary  expulsion." 

Dasnami  Dandis— The  primitive  members  of  the  order  of 
Dandis.  They  are  said  to  refer  their  origin  to  Sankara 
AcHARYA,  a  remarkable  individual  who  acted  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  religious  history  of  Hindustan.  The  word  Dasnami  means 
ten-named,  there  being  ten  classes  of  mendicants  descended  from 
this  remarkable  man,  only  three  of  them,  however,  having  so  far 
retained  their  purity  as  to  entitle  them  to  be  called  Sankara's 
Daridis.  These  are  numerous,  especially  in  and  about  Benares. 
The  chief  Vedautist  writers  belong  to  this  sect.  The  most 
sturdy  beggars,  as  we  learn  from  Professor  Wilson,  are 
members  of  this  order,  although  their  contributions  are  levied 
particularly  upon  the  Brahmanical  class,  as  whenever  a  feast  is 
given  to  the  Brahmans,  the  Dandis  of  this  description  present 
themselves,  though  unbidden  guests,  and  can  only  be  got  rid  of 
by  bestowing  upon  them  a  share  of  the  viands.  Many  of  them 
practise  the  Yoga,  and  profess  to  work  miracles.  The  author  of 
the  '  Dabistan'  speaks  of  one  who  could  keep  his  breath  suspended 
for  three  hours,  bring  milk  from  his  veins,  cut  bones  with  hair,  and 
put  eggs  into  a  narrow-mouthed  bottle  without  breaking  them. 

The  remaining  members  of  the  Dasnami  class,  though  they  have 
degenerated  from  the  purity  of  the  practice  necessary  to  the  original 
Dandis,  are  still  religious  characters,  only  they  have  given  up  the 
staff  or  wand,  the  use  of  clothes,  money,  and  ornaments  ;  they 
prepare  their  own  food,  and  admit  members  from  any  order  of 
Hindus.  These  Atits,  as  they  are  often  called,  are  frequently 
collected  in  Maths,  as  well  as  the  Dandis,  but  they  mix  freely  in  the 
business  of  the  world  ;  they  carry  on  trade,  and  often  accumulate 
property,  and  some  of  them  even  enter  into  the  married  state,  when 
they  receive  the  name  of  Samyogi." — Wilson,  vol.  I,  p.  204. 

Dasa-Sil— Da5«5//£A«,  Dasa-pariji,  Dasa-nasanu,  Dasa-dandu, 
Dasa-sil,  the  ten  obligations  binding  on  the  Buddhist  priest— to 


DAS  159 

abstain  from  murder,  theft,  sexual  intercourse,  falsehood,  intoxi- 
cating drink,  eating  after  mid-day,  dancing,  perfumes,  luxury, 
receiving  of  gold  or  silver.  The  other  Dasas  relate  to  the  same 
rules  with  slight  modifications.  The  Dasa-dandu  forbid  deceivino- 
or  speaking  evil  of  other  priests. 

Dasaratha— The  son  of  Aja,  and  f^uher  of  Rama.  He  was  the 
sovereign  of  Ayodhya  or  Oude,  whose  car  bore  him  to  the  ten 
quarters  of  the  universe,  that  is,  to  the  eight  points  of  the  compass, 
and  to  the  zenith  and  nadir.  He  was  a  descendant  from  Surya, 
and  one  of  his  ancestors,  Raghu,  had  conquered  the  seven  dwipas, 
or  the  whole  earth. 

"  There  reigned  a  king  of  name  revered. 
To  country  and  to  town  endeared. 
Great  Dasaratha  good  and  sage 
Well  read  in  Sci-ipture's  holy  page  ; 
Upon  his  kingdom's  weal  intent, 
Mighty  and  brave  and  provident  : 
The  pride  of  old  Ikshvaku's  seed 
For  lofty  thought  and  righteous  deed. 
Peer  of  the  saints  for  virtues  filmed. 
For  foes  subdued  and  passions  tamed  ; 
A  rival  in  his  wealth  untold 
Of  Indra  and  the  Lord  of  Gold. 
Like  Manu  first  of  kings,  he  reigned. 
And  worthily  his  state  maintained. 
For  firm  and  just  and  ever  true. 
Love,  duty,  gain  he  kept  in  view  ; 
And  ruled  his  city  rich  and  free, 
Like  Lidra's  Amaravat]."~G'r;j^^//5'  Raynayaji. 

Another  Dasaratha  was  the  son  of  Miilaka  ;  a  third,  the  sou  of 
Navaratha  ;  a  fourth,  the  son  of  Suyasas.  The  name  of  Dasaratha, 
in  a  similar  ancient  character  to  that  of  Piyadasi's  inscriptions,' 
has  been  found  at  Gaya  amongst  Buddhist  remains,  and  like  them 
deciphered  by  Mr,  Prinsep.     V.  P. 

Pasagriva — A  name  of  Ravana,  meaning  the  ten-nP^Vn,! 


160  DAS  ^ 

Dasakumara — The  name  of  a  popular  collection  of  stories 
coutainiug  the  Adventures  of  Ten  Princes.  "  They  are  storiesof 
common  life,  relating  the  adventures  of  a  lively  set  of  people,  who 
kill,  cheat,  and  rob,  as  it  were  for  diversion  ;— something  indeed 
after  the  fashion  of  pantomimes  and  farces,  which  are  still  popular 
in  Europe." — Mrs.  Manning.  For  extracts  from  these  stories. 
See  Works  of  Professor  Wilson,  vol.  iv. 

Dasara — -An  Annual  Festival,  called  in  the  north  of  India  the 
Durga  Piija.  It  is  the  most  popular,  splendid  and  expensive  of 
any  of  the  Hindu  festivals,  and  takes  place  in  the  month  Aswiya^ 
(the  end  of  September  or  beginning  of  October).  The  preliminary 
ceremonies  occupy  several  days  previous  to  the  three  days  of 
worship.  "  During  the  whole  of  this  period  all  business,  in  many 
parts  of  the  country,  is  suspended,  and  pleasure  and  festivity 
prevail,.. The  artisans  and  labourers  offer  sacrifices  to  the  tools 
and  implements  which  they  use  in  their  daily  work.  The  labourer 
brings  his  plough,  hoe,  and  other  instruments,  piles  them  together, 
and  offers  to  them  a  sacrifice  consisting  of  incense,  flowers,  fruits, 
rice,  and  similar  articles  ;  after  which  he  prostrates  himself  before 
them,  and  then  returns  them  to  their  places.  The  mason  offers 
the  same  adoration  and  sacrifice  to  his  trowel,  his  rule,  and  other 
instruments.  The  carpenter  is  no  less  pious  with  regard  to  his 
hatchet,  his  adze,  and  his  plane.  The  barber,  too,  collects  his 
razors  in  a  heap,  and  worships  them  wdth  similar  rites.  The 
writing-master  or  copyist  sacrifices  to  the  iron  pencil  or  style  with 
which  he  writes  ;  the  tailor  to  his  needles  ;  the  weaver  to  his  loom  ; 
the  butcher  to  his  cleaver.  The  women,  at  the  same  time,  heap 
together  their  baskets,  the  rice  mill,  the  wooden  cylinder  with 
which  they  bruise  the  rice,  and  the  other  household  implements  ; 
and  fall  down  before  them  after  having  offered  the  sacrifices  above 
described.  In  short,  every  person  adores  the  instrument  or  tool 
which  he  principally  uses  in  gaining  his  livelihood.  The  tools  are 
now  considered  as  so  many  deities  ;  to  whom  they  present  their 
supplications  that  they  would  continue  propitious,  and  furnish  them 
still  with  the  means  of  living.  The  festival  is  concluded  by  erecting 
a  shapeless  statue  in  each  village,  composed  of  paste  from  grain. 
It  is  intended  to  represent  the  goddess  Pdrvati  ;  and,  being  placed 


DAS  161 

under  a  sort  of  cauopy,  is  carried  about  and  receives  the  homage 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  flock  to  render  it  their  adorations." 

Many  other  usages  prevail  at  this  festival  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  Amongst  the  Mahrattas,  sheep  and  buffaloes  are 
sacrificed.  The  chiefs  often  give  money  to  enable  their  soldiers  to 
buy  sheep  to  perform  sacrifices,  which'from  furnishing  them  with 
a  good  dinner,  are  by  many  considered  as  the  most  essential 
ceremonies  of  the  Dasara.  The  cannon  belonging  to  the  army  are 
planted,  praised,"  invoked,  and  propitiated  by  several  species  of 
offering.  Sir  John  Malcolm  states  that  on  the  morning  of  the 
tenth  day,  the  Peshwa  with  all  his  officers  and  soldiers,  used  to 
move  out  to  the  camp  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  each  mounted  on 
his  best  horse,  drest  in  his  finest  clothes,  and  with  his  arms  highly 
polished.  Horses,  elephants,  and  camels  were  all  arranged  in 
their  gayest  trappings,  and  every  corps  spread  its  gaudiest  flags 
and  banners.  The  whole  population  of  the  capital,  either  as  actors 
or  spectators,  joined  in  this  grand  procession,  which  moved  towards 
the  sacred  tree,  the  object  of  adoration.  After  the  offerings  and 
prayers  the  Peshwa  plucked  some  leaves  of  the  tree,  in  which  all 
the  cannon  and  musketry  commenced  firing.  The  Peshwa  then 
plucked  from  a  field,  purchased  for  the  occasion,  a  stalk  of  jowri, 
on  which  the  whole  crowd  fired  off  their  arms  or  shot  arrows,  and 
rushing  to  the  field,  tore  up  all  the  stalks,  each  person  securing 
some  share  of  the  spoil,  which  he  carried  home  with  joy. 

Dasarha — A  Prince,  the  son  of  Nirvriti.  In  the  Linga  Purana 
it  is  said  that  Dasarha  was  the  destroyer  of  the  host  of  copper 
(faced)  foes. 

Dasarna — A  river  mentioned  in  the  Puranas,  and  identified  in 
the  Dhosaun  in  Bundlekund. 

Dasarna — A  place  mentioned  in  Kdlidisa's  Cloud  Messenger. 
"  Dasarna's  fields  await  the  coming  shower."  Dr.  F.  E.  Hall 
says  it  was  situated  to  the  east  of  Chandeyrii.  Vidisa  is  described 
as  the  capital  of  the  District.  Dasarna  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
Dasa,  ten  ;  and  Rina,  a  stronghold  or  Durga,  the  Droog  of  the 
Peninsula,  and  meaud  the  Di>trict  of  the  ten  citadels.—  Wii^on. 

21 


1G2  DAS— DEV 


Dasa-Rupaka— Ten  varieties  of  dramatic  performauce.  See 
Wilson's  Hindu  Theatre,  vol.  i. 

Dasra— The  name,  in  later  literature,  of  one  of  the  two  Asvins. 

Dasyus— A  name  given  to  the  aborigines  of  India  by  the  first 
Aryan  settlers.  The  name  often  occurs  in  the  Rig  Veda,  where 
they  are  described  as  enemies  to  be  slain. 

Dattatreya— An  ascetic  ;  one  of  the  three  sinless  sons  of  the 
patriarch  Atri  by  his  wife  Anasuya  [Atri]. 

Dattdi— A  name  of  Agastya,  in  a  previous  Manwantara. 

Dayabhaga— A  celebrated  Sanscrit  treatise  on  the  Hindu  Law 
of  Inheritance.  Mr.  Colebrooke  first  published  a  translation  of 
this  work,  in  1810  ;  and  a  new  edition,  with  valuable  notes,  w^is 
published  in  I860  by  Mr.  Whitley  Stokes. 

j)eya — A  divine  being,  whether  resident  upon  earth  or  in  a 
deva-loka.  Deva  is  also  a  divine  epithet  variously  applied  but 
rarely  to  the  superior  deities  if  alone.  Maha  deva  is  sometimes 
met  with.  The  most  frequent  use  of  the  term  is  in  the  plural, 
and  may  be  translated  "  Celestials."  The  Hindu  books  say  there 
are  thirty-three  crores  of  them  ;  that  is,  three  hundred  and  thirty 
millions  of  celestials  ;  but  this  is  probably  only  a  figurative 
expression  to  denote  a  great  number.  They  are  not  demi-gods,  as 
lias  been  stated  ;  that  is  not  deified  human  heroes.  Rama  or 
Krishna  is  not  one  of  them,  but  of  a  higher  order.  The  devatas 
people  the  paradise  of  Vishnu  ;  but  they  especially  belong  to  the 
Svcrga,  the  paradise  of  Indra.  They  are  usually  ranged  under 
eight  divisions,  with  a  vasii,  as  leader,  at  the  head  of  each  division. 

Devabhaga — The  sou  of  Sura  and  one  of  the  nine  brothers  of 
Vasudeva. 

Devabhuti— The  last  Sunga  prince,  the  dynasty  having 
consisted  of  ten,  who  governed  the  kingdom  for  a  hundred  and 
twelve  years.  Devabhuti  being  addicted  to  immoral  practices, 
Avas  murdered  l^y  hi,-  minister,  the  Kanwa  named  Vasudeva,  who 
usurped  the  kingdom. 


DEV  16S 

Devadarsa — A  teacher  of  the  Atharva-Veda,  a  pupil  of 
Kahaudha.     lie  Iiad  four  disciples  who  taught  this  vcda. 

Devagiri — Deogur  or  EUora  ;  the  niouutaiu  of  the  gods  ;  the 
Apocopie  are  said  by  Ptolemy  to  be  also  called  mountains  of  the 
gods. 

Devahuti — A  third  daughter,  according  lo  the  Bhagavata  of  the 
Manu  Swayambhuva.  She  was  married  to  the  Rishi  Kardamn, 
and  was  mother  of  the  sage  Kapila. 

Devaka — One  of  the  sons  of  Ahuka.  Also  the  name  of  one  of 
the  sons  of  Yudhishthira,  the  Pandava. 

Deva-loka — The  six  celestial  worlds  between  the  earth  and  the 
Brahma  lokas. 

Devaki — The  daughter  of  Devaka,  wlio  was  married  to 
Vasudeva.  No  person  could  bear  to  gaze  upon  Devaki,  from  tlie 
light  that  invested  her  :  the  gods,  invisible  to  mortals,  celebrated 
her  praises  continually  from  the  time  that  Vishnu  was  contained  in 
Iier  person.  Before  the  birth  of  Krishna  "the  quarters  of  the  horizon 
"svere  irradiate  with  joy  as  if  moonlight  was  diffused  over  the  whole 
earth.  The  virtuous  experienced  new  delight,  the  strong  winds 
were  hushed,  and  the  rivers  glided  tranquilly,  when  Janardana  was 
about  to  be  born.  The  infant  was  brought  forth  and  conveyed  to 
a  place  of  safety,  to  escape  from  the  enraged  Kansa  who  had  vowed 
his  destruction.  Kansa  made  unavailing  search  for  the  child,  and 
ordered  that  every  boy  in  whom  there  were  signs  of  unusual  vigour 
should  be  slain  without  remorse."     See  Krishna. 

Devakshatra — A  prince,  the  son  of  Devarala,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Jyamagha. 

Devala — A  Rishi,  the  son  of  Krisaswa.  He  was  a  legislator, 
and  has  acquired  additional  celebrity  as  the  grandfather  of  Panini. 

Devamidha — An  ancient  Raja  of  the  solar  race,  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  king  Janaka. 

Devamidhusha— The  son  of  Vrishni  ;  also  the  name  of  a  sou 
of  Hridika. 


1G4 DEV ^ 

Devamitra— Also  called  Sakalya,  a  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda.  He 
died  in  consequence  of  his  being  defeated  by  Yajnavalkya  in  a 
disputation  at  a  sacrifice  celebrated  by  Janaka. 

Devanampriya-Tishya— A  king  of  Ceylon  from  307  to  267 
B.  c.  He  adopted  Buddhism  and  made  it,  like  Asoka,  with  whom 
he  was  contemporary,  the  State  religion  of  the  island. 

Devanika — A  prince,  the  son  of  Kshemadhanawan,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Kusa. 

Devapi — The  son  of  Pratipa,  who  abdicated  the  throne  and 
adopted  in  childhood  a  forest  life  ;  Avhile  an  ascetic  in  the  forest  he 
was  perverted  from  the  doctrines  of  the  Vedas.  The  Vishnu 
Purana  states  that  he  is  still  in  existence. 

Devarakshita — The  daughter  of  Devaka,  sister  of  Devaki  and 
aunt  of  Krishna  ;  also  the  name  of  a  prince  who  reigned  in  a  city 
on  the  sea-shore  over  the  Kosalas  and  Tamraliptas. 

Devarata — l,  A  royal  sage  of  the  solar  race,  the  name  given 
to  Sunasepha  when  he  was  adopted  by  Viswamitra.  Sunasepha 
refused  to  return  home  with  his  father  Ajigartha,  who  had  offered 
for  300  cows,  to  sacrifice  him  (See  Sunasepha)  and  was  afterwards 
enrolled  as  the  adopted  son  of  Viswamitra  by  the  name  of  Devardta 
(Theodotus)  ;  2,  Also  a  son  of  Raja  Suketu  ;  3,  The  name  of  a 
son  of  Karambhi,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Jyamagha  ;  4,  also  a 
name  of  Bhishma. 

Devarshis — Divine  sages,  demi-gods  ;  their  dwelling  is  the 
region  of  the  gods. 

Devasarman — The  name  of  a  brahman  who  figures  in  the 
Panchatantra  ;  he  had  no  child  and  his  wife  was  very  unhappy  in 
consequence  :  at  length  by  some  mantram  the  promise  of  a  son  was 
obtained  ;  the  child  when  born  proved  to  be  a  snake.  It  was 
proposed  that  the  monster  should  be  destroyed,  but  maternal 
affection  prevailed,  and  it  was  reared  with  tenderness.  At  the 
proper  age  it  was  married  to  a  brahman  girl,  and  one  night  was 
changed  into  a  man,  intending  to  resume  its  serpent  form  next 


DEV  iGr> 

morning  ;  but  the  girl's  father  discovering  the  deserted  skin  threw 
it  into  the  fire,  and  the  son-in-law  ever  after  remained  in  the  figure 
of  a  man. 

Devasavarni — The  thirteenth  Manu  according  to  the  Bhaga- 
vata,  which  differs  from  the  other  Puranas  in  the  enumeration. 

Devasravas — One  of  the  sons  of  Sura,  and  brother  of  Yasudeva. 

Devatithi — A  Kuru  prince,  one  of  the  sons  of  Akrodliaua. 

Devavat — A  son  of  Akmra,  also  a  son  of  Devaka. 

Devavriddha  — One  of  the  sons  of  Satwata,  said  in  the  Yislinu 
Purana  to  be  equal  to  the  gods. 

Devayani — The  daughter  of  a  P>rahman  priest  named  Sukra  ; 
she  fell  in  love  with  her  Other's  pupil  Kanju,  and  finding  her 
advances  rejected,  became  soured  in  temper  and  vindictive  in 
character.  One  day  when  out  in  the  jungle  with  Sarmishta, 
daughter  of  the  Raja  of  the  Daityas  and  a  number  of  other 
young  damsels,  on  reaching  a  pleasant  pool  they  all  threw  off 
their  garments  and  went  into  the  water  to  bathe,  when  it  so 
happened  that  Vayu  the  god  of  the  wind  passed  by,  and  seeing 
their  clothes  upon  the  bank  he  mingled  them  up  together.  Then 
when  the  damsels  came  out  of  the  water,  Devayani  and  Sarmishta 
by  mistake  put  on  each  others'  clothes  and  quarrelled.  At  last 
Sarmishta  pushed  Devayani  into  a  well  and  left  her  there.  A  Raja 
named  Yayati,  who  was  hunting  in  the  forest  discovered  her  in  the 
well  and  extricated  her  from  it.  Devayani,  on  meeting  her  maid, 
said  she  would  never  enter  the  city  again.  Her  father  Sukra  went 
to  the  Raja  of  the  Daityas  to  obtain  an  apology  from  him  for  his 
daughter's  conduct.  Devayani  said  to  the  Raja,  "I  shall  be  satisfied 
upon  one  condition,  that  when  my  ftxther  shall  give  me  to  a 
husband,  your  daughter  who  pushed  me  into  a  well,  shall  be  given 
to  me  as  a  servant."  To  this  the  Raja  assented,  and  Devayani 
had  afterwards  the  daily  attendance  of  Sarmishta  and  her  maids. 
One  day  the  whole  party  were,  surprised  by  the  Raja  Yayati,  who 
in  hot  pursuit  of  a  stag  burst  in  upon  the  damsels.  The  sight  of 
so  much  loveliness  almost  deprived  Yayati  of  his  senses  ;  l)ut  the 


166  DEV— DHA 


adventure  terminated  in  Devayani  proposing  that  he  should 
espouse  her,  which,  on  obtaining  her  father's  consent,  he  did. 
Two  or  three  years  afterwards  Sarmishta  obtained  her  revenge  by 
stealing  away  Yayati's  affections,  and  Devayani  left  him  and 
returned  to  her  father's  house.  —  (  Wheeler's  Mahdbhdrata).  In  the 
V.  P.  an  entirely  different  account  is  given. 

Devi — The  female  of  a  deva.  They  also  may  reside  either  in 
earth  or  in  a  deva  loka,  and  leave  the  one  for  the  other  at  will  for 
any  important  purpose.     Also  the  name  of  Uma  the  wife  of  Siva. 

Devika — The  name  of  a  river,  the  Deva  or  Goggra. 

Devikota — A  Puranic  city,  usually  considered  to  be  the 
modern  Device ttah  in  the  Carnatic,  which  is  commonly  believed 
to  be  the  scene  of  Bana's  defeat. 

Dhamajaya — A  Vyasa,  the  arranger  of  the  Vedas  in  the 
sixteenth  Dwapara. 

Dhanaka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Durdama,  a  descendant  of 
Yadu. 

Dhananjaya — A  fierce  and  venomous  many-headed  serjDent, 
one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru. 

Dhanamitra — The  name  of  a  wealthy  merchant  in  Kalidasa's 
drama  of  Sakuntala  ;  the  merchant,  trading  by  sea,  was  lost  in  a 
shipwreck  ;  and  as  he  was  childless,  the  whole  of  his  property 
became  by  law  forfeited  to  the  king.  The  king  ascertained  that 
the  merchant's  widow  was  expecting  to  give  birth  to  a  child,  and 
declared  that  the  unborn  child  had  a  title  to  his  father's  property  ; 
a  proclamation  which  Avas  received  with  acclamations  of  joy. 

Dhana-nando — The  youngest  son  of  Kalasoka,  king  of  Pata- 
liputra.  The  nine  sons  succeeded  their  father  in  the  order  of  their 
seniority.  The  youngest  was  called  Dhana-nando  from  his  being 
addicted  to  hoarding  treasure.  He  collected  money  to  the  amount 
of  eighty  kotis  ;  and  to  keep  it  securely  he  diverted  the  Ganges  from 
its  course,  by  constructing  a  dam  across  it :  and  in  a  rock  in  the 
bed  of  the  river  having  caused  a  deep  excavation  to  be  made,  he 


DHA  1G7 

buried  the  treasure  tliere.  Over  this  cave  he  laid  a  layer  of 
stones,  and  to  prevent  the  admission  of  water  poured  molten  lead 
in  it.  Repeating  this  process,  which  made  it  like  a  solid  rock  he 
restored  the  river  to  its  former  course.  This  prince  was  afterwards 
killed  by  the  brahman  Chanakko,  who  raised  Chondragupta  to  the 
throne  in  his  stead.  As  everything  in  India  Chronology  depends 
on  the  date  of  Chaudragupta,  great  pains  have  been  taken  by 
Wilson,  Max  Mliller,  and  others,  to  determine  it  accurately. 

Dhaneyu — A  prince  ;  one  of  the   ten  sons  of  Raudraswa,  a 

descendant  of  Puru, 

Dhanishta — An  asterism,  or  lunar  mansion,  in  Migravithi,  in 
the  southern  Avashtana. 

Dhanur-veda — The  science  of  archery  or  arms,  taught  by 
Bhrigu. 

Dhanwantara — A  sage  produced  from  the  churning  of  the 
ocean,  robed  in  white,  and  bearing  in  his  hand  the  cup  of  Amrita, 
which  was  afterwards  seized  by  the  Daityas.  He  is  called  the 
physician  of  the  gods.  In  a  second  birth  he  was  the  son  of 
Dirghatamas,  and  taught  the  Ayur  Veda,  or  medical  science.  He 
was  exempt  from  human  infirmity,  and  master  of  universal 
knowledge.  The  only  work  at  present  existing  under  the  title  of 
Ayar  Veda  is  said  to  have  been  revealed  by  Dhanwantari  to  his 
pupil  Susruta  ;  Dhanwantari  having  himself,  as  he  declares,  received 
it  from  B  ram  ha. 

Dhara — A  city  to  the  south  of  the  river  Godiivery,  where  the 
celebrated  Raja  Vikrama  resided. 

Dharana — Steady  thought;  retention  or  holding  of  the  image 
or  idea  formed  in  the  miud  by  contemplation  ;  one  of  the  eight 
stages  by  which  "  Yoga"  must  be  accomplirfhed.     See  Yoga. 

Dharani— A  daughter  of  the  Pitris,  and  wife  of  Meru.  In 
the  Vishnu  Purana  she  is  said  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with 
theological  truth  :  addicted  to  religious  meditation  ;  accomplished 
in  perfect  wisdoni;  and  adorned  with  all  estimable  qualities. 


168  PHA 

Dharbaga— The  sou  of  Ajatasatru,  king  of  Maghada,  one  of 
the  ten  Saisunagas,  the  aggregate  of  whose  united  reigns  amounted 
to  three  hundred  and  sixty-two  years. 

Dharma— The  god  of  justice  ;  the  Hindu  Pluto.     See  Yama. 

Dharma— A  Prajapati,  one  of  the  mind-engendered  sons  of 
Brahma,  with  form  and  faculties  derived  from  his  corporeal  nature. 
He  married  thirteen  daughters  of  Daksha.  It  is  evident  from  the 
names  of  these  daughters  (faith,  devotion,  &c.)  that  they  are 
allegorical  personages,  being  personifications  of  intelligences  and 
virtues  and  religious  rites,  and  being  therefore  appropriately 
Avedded  to  the  probable  authors  of  the  Hindu  Code  of  religion  and 
morals,  or  to  the  equally  allegorical  representation  of  that  code, 
Dharma,  moral  and  religious  truth.     V.  P. 

Dharma — Virtue,  religion,  duty,  law,  moral  and  religious  truth 
according  to  the  law  and  the  Vedas.  Any  peculiar  or  prescribed 
practice  or  duty  ;  thus  giving  alms,  &c.,  is  the  dharma  of  a 
householder  :  administering  justice  is  the  dharma  of  a  king  ; 
piety  is  the  dharma  of  a  brahman  ;  courage  is  the  dharma  of  a 
kshatriya,  &c. 

Dharma  Raja— A  name  of  the  eldest  of  the  five  Pandavas, 
Yudhishthira,  (q.  v.)  son  of  Kunti  Devi,  by  Yama ;  Pandu,  the 
nominal  father,  being  impotent. 

Dharmadhris — One  of  the  sous  of  Swaphalka,  a  descendant 
of  Sini. 

Dharmadhwaja— 1,  A  king  of  Mithila, — who  is  also  called 
Janaka  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  king  of  Burdwan,  mentioned  in  the 
Belata  Panchavinsati,  as  having  restored  Brahmanism,  which  had 
been  put  aside  for  the  Jaina  religion. 

DharmaketU— A  prince,  the  son  of  Suketana,  (according  to 
the  Bhagavata  list)  a  descendant  of  Alarka.  In  the  Vishnu 
Purana  he  is  made  the  son  of  Sukumara,  and  in  the  Agni  he 
appears  as  the  son  of  Alarka  himself. 


BHA  169 

Dharmanetra — The  son  of  Haihaya,  a  descendant  of  Yadu — 
the  tribe  in  which  Krishna  was  born. 

Dharmapal — One  of  the  ministers  of  justice  of  Maharaja 
Dasaratha. 

Dharmaranya — A  Puranic  city  in  the  mountainous  part  of 
Magadha,  the  residence  of  Amurtarajas. 

Dharmaranya — Is  also  the  name  of  the  wood  to  which  the  god 
of  justice  is  said  to  have  fled  through  fear  of  S6ma  the  moon-god. 

Dharmaratha— A  prince,  the  son  of  Divaratha.  He  is  said  to 
have  drank  the  Soma  juice  along  with  Indra. 

Dhanna-sastra — A  law  book  j  the  three  principal  topics  of  all 
such  are  dchdra,  rules  of  conduct  ;  v-t/avahara,  judicature  ;  and 
prdt/aschitta,  penance.  The  Code  of  Yajjnawalka  is  termed 
Dharmasastra  ;  as  is  also  the  Code  of  Manu. 

Dharma-savarni— The  Manu  of  the  eleventh  Manwantara. 
One  of  the  mind-engendered  sons  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  by 
himself  and  the  three  gods  Brahma,  Dharma,  and  Rudra,  to  whom 
he  presented  her  on  Mount  Meru. 

Dharshtakas — A  race  of  Kshatriyas,  some  of  whom  obtained 
brahmanhood  upon  earth.     V.  P. 

Dhata — A  Rudra,  the  son  of  Bhrigu  by  Khyati. 

Dhataki~A  prince,  the  son  of  Savana,  king  of  Pushkara — an 
island  without  mountains  or  rivers  in  which  men  live  a  thousand 
years  without  sickness  or  sorrow.     V.  P. 

Dhatri — A  son  of  Vishnu  and  Lakshmi,  married  to  Ayati, 
daughter  of  Meru. 

DhatU — A  linguistic  root.  In  European  languages  if  grammar 
attempts  to  reduce  a  word  to  its  last  limit,  it  calls  such  a  limit  its 
'root,*  and  a  root  in  grammar  thus  answers  to  an  element  in 
chemistry,  representing  the  farthest  result  of  analysis  attainable  by 
the  analyser  ;  but  in  Sanskrit  grammar, — dhatu,  though  generally 
translated  root,  does  not  imply   that  which  is  expressed   by  the 

22 


170  DHA— DHI 


European  term.  The  former  designates  that  theoretical  form, 
from  which,  by  conjugational  affixes,  verbal  bases,  and  by  krit 
affixes  nominal  bases  may  be  derived.  Yet  as  such  derivations 
may  not  only  be  made  from  those  forms  which  have  been  collected  in 
lists  called  Dhatupatha,  and  may  be  called  primary  Dhatus,  but  also 
from  those  derivative  forms, — the  passives,  intensives,  causals, 
desideratives,  and  denominatives  ;— even  these  derivative  forms  are, 
*to  the  Hindu  grammarian  Dhatus.  To  his  mind  therefore  a  dhdtu 
is  not  an  absolutely  last  linguistic  element  ;  but  even  a  primary 
dhatu,  or  that  form  from  which  passive  and  other  secondary  dhatus 
could  be  derived,  is  to  him  only  that  form  which,  to  the  popular 
nnderstanding,  appeared  to  be  a  last  limit  of  derivation."* 

DhatU-Parayana — A  celebrated  commentary  on  Dhatus, 
written  by  Hemachandra. 

Dhaumya — The  name  of  the  brahman  who  was  engaged  by  the 
Pandavas  to  be  their  Purohita  or  family  priest.  He  also  officiated 
as  Hotri  and  cooked  the  sacrifice  when  it  was  offered.  He 
accompanied  the  Pandavas  on  their  exile  ;  and  on  their  return 
performed  the  inauguiatory  ceremonies  for  Raja  Yudhishthira  ; 
and  at  the  great  Aswamedha  squeezed  milk  out  of  the  horse's  ear. 

Dhava — (Fire).  A  deity  of  the  class  termed  Vasu  ;  because 
they  are  always  present  in  light  or  luminous  irradiation. 

Dhenuka— A  demou,  fierce  and  malignant,  who  in  the  form  of  an 
ass,  attacked  Bala  Eama  when  a  boy,  and  began  to  kick  him  on  the 
breast  with  his  hinder  heels.  Bala  Rdma  however,  seized  him  by 
both  hind  legs,  and  whirling  him  round  till  he  expired,  tossed  his 
carcase  to  the  top  of  a  palm  tree  from  the  branches  of  which  it 
struck  down  abundance  of  fruit,  like  rain  drops  poured  upon  earth 
by  the  wind.     Vishnu  Purana,  517. 

Dhi — The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Manyu. 

Dhiliiat — One  of  the  six  sons  of  Pururavas  ;  the  name  also  of 
the  valiant  son  of  Virat. 

Dhisha.na — A  princess  of  the  race  of  Agni,  and  wife  of  Havir- 
dhana. 


*Mr8.  Manniurg;  A.  and  M.  I. 


DHI— DHR  171 


Dhishnyas — The  seven  little  circles  exteudiug  iua  straight  line 
from  the  Marjala  to  the  Agnidhra  tire. — Ait.  Bra/i. 

Dhoti  or  Dhotra — The  cloth  wrapped  round  the  loins,  and 
universally  worn  by  Hindus.  It  is  spoken  of  by  Nearchus  as 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  leg.  It  is  from  2^  to  3|-  yards  long 
by  2  to  3  feet  broad.  *'  Native  sepoys  march  thirty  or  forty 
miles  a  day  in  dhotis  without  fatigue."  "  In  the  frescoes  on  the 
caves  of  Ajauta  this  costume  is  carefully  represented." — Edin. 
Rev.,  Jail.  1868. 

Dhridhaswa — One  of  the  three  sons  of  Kuvaldyaswa,  who 
escaj^ed  from  the  conflict  with  the  demon  Dhundu. 

Dhrishta — One  of  the  sous  of  the  Manu  Vaivaswata.  Before 
their  birth  the  Manu,  being  desirous  of  sons  offered  a  sacrifice  for 
that  purpose  to  Mitra  and  Varuna  ;  but  the  rite  being  deranged 
through  an  irregularity  of  the  ministering  priest,  a  daughter,  Ila, 
was  produced.  See  Ila  and  Manu.  From  Drishta  sprang  the 
Kshatriya  race  of  Dharshtakai?. 

Dhrishtadyumna — A  prince,  the  son  of  Raja  Drupada,  in 
whose  reign  the  possessions  of  the  Panchalas  were  divided.  Dhrish- 
tadyumna was  the  brother  of  Draupadi,  who  proclaimed  the  terms 
of  her  Swayamvara. 

"  The  gallant  Dhrishtadyumna  on  the  plain 
Descended,  and  his  father's  will  proclaimed  ; — 
Princes,  this  bow  behold  !    Yon  mark — these  shafts — 
Who'er  with  dextrous  hand  at  once  directs 
Five  arrows  to  their  aim  ;  and  be  his  race, 
His  person,  and  his  deeds,  equivalent 
To  such  exalted  union, — He  obtains 
My  sister  for  his  bride.     My  words  are  truth. 
Thus  said,  he  to  the  Princess  next  described 
Each  royal  suitor  by  his  name  and  lineage. 
And  martial  deeds ;  and  bade  her  give  the  wreath 
To  him  whose  prowess  best  deserved  the  boon. 
Arjuna  was  the  successful  suitor,  and  Draupadi  became  the  wife 
of  the  five  Pdndu  brothers.   Dhrishtadyumna  followed  the  Ijrothers 


172  BHR 

home,  and  ascertained  that  they  were  not  brahmans  but  Kshatriyas 
of  the  royal  house  of  Hastinapura,  and  soon  acquainted  his  father 
with  the  tidings.  At  the  beginning  of  the  great  war  Dhrishtadyumna 
was  elected  commauder-in-chief ;  after  several  days'  fighting,  Rija 
Drupada  was  slain  by  Droua,  and  Dhrishtadyumna  vowed  that  he 
would  be  revenged  for  his  father's  death  by  killing  Drona.  This 
he  did  the  following  day,  aided  by  Bhiraa.  He  was  afterwards 
.surprised  by  Aswatthama,  the  son  of  Drona,  while  sleeping  in  the 
tents  of  the  Papdavas  and  was  barbarously  murdered.  See  Drupada. 

DhrishtaketU— 1 ,  The  son  of  Dhrishtadyumna,  he  commanded 
the  troops  of  Chedi  and  Maiwa  in  the  great  war  ;  2,  The  name 
of  a  son  of  Satyadhriti  or  Sudhriti,  king  of  Mithila,  who  was 
celebrated  for  his  piety,  and  received  the  designation  of  "royal 
saint."  3,  A  son  of  Suketu,  a  descendant  of  Alarka. 

Dhrishtasarman— A  prince,  one  of  the  sons  of  Swaphalka,  of 

the  family  of  Anamitru. 

Dhrishti — The  war  minister  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha. 
Dhrita — A  prince,  the  son  of  Dharma. 

Dhritamati — A  river  among  those  enumerated  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana  as  one  of  the  rivers  of  Bharata. 

Dhritarashtra — The  elder  son  of  Krishna  Dwaipayana  and  the 
widow  of  Vichitravirya  (see  Bhishma),  king  of  Hastinapura,  and 
father  of  Duryodhana  and  his  ninety-nine  brothers.  Being  blind 
from  birth,  he  eventually  delivered  his  sceptre  to  Duryodhana,  at 
whose  suggestion  he  banished  the  Pandava  princes,  his  own 
nephews,  from  his  kingdom.  It  is  to  him  that  his  charioteer  and 
bard  (suta),  Sanjaya,  relates  the  Bhagavat  Gita,  or  dialogue 
between  Krishna  and  Arjuna,  having  received,  as  he  says,  from  the 
Vy^sa,  the  mystic  power  of  being  present  while  it  was  carried  on. 
His  wife's  name  was  Gandhari,  and  the  chief  of  her  hundred 
sons  were  Duryodhana,  Duhsasana,  Vikarna,  and  Chitrasena. 
(Dhritarashtra  is  derived  from  dhrita,  *  held  firm  ;'  and  rdshtra,  a 
*  kingdom,'  '  who  tenaciously  maintains  the  sovereignty.'  The  name, 
Schlegel  observes,  may  have  arisen  from  his  remaining  on  the  throne 
in  spite  of  his  blindness.)  {J,  C,  Tho?nso?i.)    On  the  death  of  Duryod- 


DHR  173 

hana,  who  was  killed  by  Bhima,  he  meditated  revenge,  and  caused 
au  instrument  of  strongly  constrictive  power  to  be  made,  which  he 
wore  on  his  person  ;  and  then  expressed  a  strong  desire  to  embrace 
Bhima,  his  nephew,  before  he  died.  Krish  a  being  aware  of  the 
device  (the  hug  as  of  a  bear)  caused  a  stone  image  to  be  substituted  ; 
and  as  the  blind  king  could  not  distinguish  the  difference,  he  was 
deceived,  and  Bhima  escaped. 

Dhritarashtra  was  also  the  name  of  a  powerful  many-headed 
serpent,  of  immeasurable  might ;  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru. 

Dhritarashtri— The  daughter  of  Kasyapa,  one  of  the  wives  of 
Garuda  and  mother  of  geese,  ducks,  teal  and  other  water-fowl. 

Dhritavrata— One  of  the  eleven  Rudras.  Also  the  name  of  a 
prince,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Auu. 

Dhriti — Steadiness.  One  of  the  twenty-four  daughters  of  the 
patriarch  Daksha,  married  to  Dharma  (righteousness),  their  son 
was  Niyama  (precept).  Dhriti  was  also  the  name  of  several 
princes— of  a  son  of  Vethavya,  king  of  Mithila  ;  of  a  son  of  Babhru  ; 
and  of  a  son  of  Vijaya.  The  wife  of  Manu,  one  of  the  eleven 
Rudras,  was  named  Dhriti. 

Dhritimat — A  celebrated  sage,  the  son  of  Kirthimat,  by  his  wife 
Dheuuka.     Also  the  name  of  a  son  of  Yavinara. 

Dhruva — The  polar  star,  the  pivot  of  the  atmosphere  ;  on  it 
rests  the  seven  great  planets,  and  on  them  depend  the  clouds  :  the 
rains  are  suspended  in  the  clouds  and  fall  for  the  support  of  created 
beings.  This  source  of  rain  is  termed  the  sacred  station  of  Vishnu, 
and  the  support  of  the  three  worlds.  Vishnu  Purana,  Ch.  VIII. 
From  it  proceeds  the  stream  that  washes  away  all  sin,  the  river 
Gunga,  embrowned  with  the  unguents  of  the  nymphs  of  heaven, 
who  have  sported  in  her  waters.  Having  her  source  in  the  nail  of 
the  great  toe  of  Vishnu's  left  foot,  Dhruva  receives  her  and 
sustains  her  day  and  night  devoutly  on  his  head.     V.  P. — Ibid. 

As  Dhruva  revolves  it  causes  the  moon,  sun  and  stars  to  turn 
round  also  ;  and  the  lunar  asterisms  follow  in  its  circular  path,  for 
all  the  celestial  luminaries  are  bound  to  the  polar  star  by  aerial 
cords.     The  rain  is  evolved  by  the  sun  ;  the  sun  is  sustained  by 


174  DHR 

Dhruva  ;  and  Dhruva  is  supported  by  the  celestial  porpoise-shaped 
sphere,  which  is  one  with  Narayana.  Narayana,  the  primeval 
existent,  and  eternally  enduring,  seated  in  the  heart  of  the  stellar 
sphere,  is  the  supporter  of  all  beings.     V.  P.,  Ch.  IX. 

Dhruva  was  the  son  of  Uttanapada  and  Suniti ;  when  a  child 
he  observed  his  half-brother  Uttama  in  the  lap  of  his  father  as  he 
was  seated  on  his  throne,  and  was  desirous  of  ascending  to  the 
same  place.  He  was  reproved  for  this  by  the  mother  of  Uttama, 
Suruchi,  the  ftworite  wife  of  his  father.  The  boy  being  angry 
went  to  the  apartment  of  his  own  mother,  w^ho  took  him  on  her 
lap  and  asked  what  had  vexed  him.  Suniti,  distressed  by  the 
narrative  of  the  boy,  said,  Suruchi  has  rightly  spoken  ;  thine,  child, 
is  an  unhappy  fate  ;  those  who  are  born  to  fortune  are  not  liable 
to  the  insults  of  their  rivals.  Yet  be  not  afflicted  my  child.  That 
the  king  favors  Suruchi  is  the  reward  of  her  merits  in  a  former 
existence.  It  is  not  proper  for  you  to  grieve  ;  a  wise  man  will  be 
contented  Avith  that  degree  which  appertains  to  him  ;  be  amiable, 
be  pious,  be  friendly,  be  assiduous  in  benevolence  to  all  living 
creatures  ;  for  prosperity  descends  upon  modest  worth  as  w^ater 
flows  towards  low  ground. 

Dhruva  answered  :  "Mother,  the  words  that  you  have  addressed 
to  me  for  my  consolation,  find  no  place  in  a  heart  that  contumely 
has  broken.  I  will  exert  myself  to  attain  such  elevated  rank  that 
it  shall  be  revered  by  the  whole  world."  The  youth  then  went 
forth  from  his  mother's  dwelling  and  applied  to  seven  Munis,  whom 
he  found  sitting  in  an  adjoining  thicket.  By  their  advice  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  service  of  Vishnu,  concentrating 
his  whole  mind  on  this  one  object.  He  commenced  a  course  of 
religious  austerities  ;  resisted  all  the  attempts  made  to  change  his 
purpose  ;  and  was  finally  elevated  by  Vishnu  to  the  skies  as  the 
pole-star.     V.  P. 

Dhruva  sandhi— One  of  the  sous  of  Raja  Tresandhi,  king  of 
Ayodhya,  and  father  of  Bharata. 

Dhruvasandhi— A  prince,  the  son  Pushya,  a  descendant  of 
Rama. 

Dhruyu— The  eldest  son  of  king  Yayati,  by  liis  wife  Sarmishta  : 


DHU  175 

called  iu  some  of  the  Puianas,  the  handmaid  of  his  first  wife 
Devayaiii.  Dhruyu  became  king  of  the  western  part  of  his  father's 
dominions. 

Dhumaketu — (Comet).  An  allegorical  personage,  the  son  of 
Krisaswa,  by  his  wife  Archish  (flame).  The  deified  weapons  of  the 
gods  were  the  progeny  of  Krisaswa.  Dhumaketu  is  also  the  name 
of  one  of  the  sons  of  Triuavindu  by  the  celestial  nymph  Alambusha, 
who  became  enamoured  of  Trinavindu. 

Dhumrakesa— One  of  the  five  sons  of  the  celebrated  Prithu, 
the  universal  emperor  or  Chakra-vertti. 

Dhumraksha— One  of  Havana's  generals,  who  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Lanka. 

Dhumraswa — The  son  of  Suchandra  and  king  of  Vaisali~the 
city  founded  by  Vaisali,  son  of  Trinaviuda.  The  Buddhists  consider 
Vaisali  to  be  Prayaga,  or  Allahabad.  Among  them  it  is  celebrated 
as  a  chief  seat  of  the  labours  of  Sakhya  and  his  first  disciples. 

Dhundu — An  Asura,  or  demon,  represented  as  most  formidable. 
The  pious  sage  Uttanka  was  much  harassed  by  this  demon,  and 
king  Kuvalayaswa,  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  Vishnu,  determined 
to  destroy  it.  In  the  conflict  the  king  was  attended  by  his  sons  to 
the  number  of  twenty-one  thousand,  and  all  these  with  the  exception 
of  three  perished  in  the  engagement,  consumed  by  the  fiery  breath 
of  Dliundu.  The  demon  hid  himself  beneath  a  sea  of  sand,  which 
Kuvalayaswa  and  his  sons  dug  up,  undeterred  by  the  flames  which 
checked  their  progress  and  finally  destroyed  most  of  them.  The 
king  was  afterwards  entitled  Dhundumara.  The  legend  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  some  physical  phenomena  as  an  earthquake 
or  volcano.     V.  P. 

Dhundumara — The  name  of  Kuvalayaswa,  after  the  conflict 
above  described.  In  the  Rumayana  he  is  termed  the  son  of 
Trisanku. 

Dhuti — One  of  the  twelve  Adityas  who  in  a  former 
Manwantara  were  deities  called  Tushitas  ;  they  entered  the 
womb  of  Aditi,  daughter  of  Daksha,  and  were  bom  as  (he  sous  of 
Knsyapa,  and  named  the  twelve  Aditvns. 


176  DHY— DIK 


Dhyana — Profound  meditation  on  Vishnu.  When  the  image 
(of  Vishnu)  never  departs  from  the  mind  of  the  sage,  whether  he 
be  going  or  standing,  or  be  engaged  in  any  other  voluntary  act, 
then  he  may  believe  his  retention  to  be  perfect.  There  are  six 
stages  in  the  attainment  of  this  object :  1,  Yama,  acts  of  restraint 
and  obligation  ;  2,  Asana,  sitting  in  particular  postures  ;  3, 
Pranayama,  modes  of  breathing  ;  4,  Pratyahara,  exclusion  of  all 
external  ideas  ;  5,  Bhavana,  apprehension  of  internal  ideas  ;  6, 
Dharana,  fixation  or  retention  of  those  ideas.  Those  who  thus 
devote  themselves  to  meditation,  must  divest  their  minds  of  all 
sensual  desire,  and  have  their  attention  abstracted  from  every 
external  object,  and  absorbed  with  every  sense  in  the  prescribed 
subject  of  meditation.  Patanjali  says,  *  Restraint  of  the  body, 
retention  of  the  mind,  and  meditation,  which  thence  is  exclusively 
confined  to  one  object,  is  Dhyana.'     See  V.  P.,  p.  657. 

Digambara — A  naked  ascetic,  or  gymnosophist.  The  Jains 
are  divided  into  two  principal  divisions,  Digambaras  and  Svetam- 
baras  ;  the  former  of  which  appears  to  have  the  best  pretensions 
to  antiquity,  and  to  have  been  most  widely  diffused.  The  discrimin- 
ating difference  is  implied  in  these  terms,  the  former  meaning  the 
sky-clad,  that  is,  naked  ;  and  the  latter  the  white-robed,  the 
teachers  being  so  dressed.  In  the  present  day,  however,  the 
Digambara  ascetics  do  not  go  naked,  but  wear  coloured  garments  ; 
they  confine  the  disuse  of  clothes  to  the  period  of  their  meals, 

throwing  aside  their  wrapper  when  they  receive  the  food  given 

them  by  their  disciples. —  Wilson. 

Diksha— Certain  ceremonies  preliminary  to  a  sacrifice.     It  also 

means  a  new  birth— and  a  rite  of  initiation, 

Diksha— The   wife   of  Ugra,    one    of  the    eight   Rudras    or 

manifestations  of  Brahma  ;  or  according  to  the  Bhagavata,  the 

wife  of  Vamadeva,  another  Rudra. 

Dikshaniya  Ishti-  A  curious  sacrificial  ceremony,  apparently 

suggested  by  "  a  feeling  nearly  akin  to  belief  in  original  sin.    The 

gods,  and  especially  Vishnu  and  Agni,  are  invoked  to  come  to  the 

offering  with  the  Diksha.     'Grant  the  Diksha  to  the  sacrifice. 

Agni  as  fire,  and  Vishnu  as  the  sun,  are  invoked  to  cleanse  the 

sacrificer,  by  the  combination  of  their  rays,  from  all  gross  and 


DIK— DIL  177 


material  dross.  The  worshipper  is  then  covered  up  in  a  cloth,  on 
the  outside  of  which  is  placed  the  skin  of  a  black  antelope  ;  and, 
after  a  certain  time  has  elapsed,  and  specified  prayers  have  been 
recited,  the  coverings  are  removed,  the  new  birth  is  considered 
to  have  been  accomplished,  and  the  regenerated  man  descends 
to  bathe."* 

Dikshavisarjane — A  religious  ceremony  amongst  brahmans  ; 
it  is  customary  for  a  man  to  allow  his  hair  to  grow  for  six  months 
after  his  marriage,  and  then  go  to  his  father-in-law's  house  to  have 
his  head  shaved  ;  this  act,  and  the  observances  which  accompany  it, 
is  termed  Dikshavisaijane. 

Dilipa— The  son  of  Ansuman  and  father  of  Bhagiratha  who 
brought  Ganga  down  to  the  earth. 

Ansuman's  son,  Dilipa  famed. 
Begot  a  son  Bhagirath  named, 
From  him  the  great  Kakutstha  rose  ; 
From  him  came  Raghu  feared  by  foes. 

Dilipa  is  described  in  the  Raghuvansa  as  a  grand  ideal  of  what 
a  king  should  be. 

"  Tall  and  broad-shouldered,  stout  and  stroug  of  limb, 
Valour  incarnate  fixed  her  throne  in  him, 
Matchless  in  beauty  and  heroic  might. 
He  towers  like  Meru  in  his  lofty  height. 
Meet  for  his  god-like  form,  his  noble  mind 
To  worthy  studies  in  his  youth  inclined. 
Thence  great  designs  inspired  his  generous  soul, 
And  mighty  deeds  with  glory  crowned  the  whole." 

This  monarch  was  the  delight  of  his  subjects,  Avho  followed  him 
as  their  guide,  and  thereby  obeyed  the  laws  of  Manu. 

"  And  well  they  knew  the  tax  they  gladly  paid, 
For  their  advantage  on  the  realm  was  laid. 
The  bounteous  sun  delights  to  drink  the  lakes, 
But  gives  ten  thousand-fold  the  wealth  he  takes." 

*  Mrs.   Manning,  A.  and  M.  I. 


178  DIL 

Just  as  the  earth  and  water,  fire  and  ether,  were  given  by  the 
good  Creator  for  the  benefit  of  all  mankind  ;  so  was  the  king, 
Dilipa,  sent  to  bless  his  subjects,  and  find  his  own  happiness  in 
that  of  others.     Theft  was  unknown  in  his  dominions,  and 
"  He  ruled  the  earth,  from  rival  sceptre  free, 
Like  one  vast  city  girdled  by  the  sea." 
But  one  boon  was  wanting.    He  had  a  lovely  queen,  but  no  son. 
"  Oh  !  how  he  longed,  that  childless  king,  to  see 
A  royal  infant  smiling  on  her  knee  ; 
With  his  dear  mother's  eyes  and  face  divine, — 
A  second  self  to  ornament  his  line  I" 
In  the  hope  of  attaining  this  boon  he  resolves  to  seek  his  holy 
guide,  the  renowned  Vasishtha,  who  now  lived  far  away  in   a 
secluded  hermitage.     His  queen  goes  forth  with  him,  and  they 
travel  in  a  car,  which  "  tells  his  coming  with  the  music  of  its  bells.'* 
"  Fresh  on  their  cheeks  the  soft  wind  gently  blows, 
Wafting  the  perfume  of  the  woodland  rose  : 
And,  heavy  with  the  dust  of  rifled  flowers. 
Waves  the  young  branches  of  the  mango  bowers. 
They  hear  the  peacock's  joyous  cry  ;  his  head 
Lifted  in  wonder  at  the  courser's  tread. 
They  watch  the  cranes  in  jubilant  armies  fly, 
Crowning,  like  flowers,  the  portals  of  the  sky. 
From  shady  coverts  by  the  way,  the  deer 
Throw  startled  glances  when  the  car  is  near. 
****** 

Through  towns  they  pass,  and  many  a  hamlet  fair, 
Founded  and  cherished  by  their  royal  care." 

Peasants  bring  them  curds  and  milk  ; the  king  calls  attention 

to  the  varied  beauties  of  the  woodland  scene  ;  and,  lost  in  delight, 
they  reach  the  end  of  their  journey  quite  unexpectedly. 
"  Evening  is  come,  and,  weary  of  the  road, 
The  horses  rest  before  the  saints'  abode." 
The  hermitage  reminds  one  of  that  described  in  Kalidasa's  play, 
Sakuntala.     Hermits  from  the  neighbouring  forest  have  come  for 


DIL  179 

grass  and  fuel  ;  playful  fawus  are  waiting  to  be  fed  with  rice  ; 
youDg  girls  are  watering  the  roots  of  trees,  &c. 

The  king  and  the  queeu  are  most  kindly  received. 

After  "  food  and  rest,"  the  sago  inquires  of  the  king  his  wishes, 
and  having  heard  that 

"Mother  earth,  whom  tears  nor  prayers  have  won. 
Is  still  ungracious,  and  denies  a  sou," 
and  that  "the  spirits  of  his  fathers  pine,"  seeing  no  hope  of  funeral 

offerings,  the  great  Vasishtha  falls  into  profound  meditation, 

and,  after  a  few  minutes,  announces  the  cause  of  the  misfortune. 
The  king,  Dilipa,  had  once,  thoughtlessly  and  unconsciously, 
omitted  to  pay  reverence  to  "  the  holy  cow,"  which  w^as  lying  under 
a  celestial  tree  near  the  falls  of  the  Ganges. ...Therefore,  by  way  of 
penance,  he  and  his  queen  must  tend  a  cow,  called  Nandini,  in  the 
sacred  woods  close  by  ;  and  when  they  have  gained  the  love  of 
this  descendant  of  the  affronted  cow,  the  curse  will  be  removed. 
The  attendance  is  given  faithfully  :  the  queen  worships  the  cow, 
by  walking  round  her  and  scattering  grain  ;  and  the  king  cannot 
be  persuaded,  even  by  illusive  phantoms,  to  desert  his  trust.  He 
hastens  to  the  queen  ; 

"  And  though  she  read  at  once  his  looks  aright, 
He  told  her  all  again  with  new  delight. 
Then,  at  the  bidding  of  the  saint,  he  quaffed 
Of  Nandini's  pure  milk  a  precious  draught, 
As  though,  with  thirst  that  rises  from  the  soul. 
He  drank  eternal  glory  from  the  bowl." 

At  the  dawn  of  day, 

"  Swift  towards  their  home  the  eager  horses  bound ; 
The  car  makes  music  o'er  the  grassy  ground. 
They  reach  the  city,  where  the  people  wait. 
Longing  to  meet  their  monarch,  at  the  gate. 
Dim  are  his  eyes,  his  cheek  is  pale,  his  brow 
Still  bears  deep  traces  of  his  weary  vow." 
In  due  time  a  son  was  born. 

"  There  was  a  glory  round  the  infant's  head  ; 


180  DIN— DIP 


And  e'eu  the  unlit  torches  seemed  to  shine 
As  in  a  picture,  with  that  light  divine." 
And,  vrhcn  all  rites  had  been  duly  performed, — 

"  Still  greater  glory  crowned  Dilipa's  son." 

—A.  and  M.  /.,  vol.  II,  pp.  99—101. 

Kalidasa  in  the  Raghuvansa  makes  Raghu  the  son  of  Dilipa  and 
great  grandfather  of  Rama. 

Dina-chariyawa — The  daily  observances  of  Buddhist  priests. 
These  are  very  numerous,  and  are  prescribed  with  minute  detail. 
At  the  conclusion  it  is  said  the  priest  must  maintain  a  course  of 
good  behaviour,  he  must  keep  under  the  five  senses,  with  matured 
wisdom,  and  without  any  haughtiness  of  either  body,  speech  or 
mind. 

Dipaka — The  Illuminator.  A  figure  of  poetical  rhetoric,  throw- 
ing "  a  quickening  ray  of  light  upon  the  colouring  of  the  poet's 
pictures  ;  for  its  power  it  is  indebted  to  arrangement  in  general, 
especially  to  the  connection  of  the  single  verb,  which  (to  use  the 
expression  of  the  commentator)  lights  up  the  whole  description." — 
Colebrooke. 

Dipavali-habba — A  festival  instituted  in  memory  of  two 
celebrated  giants,  Bala-chakravarti  and  Narak-asura.  The  latter 
had  become  the  scourge  of  the  human  race  and  infested  the  earth 
with  his  crimes.  Vishnu  at  length  delivered  both  gods  and  men 
from  the  terror  of  this  monster,  whom  he  slew  after  a  dreadful 
combat.  The  contest  ended  but  with  the  day.  Thus  Vishnu  not 
having  it  in  his  power  to  make  his  diurnal  ablutions  before  the 
setting  of  the  sun,  had  to  perform  them  in  the  night.  The 
Brahmans  in  commemoration  of  this  great  event,  put  off  their 
ablutions  to  the  night  ;  and  this  is  the  only  occasion,  in  the  course 
of  the  year,  in  which  they  can  transgress  the  ordinance  of  never 
bathing  after  sunset.  But  this  exception  of  the  nocturnal  bathing, 
possesses  a  high  degree  of  merit,  and  is  conducted  with  solemnity. 

The  word  Dipavali-habba  signifies  the  Feast  of  Lamps  ;  and 
the  Hindus  actually  light  a  great  number  of  lamps  round  the  door 
of  their  houses.  They  make  paper  lanterns  also,  which  they  hang 
in  the  streets.    The  husbandmen  celebrate  this  festival  in  a  different 


DIP— DIT  181 


way.  Being  theu  the  liarvest  time  for  grain  they  assemble  in  the 
ragi  fields  and  offer  prayers  or  sacrifices.  Some  sacrifice  to  the 
dunghill  which  is  afterwards  to  enrich  the  ground.  The  offerings 
consist  of  burning  lamps,  fruits,  or  flowers  which  are  deposited  in 
the  mass  of  ordure. — Abbe  Dubois. 

Diptimat— One  of  the  sous  of  Krishna  by  Kohini.  The 
Vishnu  Puruna  says  that  Krishna  had  one  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  sons,  but  the  names  of  only  a  few  are  given. 

Dirghabahu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Khatwanga. 

Dirghamukha — A  crane  that  figures  in  the  Panchatantra  ; 
the  name  means  "  long  bill." 

Dirghatamas — The  son  of  Kasirajaand  father  of  Dhanwantari. 
Another  Dirghatamas  was  the  son  of  Utathaya,  and  some  of  the 
Puranas  have  an  absurd  story  of  the  circumstances  attending 
his  birth. 

Dig — Space,  which  is  said  in  the  Bhagavata  to  be  the  deity 
which  presides  over  the  ear.  Dis  is  also  the  name  of  a  river  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Disa — The  wife  of  Bhima,  one  of  the  eight  Rudras. 

Dishta — One  of  the  sons  of  Manu  Vaivaswata,  the  son  of  the 
celestial  luminary. 

Diti — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  became  one  of  the  wives  of 
Kasyapa,  and  mother  of  the  Daityas,  q.  v.  She  is  termed  the 
general  mother  of  Titans  and  malignant  beings.  Diti  having  lost  her 
children  propitiated  Kasyapa  ;  and  the  best  of  ascetics  promised  her 
a  boon  :  on  which  she  prayed  for  a  son  of  irresistible  prowess  who 
should  destroy  Indra.  The  Muni  granted  his  wife  the  gift  on  one 
condition,  "You  shall  bear  a  son,"  he  said,  if  with  thoughts  wholly 
pious,  and  person  entirely  pure,  you  carry  the  babe  in  your  womb 
for  a  hundred  years."  Diti  consented,  and  during  gestation,  observed 
the  rules  of  mental  and  personal  purity.  Indra,  aware  of  what  was 
going  on,  tried  to  prevent  it  ;  and  in  the  last  year  of  the  century 
an  opportunity  occurred.  Diti  retired  one  night  to  rest  without 
performing  the  prescribed  ablution  of  her  feei,  and  fell  asleep  :  on 
wliich  the  thunderer  divided  the  embryo  in  her  womb  into  seven 


182  DIV— DRA 


portions.  The  child  thus  mutilated,  cried  bitterly.  ludra  not 
being  able  to  console  and  silence  it,  divided  each  of  the  seven 
portions  into  seven,  and  thus  formed  the  swift-moving  deities 
called  Maruts,  (^Yinds).  "  In  this  myth  of  Indra  destroying 
the  unborn  fruit  of  Diti  with  his  thunder-bolt,  from  which 
afterwards  came  the  Maruts  or  gods  of  wind  and  storm,  geological 
phenomena  are,  it  seems,  represented  under  mythical  images.  In 
the  great  mother  of  the  gods  is,  perhaps,  figured  the  dry  earth  : 
Indra  the  god  of  thunder  rends  it  open,  and  there  issue  from  its 
rent  bosom  the  Maruts  or  exhalations  of  the  earth,  But  such 
ancient  myths  are  difficult  to  interpret  with  absolute  certainty." — 
Gorriseo. 

Divakara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prativyoman,  of  the  family  of 
Ikshwaku,  q.  v. 

Divaratha — A  prince,  the  son  of  Para,  a  descendant  of  Anu. 

Divaspati — The  Indra  of  the  thirteenth  Manwantara. 

Divijata — One  of  the  sons  of  Pururavas,  according  to  the  list 
in  the  Matsya. 

Divodasa — l,  A  king  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  who  coveted 
one  of  the  hundred  impregnable  cities  of  the  black-skinned  Sambara. 
Indra  hurled  Sambara  from  the  mountain  ;  he  destroyed  ninety- 
nine  cities  and  gave  the  hundredth  to  Divodasa  ;  2,  A  king  of  Kasi 
(Benares)- — the  son  of  Bhimaratha.  There  are  some  curious  legends 
connected  with  this  prince.  It  is  said  that  Siva  and  Parvati, 
desirous  of  occupying  Kasi,  which  Divodasa  possessed,  sent  a 
teacher  named  Nikumbha,  to  lead  the  prince  to  ihe  adoption  of 
Buddhist  doctrines  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  expelled  from 
the  sacred  city,  and  founded  another  on  the  banks  of  the  Gomti  ; 
or  according  to  other  accounts,  he  took  a  city  on  that  river  from 
the  family  of  Bhadrasrenya ;  that  Durdama  the  son  of  Bhadrasrenya, 
recovered  the  country  ;  that  the  son  of  Divodasa  Pratarddana, 
subsequently  conquered  it  from  his  descendants. 

Divya — One  of  the  sons  of  Satwata. 

Dosha — The  wife  of  Kalpa,  the  son  of  Dhruva. 

Dragons — These  are  represented  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  be 
the  progeny  of  Surasa  ;  one  of  the  Daityas. 


DRA  183 

Dra vidian — The  term  applied  to  designate  the  five  languages 
of  Southern  India,  viz  : — the  Tamil,  the  Telugu,  the  Canarese,  the 
Malayalim,  and  the  Toulava.  South  India  was  formerly  called  the 
Dravida  country.  The  Tamil  is  the  most  cultivated  of  the 
Dravidian  tongues  ;  it  contains  the  largest  portion  and  the  richest 
variety  of  undoubtedly  ancient  forms,  and  the  smallest  infusion  of 
Sanskrit  terms.  It  is  the  vernacular  of  about  1 2  millions  of  people. 
The  Telugu  ranks  next  to  the  Tamil  in  respect  of  culture  and 
copiousness  ;  in  point  of  euphonic  sweetness  it  ranks  in  the  first 
place.  It  is  the  vernacular  of  about  14  millions.  The  Canarese 
occupies  the  third  place.  Sanskrit  words  have  been  extensively 
introduced  into  the  modern  dialect,  and  during  the  reigns  of  Hyder 
and  Tippu  in  Mysore,  Hindustani  words  became  common  ;  but  the 
ancient  dialect,  spoken  from  about  800  to  1500  a.  d.  was  free  from 
any  admixture  of  foreign  terms.  It  is  the  vernacular  of  about  10 
millions.  The  Malayalim  ranks  next  in  order  and  is  spoken  along 
the  Malabar  Coast  from  Cannanore  to  Trevandrum  by  about  3 
millions  of  people.  The  Toulava  is  the  least  important  of  the  five, 
and  is  spoken  by  the  smallest  number  of  people. 

Drauni — The  Vyasa  of  the  Dwapara  which  immediately  follows 
the  twenty-eight  Dwaparas  enumerated  in  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Draupadi — The  daughter  of  Raja  Drupada  of  Panchala,  whose 
capital  was  Kampilya.  "  She  is  the  heroine  of  the  Mahabh^rata." 
"  She  is  of  dark  complexion  but  of  exceeding  loveliness  ;  and  the 
only  wish  we  have  for  her  is  that  we  could  change  her  name, — 
Draupadi  ;  for  it  is  almost  beyond  the  power  of  art  to  invest  a 
heroine  with  so  uncouth  an  appellation  with  the  poetic  chann 
belonging  to  her  in  the  Sanskrit."*  The  reports  of  the  extraordinary 
beauty  of  Draupadi  attracted  many  Rajas  and  chieftains  to  her 
Swayaravara.  The  young  Princess  was  led  into  the  arena, 
elegantly  dressed,  adorned  with  radiant  gems,  and  carrying  in  her 
hand  the  garland  which  she  was  to  throw  over  the  neck  of  the  hero 
who  might  have  the  fortune  to  win  her  to  be  his  wife.  Prince 
Dhrishtadyumna  stood  by  the  side  of  his  resplendent  sister,  and 
proclaimed   that  whoever  shot  the  arrow  through  the  revolving 

*  Mis.  Manning.    A.  and  M.  I.,  Vol.  ii. 


184  DRA 

chakra  on  the  first  attempt,  aud  struck  the  eye  of  the  golden  fish, 
should  have  the  princess  for  his  wife.  Many  Rajas  tried  to  bend 
the  bow  but  could  not.  Then  the  ambitious  Kama  entered  the 
lists  and  to  the  surprise  of  all  bent  the  bow  and  fitted  the  shaft  to 
the  string  ;  but  the  proud  Draupadi  resolved  that  no  son  of  a 
charioteer  should  be  her  lord,  and  cried  out,  "  I  wed  not  with  the 
base-born."  Kama  was  abashed  aud  walked  angrily  out  of  the 
area.  Then  Sisupala,  the  Raja  of  Chedi  ;  and  Jarasandha,  the  Raja 
of  Magadhd,  tried  one  after  another  to  bend  the  bow,  but  they  both 
failed.  All  this  time  the  Pandavas  had  been  standing  amongst  the 
crowd  disguised  as  brahmans  :  suddenly  Arjuna  advanced  and 
lifted  the  bow,  bent  it  and  drew  the  cord,  then  fitting  the  arrow  to 
the  string,  he  discharged  it  through  the  centre  of  the  chakra  and 
struck  the  eye  of  the  golden  fish.  A  roar  of  acclamation  arose 
from  the  vast  assembly  ;  the  beautiful  Draupadi  was  filled  with 
joy  and  wonder  at  the  youth  and  grace  of  the  hero  ;  as  commanded 
by  her  brother  she  came  forward  and  threw  the  garland  round  the 
neck  of  Arjuna,  and  permitted  him  to  lead  her  away  according  to 
the  rule  of  the  Swayamvara. 

In  the  works  of  H.  H.  Wilson,  Vol.  iii,  pp.  328—335,  the  follow- 
ing poetical  version  of  the  account  of  the  Swayamvara  is  given 
In  Panchala's  spacious  realm 

The  powerful  monarch  Drupada  observes 

A  solemn  feast  ;  attending  princes  wait 

With  throbbing  hearts,  his  beauteous  daughter's  choice  ; 

The  royal  Draupadi,  whose  charms  surpass 

All  praise,  as  far  as  her  mild  excellence 

Aud  mind  transcend  the  beauties  of  her  person. 


And  now  the  day  of  festival  drew  nigh  ; 

When  Drupada,  whose  anxious  hopes  desired 

A  son  of  Pandu  for  his  daughter's  lord. 

And  who  had  sent  his  messengers  to  search 

The  banished  chiefs,  still  sought  by  them  in  vaiu, 

Devised  a  test— no  other  force  but  theirs 

He  deemed  could  undergo,  to  win  the  bride. 


DRA  18. 

A  pouderous  bow  with  magic  skill  he  framed, 
Unyielding  but  to  more  than  mortal  strength. 
And  for  a  mark  he  hung  a  metal  plate 
Suspended  on  its  axle,  swift  revolving 
Struck  by  a  shaft  that  from  the  centre  strayed. 
This  done  he  bade  proclaim — that  he  whose  hand 
Should  wing  the  arrow  to  its  destined  aim, 
Should  win  the  Princess  by  his  archery. 

Before  the  day  appointed,  trooping  came 
Princes  and  chiefs  innumerous  :  'midst  the  thronc' 

o 

Duryodhana  and  all  the  hundred  sons 
Of  Dhritaiushtra,  with  the  gallant  Karna, 
In  haughty  cohort  at  the  court  appeared. 
With  hospitable  act  the  king  received 
His  royal  guests  and  fitting  welcome  gave. 

Between  the  North  and  East  without  the  gates 
There  lay  a  spacious  plain  ;  a  fosse  profound 
And  lofty  walls  enclosed  its  ample  circuit, 
And  towering  gates  and  trophied  arches  rose, 
And  tall  pavilions  glittered  round  its  borders  : 
Here  ere  the  day  of  trial  came,  the  sports 
Were  held  :  and  loud  as  ocean's  boisterous  waves. 
And  thick  as  stars  that  gem  the  Dolphin's  brow, 
The  mighty  city  here  her  myriads  poured. 
Around  the  monarch's  throne  on  lofty  seats 
Of  gold  with  gems  emblazoned  sat  the  kings. 
Each  lowering  stern  defiance  on  the  rest. 
Without  the  barriers  pressed  the  countless  crowd 
Or  clambering  upon  scaffolds  clustering  hung. 
Skirting  the  distance  multitudes  beheld 
The  field  from  golden  lattices,  or  thronged 
The  high  house-tops,  whose  towering  summits  touched 
The  clouds,  and  like  the  mountain  of  the  gods 
With  sparkling  peaks  streamed  radiant  through  the  air. 
A  thousand  trumpets  brayed,  and  slow  the  breeze 
With  incense  laden  wafted  perfume  round. 
Whilst  games  of  strength  and  skill — the  graceful  dance, 

24 


186  DRA 

The  strains  of  music,  or  dramatic  art, 
Awoke  the  gazer's  wouder  and  applause. 

Thus  sixteen  days  were  passed,  and  every  chief 
Of  note  was  present — and  the  king  no  more 
Could  with  fair  plea  his  daughter's  choice  delay. 
Then  came  the  Princess  forth  in  royal  garb 
Arrayed  and  costly  ornaments  adorned  : 
A  garland  interwove  with  gems  and  gold 
Her  delicate  hands  sustained — from  the  pure  bath 
With  heightened  loveliness  she  tardy  came, 
And  blushing  in  the  princely  presence  stood. 
Next  in  the  ring  the  reverend  Priest  appeared 
And  strewed  the  holy  grass  and  poured  the  oil, 
An  offering  to  the  God  of  Fire,  with  prayer 
Appropriate,  and  with  pious  blessings  crowned. 
Then  bade  the  king  the  trumpets'  clangor  cease 
And  hush  the  buzzing  crowd — while  his  brave  son 
The  gallant  Dhrishtadyumna  on  the  plain 
Descended  and  his  father's  will  proclaimed. 
"Princes,  this  bow  behold — yon  mark — these  shafts — 
Whoe'er  with  dexterous  hand  at  once  directs 
Five  arrows  to  their  aim,  and  be  his  race, 
His  person  and  his  deeds  equivalent 
To  such  exalted  union,  He  obtains 
My  sister  for  his  bride — my  words  are  truth." 
Thus  said,  he  to  the  Princess  next  described 
Each  royal  suitor  by  his  name  and  lineage 
And  martial  deeds,  and  bade  her  give  the  wreath 
To  him  whose  prowess  best  deserved  the  boon. 
.Quick  from  their  gorgeous  thrones  the  kings  uprose. 
Descending  to  the  conflict,  and  around 
The  lovely  Draupadi  contending  pressed  ; 
Like  the  bright  gods  round  Siva's  mountain  bride. 
Love  lodged  his  viewless  arrows  in  their  hearts, 
And  jealous  hatred  swelled  their  haughty  minds  ; 
Each  on  his  rivals  bent  a  lowering  glance. 
And  friends  till  now,  they  met  as  deadliest  foes. 


DRA  187 

Alone  the  kindred  bands  remained  aloof 

Who  owned  Jauardaua  their  glorious  chief. 

He  and  the  mighty  Hahiyudha  curbed 

Their  emulous  zeal, — and  tranquil  they  beheld 

Like  furious  elephants  the  monarchs  meet  ; 

Their  rage  by  courteous  seeming  ill  represt 

Like  fire  amidst  the  sinouldering  embers  glowing. 

And  now  in  turn  the  Princes  to  the  trial 
Succeeding  past,  in  turn  to  be  disgraced'— 
No  hand  the  stubborn  bow  could  bend — they  strained 
Fruitless  each  nerve,  and  many  on  the  field 
Recumbent  fell,  whilst  laughter  pealed  around. 
In  vain  they  cast  aside  their  royal  robes 
And  diamond  chains  and  glittering  diadems, 
And  with  unfettered  arm  and  ample  chest 
Put  forth  their  fullest  strength — the  bow  defied 
Each  chief  nor  left  the  hope  he  might  succeed. 
Karna  alone  the  yielding  bowstring  drew 
And  ponderous  shafts  applied,  and  all  admired. 
The  timid  Draupadi  in  terror  cried, 
I  wed  not  with  the  base-born — Karna  smiled 
In  bitterness  and  upwards  turned  his  eyes 
To  his  great  Sire  the  Sun — then  cast  to  earth 
The  bow  and  shafts  and  sternly  stalked  away. 

Thus  foiled  the  Princes,  through  the  murmuring  crowd 
Amazement  spread — then  Arjuna  from  where 
He  and  his  brethren  with  the  Brahmans  placed 
Had  viewed  the  scene,  advanced  to  prove  his  skill — 
The  priestly  bands  with  wonder  struck  beheld 
Who  seemed  a  student  of  their  tribe  aspire 
To  triumph  where  the  mightiest  chiefs  had  failed— 
They  deemed  the  like  disgrace  would  shame  the  attempt, 
And  ridicule  their  race  and  name  assail, 
And  many  a  venerable  elder  strove 
To  turn  the  stripling  from  the  hopeless  task  : 
They  strove  in  vain — nor  did  they  all  despair — 
For  many  marked  his  elephantine  strength, 


188  DRA— DRI 


His  liou  port  aud  self-collected  soul ; 
And  fancied  that  they  saw  revived  in  him 
The  sou  of  Jamadagni :  to  o'erthrow 
Once  more  the  haughty  Kshatriya's  power  and  pride. 
Unheeding  praise  or  censure,  Arjuna 
Passed  to  the  field  :  with  reverential  steps 
He  round  the  weapon  circled,  next  addressed 
A  silent  prayer,  to  Mahadeo,  and  last 
With  faith  inflexible  on  Krishna  dwelt. 
One  hand  the  bow  up  bore,  the  other  drew 
The  sturdy  cord,  and  placed  the  pointed  shafts — 
They  flew — the  mark  was  hit — and  sudden  shouts 
Burst  from  the  crowd  long  silent :  flattering  waved 
The  Brahman  scarfs,  and  drum  and  trumpet  brayed, 
And  Bard  and  Herald  sung  the  hero's  triumph. 
The  Pandavas  took  Draupadi  home  to  their  mother,  and  told 
her  that  Arjuna  had  won  the  damsel  at  her  Swayamvara,  and  she 
became  the  wife  of  the  five  brothers  according  to  the  institutions 
of  polyandry,  which  seemed  to  have  prevailed  at  a  very  remote 
period.     The  history  of  Draupadi  is  henceforth  connected  with 
that  of  the  Pandavas.     See  Arjuna,    Bhima,   &c.     She  at  last 
accompanied  her  husbands  to  the  Himalaya  mountains  in  the  garb 
of  a  devotee  and  died. 

Dravina — One  of  the  sons  of  Prithu,  the  universal  emperor. 
Also  the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  the  sage  Dhava. 

Draviras — The  people  of  the  Coromandel  Coast,  from  Madras 
southwards  ;  those  by  whom  the  Tamil  language  is  spoken. 

Dravya — Substance  ;  thing  ;  the  receptacle  or  substratum  of 
properties,  one  of  the  six  Padhrihas^  or  categories,  into  which 
Kanada  distributes  the  contents  of  the  universe. 

Dridhadhanash— A  prince,  the  son  of  Senajit,  of  the  family 
of  Hastin. 

Dridhanetra— The  youngest  of  the  four  sons  of  Viswamitra, 
born  when  he  had  retired  to  the  jungles  of  the  south  to  practice 
austerities. 

And  in  that  solitary  spot, 

Four  virtuous  sons  the  kin":  bejjot, 


DRI— DRO  189 


Havishyaud  from  the  ofFeriug  named, 
And  Madhushyand  for  sweetness  famed, 
Mahiirath,  chariot-borne  in  fight. 
And  Dridhauetra,  strong  of  sight." — Griffiths. 
Dridhasona — A   king   of  Maghada,   the   son   of  Susam  ;   he 
reigned  48  years. 

Dridhayas— One  of  the  sons  of  Puriiravas,  according  to  the 
Matsya  list. 

Drishadwati — A  river  of  considerable  importance  in  the 
history  of  the  Hindus,  although  no  traces  of  its  ancient  name 
exist.     V.  P.,  p.  181. 

This  river  is  also  called  Himavat,  and  is  said  to  be  the  mother 
of  Prasenajit. 

Drishtanta — An  illustration,  example,  or  familiar  instance  ;  in 
the  Nyaya  system  of  Gautama,  it  is  a  topic  on  which  in  controversy 
both  disputants  consent ;  or  "  that  on  regard  to  which,  a  man  of  an 
ordinary  and  a  man  of  a  superior  intellect,  entertain  the  same 
opinion." 

Drona — Son  of  the  Rishi  Bharadwaja,  by  birth  a  Brahman,  but 
acquainted  with  military  science,  which  he  received  as  a  gift  from 
Parasurama  (see  R^ma.)  "  Drona  was  no  ascetic,  and  having  in 
childhood  shared  the  lessons  and  sports  of  the  royal  heir  of  the 
neighbouring  kingdom  of  Panchala,  he  felt  inclined  to  live  again 
at  that  court,  now  that  his  old  playfellow  had  become  king.  iN'ever 
doubting  of  a  hearty  welcome,  he  presented  himself  to  king 
Drupada  quite  unceremoniously,  merely  saying,  '  Behold  in  me 
your  friend.'  His  reception  however  was  totally  different  to  what 
he  anticipated. 

"  the  monarch  sternly  viewed 

The  sage,  and  bent  his  brows,  and  with  disdain 
His  eyeballs  reddened  ;  silent  awhile  he  sat. 
Then  arrogantly  spoke  :  Brahman,  methinks 
Thou  showest  little  wisdom,  or  the  sense 
Of  what  is  fitting,  when  thou  call'st  me  friend. 
What  friendship,  weak  of  judgment,  can  subsist 
Between  a  luckless  pauper  and  a  king  ?" 


190  DRO— DRU 


''  The  king  of  Pauchala  stares  at  the  idea  of  friendship  between 
a  learned  brahman  and  one  to  whom  the  Vedas  are  a  mystery,  or 
between  a  warrior  and  one  who  cannot  guide  a  chariot  through  the 
ranks  of  war  ;  and  continues — 

he  to  whose  high  mandate  nations  bow, 

Disdains  to  stoop  to  friends  beneath  the  throne. 
Hence  then  with  idle  dreams  ;  dismiss  the  memory 
Of  other  days  and  thoughts  ;  I  know  thee  not." 
Drona  was  too  much  astonished  to  speak,  but  he  instantly 
withdrew  from  Panchala  to  Hastinapura,  where  he  was  most 
reverentially  welcomed,  and  was  at  once  entrusted  with  the 
instruction  of  the  five  young  Pandu  and  the  hundred  young  Kuru 
princes."  Drona  had  in  youth  been  equally  instructed  in  wisdom 
and  in  arms  ;  and  he  taught  the  young  princes  to  rein  the  steed, 
to  guide  the  elephant,  to  drive  the  chariot,  launch  the  javelin,  hurl 
the  dart,  wield  the  battle-axe,  and  whirl  the  mace."*  In  the 
Vishnu  Purana,  p.  454,  Drona  is  called  the  husband  of  Kripi,  and 
father  of  Aswatthama  ;  afterwards  king  of  the  north  part  of  the 
Panchala  country,  and  a  general  in  the  Kuru  army.  After  Bhishma 
had  been  mortally  wounded,  Drona  was  elected  to  the  command  of 
the  army.  He  promised  Duryodhaua  that  he  would  take 
Yudhishthira  prisoner,  but  he  could  not  do  so  as  Krishna  and 
Arjuna  Avere  ever  on  the  alert  to  prevent  it.  On  the  fourth  day  of 
his  command  he  killed  Virata  and  Drupada.  Dhrishtadyumna 
then  vowed  to  slay  Drona  in  revenge  for  the  death  of  his  father 
Drupada.  A  combat  took  place  ;  but  it  was  not  till  Drona  was 
falsely  told  that  his  son  Aswatthama  was  dead,  that  he  laid  down 
his  arms,  and  Dhrishtadyumna  rushed  upon  him  and  severed  his 
head  from  his  body. 

Dronakas — A  term  by  which,  in  the  Puranas,  the  inhabitants 
of  valleys,  are  designated. 

Drupada— The  son  of  Prishata,  and  father  of  Draupadi,  wife 
of  the  sons  of  Pandu.  He  was  king  of  the  Panchalas,  and  one 
of  the  generals  of  the  Pandava  army.     Being  conquered  by  Drona 

*  Mrs.  Manning— Professor  Wilson,  Oriental  Mag.,  Vol.  iii. 


DUH  191 

he  ouly  managed  to  retain  the  southern  part  of  his  kingdom,  from 
the  Ganges  to  the  Charmavati  (the  modern  Chumbal)  iucUidiug  the 
cities  Makaudi  and  Kampilya.  "  Although  Drupada  was  compelled 
to  acquiesce  in  the  arrangement  made  by  Drona,  by  which  his  rule 
was  confined  to  the  country  south  of  the  Bhagirathi,  the  partition 
was  the  cause  of  deep  mortilication,  and  he  long  meditated  ou  the 
means  by  which  he  might  recover  his  former  power,  and  be 
revenged  upon  his  enemy.  He  especially  regretted  the  want  of  a 
son  whose  youth  and  valour  might  compete  with  Drona's  disciples, 
and  he  visited  the  chief  resorts  of  the  brahmar.s,  in  hope  to  meet 
with  some  holy  sage,  whose  more  than  humau  faculties  might 
secure  him  progeny.  lie  found  two  brahmans  of  eminent  learning 
and  sanctity  named  Yaja  and  Upayaja,  and  addressed  himself  to  the 
latter,  promising  him  a  million  of  cows  if  ho  enabled  him  to  obtaiu 
the  sou  he  desired.  Upayajn,  however  declined  the  task  and 
referred  him  to  his  elder  brother  Yaja,  to  whom  the  king  repaired 
and  promised  ten  millions  of  kine  :  with  much  reluctance  he 
undertook  to  direct  a  sacrificial  ceremony  by  which  the  king  should 
obtain  offspring,  and  called  his  younger  brother  to  his  assistance. 
When  the  rite  had  reached  the  proper  period  the  queen  was  invited 
to  partake  of  it,  but  she  had  not  completed  her  toilet  and  begged 
the  brahmans  to  delay  the  ceremony.  It  was  too  late,  and  the 
sacrifice  proceeding  without  her,  the  children  were  born  independent 
of  her  participation.  The  son  Dhrishtadyumna  appeared  with  a 
diadem  on  his  head,  in  full  mail,  and  armed  with  a  bow  and 
falchion,  from  the  middle  of  the  sacrificial  fire.  Draupadi,  the 
daughter,  from  the  middle  of  the  vedi  or  altar,  on  which  the  fire 
had  been  kindled  !  she  was  of  very  black  colour  although  of 
exceeding  loveliness,  and  was  thence  named  Krishna  ;  the  name  of 
the  son  is  derived  from  the  pride  and  power  with  which  he  Avas 
endowed  from  his  birth."* 

King  Drupada  was  killed  by  Drona  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the 
great  war. 

DuhsalSl — The  daughter  of  Maharaja  Dhritarashtra,  who  was 
married  to  Jayadratha,  Raja  of  Sindhu. 

*  Wilson's  Works,  vol,  iii,  p.  320. 


192  DUH— DUR 

Duhsasana — One  of  the  chief  of  the  hundred  sons  of 
Dhritarashtra.  He  took  part  in  the  great  war.  It  was  he  who 
dragged  Draupadi  into  the  gambling  pavilion  by  the  hair,  and 
insulted  her  before  the  assembly.  Bhima  vowed  to  drink  his  blood  ; 
and  on  the  sixteenth  day  of  the  great  war,  after  a  deadly  conflict, 
Bhima  slew  Duhsasana  and  fulfilled  his  vow. 

Dukha — Pain.     The  son  of  Naraka  and  Vedana. 

Dundhubi— A  huge  giant  slain  by  Bali.  When  Sugriva  wished 
Rama  to  destroy  Bali,  in  order  to  convince  him  of  the  great 
strength  of  the  latter  he  showed  Rama  the  dead  body  of  Dundhubi : — 

"The  prostrate  corse  of  mountain  size 
Seemed  nothing  in  the  hero's  eyes  ; 
He  lightly  kicked  it  as  it  lay 
And  cast  it  twenty  leagues  away." 

Duradarsin— Far-seeing  ;  the  name  of  a  Vulture  in  thePancha- 
tantra,  who  was  the  chief  minister  of  the  peacock  king  Chitravarna. 

Durdama — The  son  of  Bhadrasreuya,  who  recovered  his 
father's  kingdom  from  Divodasa,  q.  v. 

Durga — The  Sakti  or  wife  of  the  god  Siva,  and  the  goddess  of 
destruction  ;  she  is  described  as  terrible  in  form  and  irascible  in 
temper.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Himalaya,  the  sovereign  of  the 
snowy  mountains.  Durga  -is  often  called  Kali.  In  her  amiable 
form  she  is  termed  Bhavani.  "  The  adoration  of  Kali,  or  Durga,  is 
however  particularly  prevalent  in  Bengal,  and  is  cultivated  with 
practices  scarcely  known  in  most  other  provinces.  Her  great 
festival,  the  Dasara,  is  in  the  West  of  India,  marked  by  no 
particular  honors,  whilst  its  celebration  in  Bengal  occupies  ten  days 
of  prodigal  expenditure.  This  festival,  the  Durga  Puja,  is  now 
well  known  to  Europeans,  as  is  the  extensive  and  popular 
establishment  near  Calcutta,  the  temple  of  Kali  at  Kali  Glidt." 

"  That  human  offerings  to  the  dark  forms  of  Siva  and  Durga 
were  sometimes  perpetrated  in  later  times,  we  know  from  various 
original  sources,  particularly  from  that  very  effective  scene  in  the 
drama  of  Madhava  and  Malati,  in  which  Aghoraghanta  is 
represented  as  about  to  sacrifice  Malati  to  Chamunda,  when  she  is 


DUR  193 

rescued  by  her  lover.  No  such  divinities,  however,  neither  Siva 
nor  Durg^,  much  less  any  of  their  terrific  forms,  are  even  named, 
so  far  as  we  know,  in  the  Vedas,  and  therefore  these  works  could 
not  be  authority  for  their  sanguinary  worship.  That  the  practice 
is  enjoined  on  particular  occasions  by  the  Tantras  and  some  of  the 
Purarias  connected  with  this  branch  of  the  Hindu  faith,  is,  no  doubt, 
true  ;  but  these  are  works  of  a  much  later  date."* 

"Durga  combines  the  characteristics  of  Minerva,  Pallas,  and 
Juno.  Her  original  name  w^as  Parvati,  but  having,  by  a  display 
of  extraordinary  valour,  defeated  a  giant  named  Durga,  she  was 
thenceforth  dignified  with  the  name  of  her  conquered  foe.  This 
monster  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  a  personification  of  vice,  and 
Durga  of  virtue,  while  the  struggle  typified  the  action  and  reaction 
of  good  and  evil  in  the  world." — G.  Small.  (See  Aparna,  Devi, 
Kali,  Karali,  Parvati,  Sati,  Yoganidra.) 

Durga — The  name  of  a  river  flowing  from  the  Vindhya. 

Durgadasa — A  distinguished  commmentator  on  the  Sanskrit 
Grammar  of  Vopadeva. 

Durgama — Durmada.  Two  sous  of  Vasudevaby  his  wifeRohini. 

Durgas — Strongholds.  There  are  four  kinds  ;  three  of  which 
are  natural  from  their  situation  in  mountains,  amidst  water,  or  in 
other  inaccessible  spots  ;  the  fourth  is  the  artificial  defences  of  a 
village  hamlet  or  city. 

Durjayanta — A  mountain  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua  not  yet 
identified. 

Durvasas — The  great  Hindu  Cynic  ;  a  celebrated  sage,  the  son 
of  Atri  by  Anasuya,  and  an  incarnation  of  a  portion  of  Siva.  He 
was  wandering  over  the  earth  when  he  beheld  in  the  hands  of  a 
nymph  of  air,  a  garland  of  flowers,  with  whose  fragrance  he  was 
enraptured.  The  graceful  nymph  presented  it  to  the  sage,  who 
placed  the  chaplet  upon  his  brow,  and  resumed  his  journey  ;  soon 
after  he  beheld  Indra,  the  ruler  of  the  three  worlds,  approach,  seated 
on  his  infuriated  elephant  Airavata,  and  attended  by  the  gods. 
The  sage  threw  the  garland  of  flowers  to  the  king  of  the  gods,  who 

*  n.  II.  Wilson's  AVorks,  vol.  ii. 


194  PUR 

suspended  it  on  the  brow  of  Airavata.  The  elephant  took  hold  of 
the  garland  with  his  trunk  and  cast  it  to  the  ground.  The  chief 
of  sages  Durvdsas,  was  highly  incensed  at  this  treatment  of  his  gift, 
and  thus  addressed  the  sovereign  of  the  immortals.  "  Thou  art 
an  idiot  not  to  respect  the  garland  I  gave  thee  *  *  *  *  thy 
sovereignty  over  the  three  v/orlds  shall  be  subverted,  &c."  Indra 
descended  from  his  elephant  and  endeavoured,  but  without  effect, 
to  appease  the  sinless  Durvasas.  Thenceforward  the  three  worlds 
lost  their  vigour  and  fell  into  decay  and  ruin.  The  gods  were 
then  oppressed  by  the  Danavas,  had  recourse  to  Vishnu,  and  were 
directed  to  churn  the  ocean.  Durvasas  was  a  Chiranjivi  or 
immortal  man,  not  limited  to  one  age.  In  the  drama  of  Sakuntala, 
his  curse  on  that  young  woman  for  a  slight  delay  in  opening  her 
door  to  him,  brought  on  her  sorrow  and  disgrace.  In  like  manner, 
throughout  the  whole  range  of  Hindu  literature,  the  curse  of 
Durvisas  is  at  hand,  to  account  for  every  contretemps,  mishap  or 
misadventure.     A.  and  M.  I. 

Duryaman — A  prince,  the  son  of  Dhrita,  a  descendant  of 
Druhyu. 

Duryodhana— "  Difficult  to  be  fought  with."  The  eldest  of 
the  Kurus.  The  eldest  of  i\iQ  hundred  sons  of  Dhritarashtra,  and 
one  of  the  principal  actors,  among  the  Kauravas,  in  the  great  war... 
Pandu  was  the  younger  brother  of  Dhritarashtra,  but  Yudhishthira 
his  eldest  son  was  born  before  Duryodhana,  and  according  to  the 
customs  of  those  times  had  in  consequence  a  prior  right  to  the 
throne  of  Hastinapura.  This  led  to  constant  rivalry  between 
Yudhishthira  and  Duryodhana  for  the  post  of  Yuvaraja.  As  the 
five  Paudavas  had,  on  the  death  of  Pandu,  come  under  the 
guardianship  of  their  uncle  Dhritarashtra,  the  cousins  were  brought 
up  together  in  the  old  palace  of  Hastinapura.  It  is  stated  in  the 
Mahabharata  that  "  about  this  time  Duryodhana  the  eldest  of  the 
Kauravas,  became  very  jealous  of  the  strength  of  Bhima,  and 
resolved  to  work  evil  against  him.  He  attempted  to  take  his  life 
by  poison,  and  throwing  him  into  a  lake  while  stupified  from  its 
effect.  Bhima  was  not  however  killed  but  appeared  again  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  struggles  of  their  lives." 


DUR  195 

"  The  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  Kurus  towards  the  Pandavas 
iucreased  as  they  all  attained  manhood.  The  father  of  the  Kurus 
being  blind,  required  a  vice  king,  or  Yuvaraja,  i.  €.,  "  Little 
Raja."  In  this  office  Yudhishthira  was  installed,  he  being  entitled 
to  it  as  eldest  son  of  the  late  king  Pandu.  But  Duryodhana  was 
highly  discontented  at  this  arrangement,  and  at  length  persuaded 
his  blind  father  to  send  away  the  Pindavas  to  the  city  of 
Varanavata  (the  modern  Allahabad).  Here  a  splendid  house  was 
prepared  for  them  ;  but  hemp,  resin,  and  other  combustible 
Substances,  were  secreted  within  ;  for  the  wicked  Duryodhana 
plotted  that  the  house  should  be  set  on  fire,  and  -the  five  Pandavas 
and  their  mother  burnt  to  death.  Warning,  however,  was  given 
to  these  intended  victims  before  they  left  Hastinapura  ;  and,  on 
taking  possession  of  their  splendid  new  habitation,  they  had  an 
underground  passage  made,  by  which,  when  the  expected  fire  took 
place,  they  all  escaped." 

Among  the  poor  people  whom  Kunti  had  been  feasting  was  a 
Bhil  woman,  with  five  sons,  who,  according  to  the  practice  of 
their  tribe,  drank  deeply  of  intoxicating  liquor,  and  then  lay  down 
and  slept  heavily.  The  next  morning  their  bodies  were  found 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  conflagration  ;  and  it  was  believed  in 
Hastinapura  that  the  Pandavas  had  perished,  and  Duryodhana 
pretended  to  mourn  their  death. 

After  the  Pandavas  (q.  v.)  had  conquered  their  misfortunes 
"  the  very  splendour  of  their  success  revived  the  dark  jealousy  of 
Duryodhana  ;  for  he  and  his  brother  Duhsasana,  and  one  or  two 
others,  plot  to  deprive  the  newly-inaugurated  king  of  his  territories. 
They  first  secure  the  co-operation  of  a  relative,  named  Sakuni, 
who  was  a  noted  gambler,  and  then  induce  the  blind  old  Maharaja 
to  invite  the  Pandavas  to  a  gambling  festival  at  Hastinapura. 
Yudhishthira  accepts  the  invitation,  with  secret  misgiving  ;  for 
"  he  was  not  very  skilful  in  throwing  the  dice,"  and  he  knows 
that  "  Sakuni  is  dwelling  in  Hastinapura."  Of  Sakuni,  it  is  said 
that  "  he  is  very  skilful  in  throwing  dice,  and  in  playing  with  dice 
that  were  loaded  ;  insomuch,  that  whenever  he  played  he  always 
won  the  game."  Nevertheless,  Yudhishthira  feels  compelled  to  go  ; 
for  "  no  true  Kshatriya  can  refuse  a  challenge  to  war  or  play."  The 


196  DUR 

game  they  played  at  seems  to  have  resembled  backgammon,  "  pieces 
on  a  board  being  directed  by  the  throwing  of  dice."  Certain  seeds 
or  nuts  served  as  dice  ;  and  dice  of  this  description  were  used  for 
the  guidance  of  a  portion  of  the  religious  sacrifice.  So  that,  to 
throw  dice,  was  not  deemed  objectionable  ;  and  only  when  a 
passion,  or  the  stake  immoderate,  was  it  esteemed  a  vice.  It  was, 
of  course,  contrived  that  Yudhishthira  should  be  led  on  to  stake 
and  to  lose  all  that  he  possessed.* 

When  the  Pandavas  returned  from  their  second  exile  it  was 
chiefly  owing  to  Duryodhana  that  the  great  war  was  fought.  He 
rejected  all  Krishna's  proposals  for  peace,  though  Bhishma  and 
Drona,  as  well  as  his  aged  father,  were  anxious  that  he  should 
accept  them... The  war  commenced. 

"  The  Kuru  host  entrusted  to  his  care, 
The  son  of  Bharadw^ja  marshals  ;  first 
The  chiefs  of  Sindhu,  and  Kalinga's  king. 
With  the  young  prince  Vikarna  on  the  right 
He  stations,  by  Gandhara's  martial  chivalry  ; 
With  glittering  lances  armed,  and  led  by  Sakuni, 
Their  sovereign's  son,  supported.     On  his  left 
Duhsasana  and  other  chiefs  of  fame 
Commanded  the  array  :  around  them  rode 
Kamboja's  horse,  Sakas  and  Yavanas, 
On  rapid  coursers,  mighty  in  the  field. 
The  nations  of  the  noi'th,  and  east,  and  soutli, 
Composed  his  main  battalions  :  in  the  rear 
Secure  the  monarch  marched  ;  whilst  in  the  van 
The  gallant  Kama  led  his  faithful  bands, 
Exulting  in  their  sovereign's  stately  stature, 
High  raised  upon  his  elephant  of  war, 
And  gorgeous  shining  as  the  rising  sun. 
His  warriors  deemed  the  gods  themselves  were  weak, 
With  Indra  at  their  head,  to  stem  his  prowess, 
And  each  to  each  their  thoughts  revealed,  they  moved, 
Secure  of  victory,  to  meet  the  foe."t 


A.  ana  M.  I.  t  Wilson's  "Works,  vol.  iii,  p.  291. 


DUS  197 

On  the  last  day  of  the  war  Bhi'ma  fought  Duryodhaua  in  single 
combat  with  chibs,  and  killed  him.  It  is  said  that  he  then  fulfilled 
the  vow  he  made  to  avenge  the  insult  which  Duryodhana  had 
offered  to  Dranpadi. 

Dushan — A  giant  slain  by  Rama  in  the  forest  of  Dandaka. 

Dushyanta — The  eldest  son  of  Anila,  and  father  of  the  emperor 
Bharata.  The  Mahabharata  relates  the  following  legend  of  this 
king.  "  Once  upon  a  time  the  valiant  Raja  Dushyanta  was  hunting 
in  the  forest,  when  he  beheld  the  beautiful  Sakuntala,  the  adopted 
daughter  of  Kanwa  the  sage  ;  and  he  prevailed  on  the  damsel 
to  become  his  wife  by  a  Gandharva  marriage,  and  gave  her  his 
ring  as  the  pledge  of  his  troth.  Then  Dushyanta  returned  to  his 
own  city,  whilst  Sakuntala  remained  in  the  hermitage  of  her  father. 
After  this  Durvasas  the  sage  visited  the  hermitage  of  Kanwa,  but 
the  thoughts  of  Sakuntala  were  fixed  upon  her  husband,  and  she 
heard  not  the  approach  of  the  sage.  And  Durvasas  cursed  the 
damsel,  that  she  should  be  forgotten  by  the  man  she  loved  ;  but 
after  a  while  he  relented,  and  promised  that  the  curse  should  be 
removed  as  soon  as  Dushyanta  saw  the  ring.  When  Sakuntala 
found  that  she  was  with  child,  she  set  off  for  the  palace  of  her 
husband  ;  but  on  her  way  she  bathed  in  a  sacred  pool,  and  the 
ring  dropped  from  her  finger  and  was  lost  beneath  the  waters. 
When  she  reached  the  palace  of  the  Raja,  his  memory  had 
departed  from  him,  and  he  would  not  own  her  to  be  his  wife  ;  and 
her  mother  came  and  carried  her  away  to  the  jungle,  and  there  she 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  named  Bharata.  And  it  so  happened 
that  a  large  fish  was  caught  by  a  fisherman,  and  the  ring  of 
Dushyanta  was  found  in  the  belly  of  the  fish,  and  carried  to  the 
Raja  ;  and  Dushyanta  saw  the  ring,  and  he  remembered  the  beautiful 
Sakuntala,  who  had  become  his  wife  by  a  Gandharva  marriage.  And 
the  Raja  went  into  the  jungle  and  saw  the  boy  Bharata  sporting 
with  young  lions  and  setting  at  nought  the  lioness  that  gave  them 
suck  ;  and  his  heart  burned  towards  the  lad  ;  and  presently  he 
beheld  the  sorrowing  Sakuntala,  and  he  knew  that  Sakuntala  was 
his  wife,  and  that  Bharata  was  his  son.  So  Rdja  Dushyanta  took 
Sakuntala  and  Bharata  to  his  own  city  ;  and  he  made  Sakuntala 


198  DUT— DWA 


his  cliief  Rani,  and  appointed  Bharata  to  succeed  him  in  the  Raj." 
The  story  of  Sakuntala  is  the  subject  of  the  beautiful  drama  of 
KaUdasa,  "  The  Lost  Ring." 

Dutas— Messengers.  The  Gananatas  or  Dutas  are  divided 
into  three  classes  ;  1,  Siva-dutas,  who  are  represented  as  red, 
short,  and  thick  like  the  Bhuta.  Their  hair-locks  twisted  together, 
rest  on  their  heads  like  a  cap,  and  from  their  mouths  project  two 
great  lion's  teeth.  They  have  four  hands  in  which  they  hold, 
respectively,  a  snake,  a  cord,  a  trident,  and  a  wine-jug  ;  whilst 
their  body  is  adorned  Avith  various  ornaments.  By  means  of  these 
messengers  Is  vara  fetches  the  souls  of  his  devotees  at  their  death 
to  his  seat  of  bliss,  called  Kailasa,  and  that  in  a  Pushpakavimaua, 
i.  e.,  a  self-moving  chariot. 

2.  The  Vishnu-dutas  have  their  hair  dressed  like  the  Siva-dutas, 
and  also  like  them  a  lion's  teeth,  but  otherwise  they  resemble 
Vishnu,  being  of  a  blue  color,  and  wearing  the  Tirunama  on  their 
forehead,  arms,  and  breasts  ;  and  round  their  necks  a  rosary  of 
Tulasimani ;  whilst  they  hold  in  their  four  hands,  respectively, 
a  Sankha,  a  Chakra,  a  battle-axe,  and  a  club.  Through  these 
messengers  Vishnu  fetches  the  souls  of  his  faithful  devotees  into 
his  abode  of  bliss  called  Vaikuntha. 

3.  The  Yama-dutas,  the  messengers  of  Yama,  the  king  of  death 
and  hell,  are  painted  quite  black,  like  demons,  with  horrible  faces 
and  great  teeth.  In  their  four  hands  they  carry  a  trident,  a  club  and 
many  ropes  ;  and  in  their  girdles,  daggers.  Their  business  consists 
in  carrying  the  souls  of  the  wicked  into  Naraka  or  hell  ;  but  they 
are  not  allowed  to  lay  hold  on  any  one  before  his  fixed  life-time  is 
elapsed,  and  the  souls  of  the  pious  they  cannot  touch  at  all.  When, 
however,  such  die  as  are  neither  virtuous  nor  wicked,  then  it 
happens  that  the  messengers  of  Yama  and  those  of  Siva  or  Vishnu 
come  into  conflict  with  each  other,  each  party  claiming  the 
indifferent  souls." 

Dwapara— The  third  Yuga  or  age,  which  lasts  2,400  divine 
years  ;  these  are  converted  into  years  of  mortals  by  multiplying 
them  by  360,  a  year  of  men  being  a  day  of  the  gods— thus 
2,400  X  360  =  864,000  mortal  years,  the  duration  of  the  Dwapara 


DWA— DWI  199 


or  third  Yuga.  The  predominant  duties  of  the  four  Yugas  are 
said  to  be  austere  fervour  ou  the  Krita  age,  knowledge  in  the 
Treta,  sacrifice  in  the  Dwapara,  and  liberality  alone  in  the  Kali 
Yuga.     O.  S.  T.,  vol.  i,  p.  39. 

Dwaraka — The  city  of  Krishna  ;  after  he  had  conquered  many 
difficulties  in  his  position,  he  solicited  a  space  of  twelve  furlongs 
from  the  ocean,  and  there  he  built  the  city  of  Dwdraka  ;  defended 
by  high  ramparts,  and  beautiful  with  gardens  and  reservoirs  of 
water,  cro^vded  with  houses  and  buildings,  and  splendid  as  the 
capital  of  Indra,  Amardvati.  After  Krishna  abandoned  his  mortal 
body,  Arjuua  conducted  his  many  wives  and  all  the  people  from 
Dwaraka,  with  tenderness  and  care.  The  ocean  then  rose  and 
submerged  the  whole  of  Dwaraka  except  the  dwelling  of  Krishna, 
The  Viiihnu  Purana  says  the  sea  has  never  been  able  to  wash  that 
temple  away,  as  Krishna  still  abides  there.  The  Mahabharata 
declares  that  the  sea  did  not  spare  any  part  wdiatever.  "  It  is  clear, 
therefore  ;"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "  that  when  the  latter  was 
compiled  the  temple  was  not  standing,  and  that  it  was  erected 
between  the  date  of  the  compilation  and  the  two  Puranas.  The 
present  shrine,  which  is  held  in  great  repute,  stands  at  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  of  Guzerat.  It  is  still  an  object  of  pilgrimage  ; 
it  was  so  in  the  reign  of  Akbar  ;  and  has  been  no  doubt,  from  a 
remote  period." 

Dwesha— Hatred  ;  one  of  the  five  afflictions  of  the  Patanjali 
philosophy. 

Dwija — Twice-born  ;  a  brahman,  whose  investiture  with  the 
sacred  thread  constitutes,  religiously  and  metaphorically,  their 
second  birth.  In  this  sense  it  may  be  applied  to  the  Kshatriya 
and  Vaishya. 

Dwimidha — One  of  the  sons  of  Ilastin,  founder  of  Hastinapura. 

Dwimurddha — One  of  the  Danavas,  a  son  of  Kasyajia  by  Dauu. 

Dwipas — Insular  continents,  of  which  there  are  seven  chief, 
and  with  the  seven  seas  are  supposed  to  form  alternate  concentric 
circles,  viz  :  1,  Jambu  Dwipa,  surrounded  by  a  salt  sea  (Lavana)  ; 
2,  Plaksha,  by  a  sea  of  sugar-cane  juice,  (Ikshu)  :  3,  Salmali,  by  a 


200  DWI— DYA 


sea  of  wine,  (Sura)  ;  4,  Kusa,  by  a  sea  of  clarified  butter,  or  ghee, 
(Sarpi)  ;  5,  Krauncha,  by  a  sea  of  curds,  (Dugdha)  ;  7,  Pushkara, 
by  a  sea  of  fresh  water.  The  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  circular 
mountain  designated  Chakravaligiri.  An  account  of  the  kings, 
divisions,  inhabitants,  &c.,  of  these  Dwipas  will  be  found  in  the 
Vishnu  Pui-aua,  Chap.  IV,  Book  I.  The  geography  of  the 
Puranas,  says  Prof.  Wilson,  occurs  in  most  of  these  works  ;  and  in 
all  the  main  features,  the  seven  Dwipas,  seven  seas,  the  divisions  of 
Jambudwipa,  the  situation  and  extent  of  Meru,  and  the  sub-division 
of  Bharata,  is  the  same.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  first  rudiments 
and  general  outline  of  this  fiction,  including  the  circular  mountain, 
are  rabbinical,  and  may  be  found  in  the  Talmud. 

Dwivida— An  Asura,  the  foe  of  the  friends  of  the  gods,  which 
in  the  form  of  an  ape,  committed  great  devastation.  "  The  whole 
world,  disordered  by  this  iniquitous  monkey,  was  deprived  of 
sacred  study  and  religious  rites,  and  was  greatly  afflicted."  (V.  P.) 
On  one  occasion,  when  Bala  Rama  was  enjoying  himself  in  the 
groves  of  Raivata,  the  monkey  Dwivida  came  there,  threw  over 
the  wine  and  groaned  at  the  company.  An  encounter  followed, 
in  which  the  monkey  struck  the  Yadava  on  the  breast  with  his 
paws.  Bala  Rama  replied  with  a  blow  of  his  fist  upon  the  forehead 
of  Dwivida,  which  felled  him  lifeless  to  the  earth.  The  crest  of 
the  mountain  on  which  he  fell  was  splintered  into  a  hundred  pieces 
by  the  weight  of  his  body,  as  if  the  thunderer  had  shivered  it  with 
his  thunderbolt.     V.  P.,  &c. 

Dwivida — One  of  the  sons  of  the  Asvins,  famed  for  his  beauty. 

Dyaus  and  Prithivi — Heaven  and  Earth,  seemed  to  have 
been  very  ancient  Aryan  divinities,  and  are  in  many  passages  of 
the  Rig  Veda  described  as  the  parents  of  the  other  gods.  There 
are  several  hymns  specially  devoted  to  their  honour.  In  the  hymns. 
Heaven  and  Earth  are  characterized  by  a  profusion  of  epithets,  not 
only  such  as  are  suggested  by  their  various  physical  characteristics, 
as  vastness,  breadth,  profundity,  productiveness,  unchangeableness, 
but  also  by  such  as  are  of  a  moral  or  spiritual  nature,  as  innocuous 
or  beneficent,  wise  promoters  of  righteousness. 

While  Heaven  and  Earth  are  described  as  the  universal  parente^, 


DYU  201 

they  are  spoken  of  in  other  phices  as  themselves  created.  Thus 
it  is  said  in  the  Rig  Veda  tliat  Mie  who  produced  heaven  and  earth 
must  have  been  the  most  skilful  artizan  of  all  the  gods.'  ludra 
also  is  described  as  their  creator  ;  as  having  beautifully  fashioned 
them  by  his  power  and  skill  ;  as  having  bestowed  them  on  his 
worshippers  ;  as  sustaining  and  upholding  them,  &c. 

"In  other  passages  we  encounter  various  speculations  about 
their  origin.  In  one  hymn  the  perplexed  j^oet  inquires  which  of 
these  two  was  the  first  ?  and  which  the  last  ?  How  have  they 
been  produced  ?  Sages  who  knows  ?  In  another  hymn  the 
creation  of  heaven  and  earth  is  ascribed  to  the  sole  agency  of  the 
god  Visvakarman.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  functions  which 
in  the  older  Indian  Mythology  were  assigned  to  Dyaus,  were  at  a 
later  period  transferred  to  Indra.     O.  S.  T.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  21 — 34. 

Dyumat— One  of  the  sons  of  the  Rishi  Vasishtha,  according  to 
the  list  in  the  Bhagavata,  which  differs  altogether  from  that  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Dyutimat— One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Priyavrata  :  three  of  them 
adopted  a  religious  life  :  Priyavrata  having  divided  the  earth  into 
seven  continents,  gave  them  respectively  to  his  other  seven  sons. 
Dyutimat  was  king  of  Krauncha-dwipa,  where  the  inhabitants 
resided  without  apprehension,  associating  with  the  bands  of 
divinities. 


26 


E 

Earth — The  Earth,  considered  as  one  of  the  ancient  'elements,' 
occupies  nearly  the  same  place  in  all  the  Puranas.  The  order  is, 
ether,  (akas)  air,  (vayu)  fire,  (tejas)  water  and  earth.  The  order 
of  Empedocles  was  ether,  fire,  earth,  water,  air.  The  Puranas 
describe  the  earth  as  having  been  raised  from  the  lowest  regions  on 
the  ample  tusks  of  the  Yaraha  (boar)  avatar.  The  Bhagavata 
states  that,  when  the  earth,  oppressed  by  the  weight  of  the 
mountains,  sunk  down  into  the  waters,  Vishnu  was  seen  in  the 
sub-terrene  regions,  or  Kasatala,  by  Hiranyaksha,  in  the  act  of 
carrying  it  oflf.  The  demon  claimed  the  Earth,  and  defied  Vishnu 
to  combat :  and  a  conflict  took  place  in  which  Hiranyaksha  was 
slain.  There  are  legends  which  relate  the  subjugation  of  the  Earth 
by  the  mighty  Prithu,  when  he  was  invested  with  universal 
dominion.  Prithu  levelled  or  uprooted  mountains  ;  defined 
boundaries  on  the  irregular  surface  of  the  Earth  ;  introduced 
cultivation,  pasture,  highways,  commerce,  in  a  word,  civilization. 
The  Vishnu  Purana  states,  "  This  Earth,  the  mother,  the  nurse, 
the  receptacle,  and  nourisher  of  all  existent  things,  was  produced 
from  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  Vishnu.  And  thus  was  born  the 
mighty  Prithu,  the  heroic  son  of  Vena,  who  was  the  lord  of  the 
Earth,  and  who,  from  conciliating  the  affections  of  the  people,  was 
the  first  ruler  to  whom  the  title  of  Raja  was  ascribed. 

Five  chapters  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  are  devoted  to  a  description 
of  the  Earth  ;  its  people  and  countries.  Jamba-dwipa  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  seven  great  insular  continents  (see  Dwipas)  and 
in  the  centre  of  Jamba-dwipa  is  the  golden  mountain  Meru — the 
shape  of  which  is  variously  described  in  the  different  Puranas  ; 
though  all  represent  it  as  if  enormous  size  and  great  beauty.  The 
apples  of  the  Jamba-tree  are  as  large  as  elephants  ;  from  their 
expressed  juice  is  formed  the  Jamba  river,  the  waters  of  which  are 
drunk  by  the  inhabitants  ;  and  in  consequence  of  drinking  of  that 
stream  they  pass  their  days  in  content  and  health,  neither  exposed 


EAR— EGG  203 


to  decrepitude  or  decay.  Ample  details  of  the  Varslias  or 
countries,  are  given  in  most  of  the  Puninas,  but  they  are  all  of  an 
equally  fanciful  and  extravagant  character. 

The  Vishnu  Piirana  says,  "  Sosha  bears  the  entire  -world  like  a 
diadem,  upon  his  head  *  *  *  *  when  Ananta,  his  eyes  rolling 
with  intoxication,  yawns,  then  Earth,  with  all  her  woods  and  seas, 
and  mountains,  and  rivers,  trembles."  In  another  place,  "At  the  end 
of  a  thousand  periods  of  four  ages  the  P^arth  is  for  the  most  part 
exhausted,  A  total  dearth  then  ensues  which  lasts  a  hundred  years : 
and  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  food  all  beings  become  languid, 
and  at  last  entirely  perish.  The  eternal  Vishnu  then  assumes  the 
character  of  Rudra  the  destroyer,  and  descends  to  re-unite  all  his 
creatures  with  himself.  He  enters  into  the  seven  rays  of  the  sun  ; 
drinks  up  all  the  waters  of  the  globe,  and  causes  all  moisture  to 
evaporate,  thus  drying  up  the  whole  earth.  *****  Xhe 
destroyer  of  all  things,  Hari,  in  the  form  of  Rudra,  becomes  the 
scorching  breadth  of  the  serpent  Sesha,  and  thereby  reduces 
Patala  to  ashes.  The  great  fire,  when  it  has  burnt  all  the  divisions 
of  Patala  proceeds  to  the  earth,  and  consumes  it  also."    V.  P.,  632. 

Ear-rings — Among  the  various  articles  produced  at  the  churning 
of  the  ocean,  ear-rings  are  enumerated  ;  these  were  taken  by  Indra 
and  given  to  Aditi ;  the  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of  Kasyapa. 
The  ear-rings  were  stolen  by  Naraka,  son  of  the  Earth,  and 
conveyed  by  him  to  Pragjyotisha,  "an  impregnable,  formidable  and 
unassailable  city  of  the  Asuras."  Krishna  attacked  the  place, 
overcame  all  opposition,  slew  Naraka,  recovered  the  jewelled 
ear-rings,  and  returning  to  the  heaven  of  the  gods,  restored  them 
to  Aditi,  Avho  praised  Krishna  in  verses  which  contain  some 
remarkable  sentiments.    They  will  be  found  in  the  V.  P.,    584-5. 

"Egg  of  the  World — In  the  Rig  Veda  the  Supreme  Spirit  is 
represented  as  producing  an  egg,  and  from  the  egg  is  evolved  a 
world.  At  a  later  period,  Brahma  is  set  forth  as  depositing  in  the 
primordial  waters  an  egg  shining  like  gold.  The  Puranas  all 
contain  accounts  of  the  first  aggregation  of  the  elements  in  the  form 
of  an  egg.  The  Vishnu  Purana  says,  "  This  vast  egg,  compounded 
"f  the  elements,  and  resting  on   the  waters,   was   the  excellent 


204.  EGG 

natural  abode  of  Vishnu  in  the  form  of  Brahma  ;  and  there  Vishnu, 
the  lord  of  the  universe,  whose  essence  is  inscrutable,  assumed  a 
perceptible  form,  and  even  he  himself  abided  in  it  in  the  character 
of  Brahma.  "  Its  womb,  vast  as  the  mountain  Meru,  was  composed 
of  the  mountains  ;  and  the  mighty  oceans  were  the  waters  that 
filled  its  cavity.  In  that  egg,  O  Brahman,  were  the  continents  and 
seas  and  mountains,  the  planets  and  divisions  of  the  universe,  the 
gods,  the  demons,  and  mankind.  And  this  egg  was  externally 
invested  by  seven  natural  envelopes,  or  by  water,  air,  fire,  ether, 
and  Ahankara  the  origin  of  the  elements,  each  tenfold  the  extent 
of  that  which  it  invested  ;  next  came  the  principle  of  intelligence  ; 
and,  finally,  the  whole  was  surrounded  by  the  indiscreet  principle  : 
resembling  thus  the  cocoanut,  filled  interiorly  with  pulp,  and 
exteriorly  covered  by  husk  and  rind." 

"  It  seems  impossible,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "  not  to  refer 
this  notion  to  the  same  origin  as  the  widely  diffused  opinion  of 
antiquity,  of  the  first  manifestation  of  the  world  in  the  form  of  an 
egg."  "  It  seems"  says  Bryant,  "  to  have  been  a  favourite  symbol, 
and  very  ancient,  and  we  find  it  adopted  among  many  nations." 
Traces  of  it  occur  among  the  Syrians,  Persians  and  Egyptians  ; 
and  besides  the  Orphic  egg  amongst  the  Greeks,  and  that 
described  by  Aristophanes,  part  of  the  ceremony  in  the  Dionysiaca 
and  other  mysteries,  consisted  of  the  consecration  of  an  egg,  by 
which,  according  to  Porphyry,  was  signified  the  world." 

"  The  shell  of  the  mundane  egg  is  said  to  be  outside  of  the  seven 
spheres  of  which  this  system  is  composed  :  In  the  V.  P.  ii,  7,  19 
it  is  said 

"  These  seven  spheres  have  been  described  by  me  ;  and  there  are 
also  seven  Patalas  ;  this  is  the  extent  of  Brahma's  egg.  The  whole 
i&  surrounded  by  the  shell  of  the  egg  at  the  sides,  above  and  below, 
just  as  the  seed  of  the  wood  apple  is  covered  by  the  rind." 

This  system,  however,  it  appears  is  only  a  very  small  part  of  the 
whole  of  the  universe  ;  in  verse  24  it  is  added 

"  There  are  thousands  and  ten  thousands  of  thousands  of  such 
mundane  eggs  ;  nay  hundreds  of  millions  of  millions." 


EKA  205 

"  Indian  mythology,  when  striving  after  sublimity,  aud  seeking 
to  excite  astonishment,  often  displays  an  extravagant  and  puerile 
facility  in  the  fabrication  of  large  numbers.  But  in  the  sentence 
last  quoted,  its  conjectures  are  substantially  in  unison  with  the 
discoveries  of  modern  astronomy  ;  or  rather  they  are  inadequate 
representations  of  the  simple  truth,  as  no  figures  can  express  the 
contents  of  infinite  space."     Muir,  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  i,  p.  504. 

Eka — "  The  one  :"  a  synonym  of  Maliat,  from  its  singleness. 
See  INIahat. 

Ekachakra — One  of  the  renowned  Danavas,  sou  of  Danu  aud 
Kasyapa. 

Ekachakra — The  city  in  which  Bhima  and  his  mother  and 
brethren  were  advised  by  the  sage  Vyasa  to  reside  ;  they  dwelt 
there  for  a  long  thiie  in  the  house  of  a  brahman.  It  was  in  this 
city  that  Bhima  destroyed  the  cannibal  Vaka.  "  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood there  lived  a  giant, — the  same  sort  of  being  as  the 
modern  earth-goddess  of  Orissa  ;  that  is  a  demon  who  feeds  on 
human  beings."  One  day,  it  is  said,  the  Pandavas  heard  a  great 
noise  in  the  house  in  which  they  were  dwelling,  and  enquiring 
into  its  cause,  were  told  that  the  demon  compelled  the  king  of 
Ekachakra  every  day  to  send  him  a  great  quantity  of  provisions  ; 
aud  that  Vaka  daily  devoured  the  man  as  well  as  the  provisions  ; 
and  that  on  that  very  day  the  family  of  the  brahman  was  required 
to  supply  the  man.  While  reposing  in  an  inner  apartment  the 
Pandavas  overheard  the  father,  the  mother,  and  the  daughter,  each 
urging  a  separate  claim  to  be  allowed  to  suffer  for  the  rest. 

The  ftxther  commences,  saying,  that  never  would  he  be  so  base 
as  to  give  a  victim  from  his  house  aud  consent  himself  to  live  ; 
but  still  he  expresses  anxiety  at  not  knowing  how  to  provide  a 
place  of  refuge  for  his  wife,  daughter,  and  little  son,  after  his 
removal.  He  cannot,  he  says,  surrender  his  faithful  wife, — the 
sweet  friend  given  to  him  by  the  gods  ;  nor  his  daughter, — whom 
Brahma  made  to  be  a  bride,  and  the  mother  of  heroes  ;  not  yet  his 
son  :  ...but  if  he  offer  himself,  sorrow  will  pursue  him  in  the  world 
to  come,  and  his  abandoned  wife  and  children  will  be  unable  to  live 
without  him. 


206  EKA 

The  wife  next  speaks,  and  chides  her  husband  for  yielding  to 

grief,  like  one  of  lowly  caste  ;  for,   whoever  knows   the   Vedas, 

must  know  that — 

"  Fate,  inevitable,  orders  ; — all  must  yield  to  death  in  turn. 
Hence  the  doom,  th'  irrevocable, — it  beseems  not  thee  to  mourn. 
Man  hath  wife,  and  son,  and  daughter,— for  the  joy  of  liis  own  heart ; 
Wherefore,  wisely  check  thy  sorrow, — it  is  I  must  hence  depart. 
'Tis  the  wife's  most  holy  duty, — law  on  earth  without  repeal, — 
That  her  life  she  offer  freely, — when  demands  her  husband's  weal." 

She  goes  on  to  argue,  that  he  can  support  and  guard  the  children 
when  she  is  gone,  but  that  she  would  have  no  power  to  guard  and 
support  them  without  him.  Deprived  of  his  protection,  "  rude 
and  reckless  men,"  she  says,  Avould  come  seeking  their  blameless 
daughter  ;  and  helpless,  and  beset  on  every  side,  she  would  be 
unable  to  check  the  suit  of  Sudra  lovers...  She  concludes,  by 
saying,  that  her  honored  husband  will  find  another  wife,  to  whom 
he  will  be  as  gentle  and  kind  as  he  has  been  to  her. 

"Hearing  thus  his  wife,  the  husband  fondly  clasp'd  her  to  his  breast : 
And  their  tears  they  pour'd  together— by  their  mutual  grief  oppress'd." 

When  the  daughter  overheard  the  troubled  discourse  of  her 
parents,,  she  put  in  her  claim  to  be  the  offered  victim  ;  for,  if  they 
died  before  her,  she  would  sink  to  bitterest  misery  :  but,  if  she  died 
to  preserve  them,  she  would  "  then  become  immortal,  and  partake 
of  bliss  divine." 

Whilst  they  were  all  thus  weeping,  the  little  son  opened  wide 
his  eyes,  and  lisped  out  in  broken  accents  : 

"  Weep  not,  father,  weep  not,  mother  ;  oh,  my  sister,  weep  not  so 
First  to  one,  and  then  to  th'  other, — smiling  went  he  to  and  fro. 
Then  a  blade  of  spear-grass  lifting,  thus  in  bolder  glee  he  said  : 
With  this  spear-grass  will  I  kill  him — this  man-eating  giant— dead.' 
Though  o'erpowered  with  bitterest  sorrow,  as  they  heard  their  prattling  boy. 
Stole  into  the  parents'  bosom — mute  and  inexpressive  joy." 

Happily  the  child's  chivalry  was  not  required.  After  some 
discussion  the  brahman  reluctantly  consented  that  Bhima  should 
go  himself  to  the  Asura,  and  he  set  out  with  the  ordained  quantity 
of  provisions,  and  went  on  until  he  came  to  the  banyan  tree  under 
which  Vaka  was  accustomed  to  eat  his  meals.  Bhima  then  ate  up 
all  the  victuals  that  were  in  the  waffo:on  and  refilled  it  with  dirt. 


EKA  207 

Vaka  then  came  forward  ravenous  with  hunger,  and  finding 
nothing  but  dirt,  struck  Bhima  in  a  great  rage.  They  then  tore 
up  Lirge  trees  by  the  roots  and  fought  together  until  not  a  tree 
was  left.  They  then  fought  with  their  fists  until  the  Asura  was 
spent ;  when  Bhima  seized  him  by  the  legs  and  rent  him  asunder. 
The  date  of  the  story  is  fixed  in  the  age  of  Buddhism.  Ekachakra 
has  been  identified  as  the  modern  Arrah.  It  was  occupied  by 
Brahmans  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  later  representatives  of  the 
Aryan  population,  while  the  jungle  was  evidently  in  the  possession 
of  the  Asuras  or  Aborigines.* 

Ekadanta — The  single-tusked.     A  name  of  Ganesa. 

Ekadasi — A  ceremony  performed  on  the  eleventh  day  after  the 
death  of  a  relative.  During  the  previous  ten  days  the  relatives 
are  supposed  to  be  mourning,  and  in  a  state  ofasaucha  or  impurities, 
so  that  no  one  can  communicate  wdth  them.  When  Ek^dasi  is 
performed  the  period  of  uncleauness  ceases. 

Ekadasi  is  also  the  eleventh  day  after  the  new  and  full  moon, 
observed  by  the  Vaishnavas  as  a  fast  day. 

Ekalavya — The  king  of  the  Nishadas  ;  he  was  regarded  as 
invincible  by  mortals  but  was  attacked  and  slain  by  Krishna. 

Ekapadakas— A  nickname  or  term  of  derision,  found  in  the 
geographical  accounts  of  the  Puranas  ;  it  means  one-footed  or 
rather,  one-slippered,  and  is  probably  an  exaggeration  of  national 
ugliness,  or  allusion  to  some  peculiar  custom,  in  the  people  to  wdiom 
the  term  is  applied.  Professor  Wilson  thinks  that  such  terms,  of 
which  there  are  many  in  the  Puranas,  may  have  furnished  the 
Mandevilles  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  with  some  of  their 
monsters. 

Ekaparna,  Ekapatala— Two  of  the  daughters  of  Mena,  the 
eminent  wife  of  the  great  mountain  Hiraavat.  Tliey  performed 
great  austerities  such  as  could  not  be  accomplished  by  gods  or 
Danavas,  and  distressed  both  the  stationary  and  moving  worlds. 
Ekaparna  (One  leaf)  fed  upon  one  leaf.  Ekapatala  took  only  one 
patala  (Bignonia)  for  her  food.     The  former  was  given  as  a  wife 

*  Mrs.  Manning.     A,  «fe  M.  I. 


208  EKA— ELE 


to  Asita  Devala,  the  wise  teacher  of  the  Yoga.  The  latter  was  in 
like  mauuer  bestowed  on  Jaigishavya.  Muir,  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  iv, 
p.  367. 

Ekashtaka — The  daughter  of  Prajapati,  who  through  practis- 
ing austere-fervour,  became  the  mother  of  the  glorious  Indra,  and 
of  Soma.  According  to  other  authorities,  Indra  is  one  of  the  sons 
of  Kasyapa  and  Dakshayani.     0.  S.  T.,  vol.  v,  p.  80. 

Ekavinsa — The  name  of  the  collection  of  hymns  created  from 
the  northern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Ekoddishta-Sradda — Obsequial  offerings  on  account  of  a 
kinsman  recently  deceased.  These  are  performed  monthly.  The 
proper  period  of  mourning  is  ten  days,  on  each  of  which  offerings 
of  cakes  and  libations  of  water  are  to  be  made  to  the  deceased, 
augmenting  the  number  of  cakes  each  day,  so  that  in  the  last  day 
ten  cakes  are  presented. 

Elapatra — One  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru,  a  powerful  serpent, 
with  many  heads. 

Elephanta — "  A  small  island  about  7  miles,  in  circumference, 
situated  between  the  island  of  Bombay  and  the  Mahratta  shore, 
from  which  it  is  distant  5  miles,  and  7  miles  from  the  castle  of 
Bombay.  Its  name  among  the  natives  is  Gorapori ;  that  by  which 
it  is  known  to  Europeans  was  derived  from  the  figure  of  an 
elephant  twice  the  size  of  life  cut  out  of  the  solid  black  rock  ou  the 
acclivity  of  a  hill  about  250  yards  from  the  landing-place.  This 
figure  is  now  completely  dilapidated.  At  a  short  distance  from  the 
elephant  stands  the  figure  of  a  horse,  also  cut  out  of  the  rock.  Ou 
this  island  is  a  remarkable  temple-cave.  The  entrance  to  this  cave, 
or  temple,  occurs  about  half  way  up  the  steep  ascent  of  the 
mountain  or  rock  out  of  which  it  is  excavated.  Its  length, 
measuring  from  the  entrance,  which  is  on  the  north  side,  is  130 
feet,  and  its  breadth  123  feet  ;  the  floor  not  being  level  the  height 
varies  from  15  to  17J  feet.  The  roof  was  supported  by  26  pillars 
and  8  pilasters,  disposed  in  four  rows  ;  but  several  of  the  pillar- 
are  broken.  Each  column  stands  upon  a  square  pedestal  and  in 
fluted,    but   instead   of    being    cylindrical   is   gradually   enlarged 


ELL— ELU  209 


towanls  the  middle.  Above  the  tops  of  the  coluinus  a  kind  of 
ridge  has  beeu  cut  to  resemble  a  beam  about  12  inches  square,  aud 
this  is  richly  carved.  Along  the  sides  of  the  temple  are  carved 
between  40  and  oO  colossal  figures  varying  in  height  from  12  to  1  5 
feet ;  none  of  them  are  entirely  detached  from  the  wall.  On  the 
south  side,  facing  the  main  entrance,  is  an  enormous  bust  with 
three  faces,  which  is  supposed  to  represent  the  triple  deity,  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Siva.  The  centre  face  is  5  feet  in  length.  At  the 
west  side  of  the  temple  is  a  recess,  20  feet  square,  having  in  the 
centre  an  altar.  The  entrance  to  this  recess  is  guarded  by  eight 
naked  figures,  each  13^  feet  high,  sculptured  in  a  superior  manner. 
The  origin  of  this  cave  is  quite  unknown  :  it  is  frequently  visited 
by  devotees  for  the  purpose  of  offering  prayers  and  oblations. — 
Eiiglish  EiicyclopcBdia. 

EUamma — One  of  the  griimadevatas  in  Southern  India — 
identified  with  Renuka,  wife  of  Jamadagni,  mother  of  Parasurama, 
EUamma  is  represented  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  a  red  skin,  u 
fiery  face,  and  four  arms  and  hands.  If  any  one  is  bitten  by  a 
poisonous  serpent  he  calls  on  EUamma  for  aid.  Fishermen  when 
in  danger  call  on  EUamma  and  make  vows  to  her. 

EUora — A  town  in  the  jDrovince  of  Aurangabad,  and  near  to 
the  city  of  Dowlatabad.  In  one  instance,  about  a  mile  to  the 
eastward  of  the  village  the  side  of  a  great  mountain  has  been 
excavated,  so  as  to  give  a  level  floor  150  feet  wide  by  270  feet  in 
length.  In  the  centre  stands  the  rock-cut  temple  called  Kailas, 
similar  in  form  to  the  Pagoda  at  Tanjore  It  is  between  80  and  90 
feet  high,  and  is  preceded  by  a  large  square  porch,  supported  by 
sixteen  columns.  In  the  front  of  this  stands  a  detached  porch, 
reached  by  a  bridge  ;  and  again,  in  front  of  the  whole,  a  gateway, 
connected  with  the  last  porch  by  a  rock-cut  bridge,  and  flanked  on 
cither  side  by  pillars  or  deepdans  (which  word  is  literally  lamp-post.) 
Two  elephants,  the  size  of  life,  are  also  mentioned  ;  and  all  around 
the  court  are  cloisters,  with  cells.  And  the  whole, — pillars, 
cloisters,  halls,  bridges,  and  vimana, — are  sculptured  out  of  the 
rock. — Mi's.  Manni7ig.     A.  a?id  M.  I.,  J'ol.  I,  p.  420. 

Elu— A  dialect  of  the  uucieut  Singhalese,  which  differs  from  the 


210  EMU— EXP 


colloquial  Singhalese,  rather  in  style  than  in  structure,  having  been 
liberally  enriched  by  incorporations  from  Sanskrit  and  Pali.  Mr. 
Spence  Hardy  mentions  a  number  of  Buddhist  works  which  are 
written  in  Elu. 

Emusha — The  name  of  the  boar  in  which  Prajdpati  became 
incarnate  when  he  raised  up  the  earth  and  extended  it.  "  Formerly 
this  earth  was  only  so  large,  of  the  size  of  a  span.  A  boar  called 
Emusha,  raised  her  up.  Her  lord  Prajapati,  therefore,  prospers 
him  with  (the  gift  of)  this  pair,  the  object  of  his  desire,  and  makes 
him  complete."     O.  S.  T.,  vol.  i,  p.  53. 

Ettaia— A  place  in  the  North-west  of  India,  said  to  be  the 
scene  of  a  conflict  between  Krishna  and  Kali  ;  where  some  fine 
ruins  still  exist. 

Expiation — The  Vishnu  Purana  says  that  **  suitable  acts  of 
expiation  have  been  enjoined  by  the  great  sages  for  every  kind  of 
crime.  Arduous  penances  for  great  sins,  trifling  ones  for  minor 
offences,  have  been  propounded  by  Swayambhuva  and  others  :  but 
reliance  upon  Krishna  is  far  better  than  any  such  expiatory  acts, 
as  religious  austerity  or  the  like.  Let  any  one  who  repents  of  the 
sin  of  which  he  may  have  been  culpable,  have  recourse  to  this 
best  of  all  expiations,  remembrance  of  Hari ;  by  addressing  his 
thoughts  to  Narayana  at  dawn,  at  night,  at  sunset,  and  midday,  a 
man  shall  be  quickly  cleansed  from  all  guilt :  the  whole  heap  of 
worldly  sorrows  is  dispersed  by  meditating  on  Hari ;  and  his 
worshipper,  looking  upon  heavenly  fruition  as  an  impediment  to 
felicity,  obtains  final  emancipation." 

*'  This  remembrance  of  Vishnu,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  *'  is  the 
frequent  reiteration  of  all  his  names  ;  hence  the  lower  orders  of 
Hindus  procure  a  starling  or  parrot,  that  in  the  act  of  teaching  it 
to  cry  Rama  or  Krishna  or  Radha,  they  may  themselves  repeat 
these  appellations  ;  the  simple  recitation  of  which,  even  if 
accidentally,  irreverently,  or  reluctantly  performed,  is  meritorious," 


Faith — The  paramount  efficacy  of  faith  is  a  tenet  of  the 
Vedanta  school  ;  particularly  that  branch  of  it  which  follows  the 
authority  of  the  Bhagavat  Gita.  In  that  work,  and  in  many  of 
the  Puranas,  passages  relating  to  faith  constantly  recur. 

Fakir — The  word  Fakir  is  derived  from  an  Arabic  term 
signifying  "  poor  people,"  and  belongs  strictly  to  those  who  profess 
Mahomedanism,  not  to  Hindus.  But  the  word  is  sometimes  used 
by  Europeans  to  designate  all  classes  of  monks,  who  subject 
themselves  to  austerities  and  mortifications.  Some  of  them  vow 
to  preserve  a  standing  posture  during  their  whole  lives,  supported 
only  by  a  stick  or  rope  under  their  armpits.  Some  mangle  their 
bodies  with  scourges  or  knives.  Others  wander  about  in 
companies,  telling  fortunes,  and  in  other  ways  imposing  on  the 
people.  Some  go  about  as  mendicants  asking  alms  in  the  name 
of  God.     See  Sanyasi. 

Feringahi — A  name  of  Pdrvati  or  Devi. 

Fever — In  the  Vishnu  Purana,  Fever  is  personified,  as  an 
emanation  from  Maheswara,  having  three  feet  and  three  heads, 
(alluding,  says  Dr.  Wilson,  to  the  three  stages  of  febrile  paroxysms, 
or  to  the  recurrence  of  tertian  ague).  Fever  fought  desperately 
with  Vishnu  in  defence  of  the  city  of  Baiia.  Baladeva,  upon  whom 
his  ashes  were  scattered,  was  seized  with  burning  heat,  and  his 
eyelids  trembled  :  but  he  obtained  relief  by  clinging  to  the  body  of 
Krishna.  The  fever  emanating  from  Siva  was  quickly  expelled 
from  the  person  of  Krishna  by  fever  which  he  himself  engendered. 
Brahma  beholding  the  impersonated  malady,  bewildered  by  the 
beating  inflicted  by  the  arms  of  the  deity,  entreated  the  latter  to 
desist  ;  and  the  foe  of  Madhu  refrained,  and  absorbed  into  himself 
the  fever  he  had  created.  The  rival  fever  then  departed,  saying 
to  Krishna,  "  Those  men  who  call  to  memory  the  combat  between 
us  shall  be  for  ever  exempt  from  febrile  disease." 


212  FIR 

Fires— Accortling  to  the  Vishnu  Purana  there  are  forty-uiue 
tues.  The  Agui  iiametl  Abhiraani,  who  is  the  eldest  born  of 
Brahma,  had,  by  Swahu,  three  sons  of  surpassing  brilliancy, 
Pavaka  Pavamana,  and  Suchi,  who  drinks  up  water  :  they  had 
forty-five  sons,  who,  with  the  original  son  of  Brahma  and  his  three 
descendants,  constitute  the  forty-nine  fires.  According  to  the 
Vaya  Purana,  Pavaka  is  electric,  or  Vaidyuta  fire  ;  Pavamana  is 
that  produced  by  friction,  or  Nirraathyaya,  and  Suchi  is  solar, 
or  Saura  fire.  The  Bhagavata  explains  these  different  fires  to  be  so 
many  appellations  of  fire  employed  in  the  invocations  with  which 
different  oblations  to  fire  are  offered  in  the  ritual  of  the  Vedas. 

Fire-Sacrificial — The  ceremony  of  consecrating  the  fire  and 
hallowing  the  sacrificial  implements  is  the  groundwork  of  all 
religious  acts  amongst  the  Hindus,  and  may  therefore  be  particu- 
larly described  : — "  First,  the  priest  smears  with  cow-dung  a  level 
piece  of  ground  four  cubits  square,  free  from  all  impurities,  and 
sheltered  by  a  shed.  Having  bathed  and  sipped  water,  he  sits 
down  with  his  face  towards  the  east,  and  places  a  vessel  of  water 
with  kida  grass  on  his  left  ;  then,  dropping  his  right  knee,  and 
resting  on  the  span  of  his  left  hand,  lie  draws  with  a  root  of  kusa 
grass  a  line,  one  span  or  twelve  fingers  long,  and  directed  towards 
the  east.  From  the  nearest  extremity  of  this  line  he  draws 
another  at  right  angles  to  it,  twenty-one  fingers  long,  and  directed 
towards  the  north.  Upon  this  line  he  draws  three  others,  parallel 
to  the  first,  equal  to  it  in  length,  and  distant  seven  fingers  from 
each  other,  The  first  line  is  really,  or  figuratively,  made  a  yellow 
line,  and  is  sacred  to  the  earth  ;  the  second  is  red,  and  sacred  to 
fire  ;  the  third  black,  and  sacred  to  Brahma  the  creator  ;  the 
fourth  blue,  and  sacred  to  Indra,  the  regent  of  the  firmament  ;  the 
fifth  white,  and  sacred  to  Soma.  He  next  gathers  up  the  dust 
from  the  edges  of  these  lines,  and  throws  it  away  towards  the 
north-east,  saying,  "  What  was  [herein]  bad,  is  cast  away  :"  and 
he  concludes  by  sprinkling  water  on  the  several  lines. 

Having  thus  prepared  the  ground  for  the  reception  of  the 
sacrificial  fire,  he  takes  a  lighted  ember  out  of  the  covered  vessel 
which  contains  the  fire,  and  throws  it  away,  saying,  "I  dismiss  far 
'  away  carnivorous  fire  ;  may  it  go  to  the  realm  of  Yama,  bearing 


FIR  21 

"  sill  [hence]."  lie  then  places  the  iire  before  him,  sayiug, 
"  Earth  !  Sky  !  Heaven  !"  and  adding,  "  this  other  [harmless]  fire 
"  alone  remains  here  ;  well  knowing  [its  office],  may  it  convey  my 
"oblation  to  the  gods."  He  then  denominates  the  fire  according 
to  the  purpose  for  which  he  prepares  it,  saying,  "  Fire  !  thou  art 
named  so  and  so  ;"  and  he  concludes  this  part  of  the  ceremony  by 
silently  burning  a  log  of  wood,  one  span  long  and  smeared  with 
clarified  butter. 

He  next  proceeds  to  pl&ce  the  Brahman  or  superintending  priest- 
Upon  very  solemn  occasions,  a  learned  Brahman  does  actually 
discharge  the  functions  of  superintending  priest;  but,  in  general, 
a  bundle  containing  fifty  blades  of  kusa  grass  is  placed  to  represent 
the  Brahman.  The  officiating  priest  takes  up  the  vessel  of  water, 
and  walks  round  the  fire  keeping  his  right  side  turned  towards  it  : 
he  then  pours  water  near  it,  directing  the  stream  towards  the  east  ; 
he  spreads  kusa  grass  thereon  ;  and  crossing  his  right  knee  over 
his  left  without  sitting  down,  he  takes  up  a  single  blade  of  grass 
between  the  thumb  and  ring  finger  of  his  left  hand,  and  throws  it 
away  towards  the  south-west  corner  of  the  shed,  saying,  "  What 
was  herein  bad,  is  cast  away."  Next,  touching  the  water,  resting 
the  sole  of  his  right  foot  on  his  left  ankle,  and  sprinkling  the  grass 
with  water,he  places  theBrahman  on  it,  saying,  "  Sit  on  [this]  seat 
until  [thy]  fee  [be  paid  thee]."  The  officiating  priest  then  returns 
by  the  same  road  by  which  he  went  round  the  fire  ;  and  sitting 
down  again  with  his  face  towards  the  east,  names  the  earth 
inaudibly. 

If  any  prof^me  word  have  been  spoken  during  the  preceding 
ceremony,  atonement  must  be  now  made  by  pronouncing  this  text : 
"Thrice  did  Vishiiu  step,  and  at  three  strides  traversed  the 
"  universe  :  happily  was  his  foot  placed  on  the  dusty  [earth]." 
"  The  meaning  is,  since  the  earth  has  been  purified  by  the  contact 
of  Vishnu's  foot,  may  she  (the  earth  so  purified)  atone  for  any 
profane  word  spoken  during  this  ceremony. 

If  it  be  intended  to  make  oblations  of  rice  mixed  with  milk, 
curds,  and  butter,  this  too  is  the  proper  time  for  mixing  them  ;  and 
the  priest  afterwards  proceeds  to  name  the  earth  in  the  following 
prayer,  which  he  pronounces  with  downcast  look,   resting  both 


214  FIR 

hands  on  the  ground  :  "  We  adore  this  earth,  this  auspicious  and 
most  excellent  earth  :  do  thou,  O  fire  !  resist  [our]  enemies.  Thou 
dost  take  [on  thee]  the  power  [and  oflfice]  of  other  [deities]." 

With  blades  of  kusa  grass  held  in  his  right  hand,  he  must  next 
strew  leaves  of  the  same  grass  on  three  sides  of  the  fire,  arranging 
them  regularly,  so  that  the  tip  of  one  row  shall  cover  the  roots  of 
the  other.  He  begins  with  the  eastern  side,  and  at  three  times 
strews  grass  there,  to  cover  the  whole  space  from  north  to  south  ; 
and  in  like  manner  distributes  grass  on  the  southern  and  western 
sides.  He  then  blesses  the  ten  regions  of  space  ;  and  rising  a 
little,  puts  some  wood  on  the  fire  with  a  ladle-full  of  clarified 
butter,  while  he  meditates  in  silence  on  Brahma,  the  lord  of 
creatures. 

The  priest  then  takes  up  two  leaves  of  kusa  grass,  and  with 
another  blade  of  the  same  grass  cuts  off  the  length  of  a  span, 
saying,  "  Pure  leaves  !  be  sacred  to  Vishnu  ;"  and  throws  them 
into  a  vessel  of  copper  or  other  metal.  Again  he  takes  two  leaves 
of  grass,  and  holding  the  tips  between  the  thumb  and  ring  finger 
of  his  right  hand,  and  the  roots  between  the  thumb  and  ring  finger 
of  his  left,  and  crossing  his  right  hand  over  his  left,  he  takes  up 
clarified  butter  on  the  curvature  of  the  grass,  and  thus  silently 
casts  some  into  the  fire  three  several  times.  He  then  sprinkles 
both  the  leaves  with  water,  and  throws  them  away.  He  afterwards 
sprinkles  with  water  the  vessel  containing  clarified  butter,  and  puts 
it  on  the  fire,  and  takes  it  oflf  again,  three  times,  and  thus  concludes 
the  ceremony  of  hallowing  the  butter  ;  during  the  course  of 
which,  while  he  holds  the  leaves  of  grass  in  both  hands,  he  recites 
this  prayer  :  "  May  the  divine  generator  [  Vishyiu]  purify  thee  by 
means  of  [this]  faultless  pure  leaf ;  and  may  the  sun  do  so,  by 
means  of  [his]  rays  of  light :  be  this  oblation  efficacious." 

The  priest  must  next  hallow  the  wooden  ladle  by  thrice  turning 
therein  his  fore-finger  and  thumb,  describing  with  their  tips  the 
figure  of  7  in  the  inside,  and  the  figure  of  9  on  the  outside  of  the 
bowl  of  the  ladle.  Then  dropping  his  right  knee,  he  sprinkles 
water  from  the  palms  of  his  hands  on  the  whole  southern  side  of 
the  fire,  from  west  to  east,  saying,  "  Aditi !  [mother  of  the  gods  !] 
grant  me  thy  approbation."     He   does   the   same  on   the   whole 


FIR  215 

western  side,  from  south  to  north,  saying,  "  Amimati  !  grant  me 
thy  approbation  ;"  and  on  the  northern  side,  saying,  "  Saraswati  ! 
grant  me  thy  approbation."  And  lastly  he  sprinkles  water  all 
round  the  fire,  while  he  pronounces  this  text,  "  Generous  sun  ! 
approve  this  rite  ;  approve  the  performer  of  it,  that  he  may  share 
its  reward.  May  the  celestial  luminary,  which  purifies  the 
intellectual  soul,  purify  our  minds.  May  the  lord  of  speech  make 
our  prayers  acceptable." 

Holding  kusa  grass  in  both  hands,  he  then  recites  an  expiatory 
prayer  ;  and  throwing  away  the  grass,  he  thus  finishes  the  hallow- 
ing of  the  sacrificial  implements  :  a  ceremony  which  necessarily 
precedes  all  other  religious  rites. 

He  next  makes  oblations  to  fire,  with  such  ceremonies,  and  in 
such  form  as  are  adapted  to  the  religious  rite  which  is  intended  to 
to  be  subsequently  performed.  The  sacrifice,  with  the  three 
mysterious  words,  usually  precedes  and  follows  the  particular 
sacrifice  which  is  suited  to  the  occasion  ;  being  moat  generally 
practised,  it  will  be  the  most  proper  specimen  of  the  form  in  which 
oblations  are  made. 

Having  silently  burnt  a  log  of  wood  smeared  with  clarified 
butter,  the  priest  makes  three  oblations,  by  pouring  each  time  a 
ladle-full  of  butter  on  the  fire,  saying,  "  Earth  !  be  this  oblation 
efiicacious  :"  "  Sky  !  be  this  oblation  efficacious  :"  *'  Heaven  ! 
be  this  oblation  efficacious."  On  some  occasions  he  makes  a  fourth 
offering  in  a  similar  mode,  saying,  "  Earth  !  Sky  !  Heaven  !  bo 
this  oblation  efficacious."  If  it  be  requisite  to  offer  a  mixture  of 
rice,  milk,  curds  and  butter,  this  is  now  done  ;  and  the  oblations, 
accompanied  with  the  names  of  the  three  worlds,  are  repeated. 

There  are  five  fires,  which  were  overcome  and  demolished  by 
Vishnu.  Their  names  are  the  Ahavaniya,  Garhapatya,  Dakshina, 
Sabhya  and  Avasathya  ;  of  which  the  three  first  have  a  religious, 
and  the  other  two  a  secular  character.  The  first  is  a  fire  prepared 
for  oblations  at  an  occasional  sacrifice  :  the  second  is  the  household 
fire,  to  be  perpetually  maintained  :  the  third  is  a  sacrificial  fire,  in 
the  centre  of  the  other  two,  and  placed  to  the  south  :  the  Sabhya 
is  a  fire  lighted  to  warm  a  party  :  and  the  Avasathya,  the  common 


216  FRE 

domestic    or   culinary   fire.     Mauu,   iii,    100,   185,  and   Kulluka 
Bhatta's   explanation. 

Brahmans  who  devote  themselves  to  the  priesthood  have  to 
maintain  a  perpetual  fire.  They  have  also  to  worship  fire,  making 
an  oblation  to  it  with  this  prayer  :  Fire  !  seven  are  thy  fuels  ; 
seven  thy  tongues  ;  seven  thy  holy  sages  ;  seven  thy  beloved 
abodes  ;  seven  ways  do  seven  sacrifices  worship  thee.  Thy  sources 
are  seven.  Be  content  with  this  clarified  butter.  May  this 
oblation  be  efiicacious. 

The  seven  tongues  of  fire  are  enumerated  Fravaha,  Avaha, 
Udvaha,  Samvaha,  Vivaha,  Farivaha,  Nivaha,  all  of  which 
imply  the  power  of  conveying  oblations,  to  the  deities  to  whom 
ofierings  are  made.  Fire,  like  the  sun  itself,  is  supposed  to  emit 
seven  rays  ;  this  perhaps  may  account  for  the  number  seven  being 
so  often  repeated." — Colebrookc' s  Essays,  vol.  7,  p.  1 53. 

Free-will — The  Mimdnsa  philosophy  in  effect  denies  the 
doctrine  of  free-will  ;  but  endeavours  to  reconcile  the  existence  of 
moral  evil  under  the  government  of  an  all-wise,  all-powerful  and 
benevolent  Providence,  with  the  absence  of  free-will,  by  assuming 
the  past  eternity  of  the  universe,  and  the  infinite  renewals  of 
worlds,  into  which  every  individual  being  has  brought  the  pre-dis- 
positions  contracted  by  him  in  earlier  states,  and  so  retrospectively, 
without  beginning  or  limit. 


Gabhastimat — One  of  the  nine  divisiions  of  Bhaiula  vuisha. 
Also  the  Dame  of  one  of  the  divisions  of  Patala. 

Gachchas — One  of  the  peoples  enumerated  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana,  but  not  identified. 

Gada— 1,  A  son  of  Vasudeva  by  Bhadra  ;  2,  The  name  of 
Bhima's  formidable  weapon. 

Gadhi — An  incarnation  of  Indra,  born  as  the  son  of  Raja 
Kusamba.  Kusamba  being  desirous  of  a  son,  engaged  in  devout 
penance  to  obtain  one  who  should  be  equal  to  Indra.  Observing 
the  intensity  of  his  devotions,  Indra  was  alarmed,  lest  a  prince  of 
power  like  his  own  should  be  engendered,  and  determined  therefore 
to  take  upon  himself  the  character  of  Kusamba's  sou,  Gadhi,  the 
father  of  Viswamitra. 

Gahvaras — Dwellers  in  mountain  caves.  The  mountains  from 
Cabul  to  Bamian  furnish  numerous  instances  of  cavern  habitations. 

Gajavithi — The  second  division  (or  Vithi)  of  the  lunar 
mansions,  in  the  northern  Avashtana. 

Galava — A  Teacher  of  the  white  Yajush,  a  branch  of  the 
Yajur  Veda,  imparted  by  the  sun  in  the  form  of  a  horse. 

Games — There  are  many  public  games  described  in  the  various 
Puranas ;  and  an  account  of  each  will  be  found  under  its 
native  name. 

Gananathas— Messengers  of  the  gods.     See  Diitas. 

Ganapatyas— The  worshippers  of  Gancsa,  or  Ganapati  ;  all  the 
Hindus  in  fact,  worship  this  deity  as  the  obviator  of  impediments, 
and  never  set  off  on  a  journey  without  invoking  his  protection. 

Gandaki — A  lai-pre  river  in  Oudo. 

28 


218 GAN 

Gandhamadana— A  high  mountain  south  of  the  great  mount 
Meru  ;  an  extensive  forest  of  the  same  name  is  placed  in  close 
proximity  to  the  mountain. 

Gandhamadana— One  of  the  generals  in  Rama's  army  at  the 
siege  of  Lanka  ;  he  was  wounded  by  the  magical  weapons  of 
Indrajit  and  left  on  the  field  for  dead,  but  was  restored  to  life  by 
the  medicinal  herbs  brought  by  Hanuman  from  the  golden  hill 
Rishaba,  on  the  crest  of  Kailasa.  Although  he  is  represented  as 
being  a  large  and  powerful  monkey,  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
son  of  Kuvera,  the  god  of  wealth 

"  Of  Gandhamadan  brave  and  bold 
The  father  was  the  Lord  of  gold." 

Gandhamojavaha — A  son  of  Swaphalka,  by  his  wife  Gandiui. 

Gandhara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Aradwat,  a  descendant  of 
Druhyu.  Also,  a  large  country  in  the  west  of  the  Lidus,  named 
after  Gandhara,  famous  for  its  breed  of  horses  ;  now  Kandahar. 

Gandharba — One  of  the  nine  divisions,  or  dwipas,  of  Bharata 
Varsha. 

Gandharbas  or  Gandharvas~(Southey's  Glendoveer's.)  A 
race  born  from  Bramh^,  described  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as  "  born 
imbibing  melody  ;  drinking  of  the  goddess  of  speech  they  were 
born,  and  thence  their  appellation."  (Gam  dhayantah).  They 
are  a  species  of  demi-gods  or  angels,  the  musicians  of  heaven, 
inhabiting  Indra  loka,  the  paradise  of  the  deities,  and  witnesses  of 
the  actions  of  men.  They  form  the  orchestra  at  the  banquet  of  the 
gods.  In  the  creation  of  the  second  Manwantara  they  are  called 
the  illustrious  Gandharbas,  the  children  of  Arishta  and  Kasyapa. 
In  the  Vishnu  Purana  it  is  said,  "  in  the  regions  below  the  earth,  the 
Gandharbas,  called  Maneyas  (or  sons  of  the  Muni  Kasyapa)  who 
were  sixty  millions  in  number,  had  defeated  the  tribes  of  the 
Nagas  or  snake-gods,  and  seized  upon  their  most  precious  jewels, 
and  usurped  their  dominion."  Narmada,  the  personified  Nerbudda 
river,  was  the  sister  of  the  Nagas,  and  on  her  aid  being  solicited, 
she  went  to  Purukutsa,  and  conducted  him  to  the  regions  below 
the  earth,  where,  being  filled  with  the  might  of  the  deity,   he 


GAN  '219 

destroyed  the  Gaudharbas.     They  orighmlly  belong  to  the  latter 
Epic  period,  but  figure  more  promiueutly  in  the  Purauas. 

"The  Gandharvas  or  heavenly  bards  had  originally  a  warlike 
character,  but  were  afterwards  reduced  to  the  office  of  celestial 
musicians  cheering  the  banquets  of  the  gods.  Dr.  Kuhn  has 
shown  their  identity  with  the  Centaurs  in  name,  origin,  and 
attributes." —  Gorresio. 

Gandharba  loka — The  region  of  celestial  spirits,  the  sphere  or 
loka  above  the  earth  to  which  Siidras  are  elevated  after  death. 

Gandharba  marriage — A  form  of  w^edlock  requiring  no 
public  ceremony,  but  which  is  nevertheless,  recognised  in  ancient 
Hindu  law  as  legal  for  kings  and  warriors. 

Gandharba  veda— The  drama,  and  the  arts  of  music,  dauciug, 
etc.,  of  which  the  Muni  Bh^rata  was  the  author  ;  and  the  Artha 
Sastrum,  or  Science  of  Government,  as  laid  down  first  by  Vrihaspati. 

Gandharbi — The  daughter  of  Surabhi,  and  parent  of  horses. 

Gandhari — The  daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Gandhdra,  who  was 
married  to  the  Maharaja  Dhritarashtra  ;  she  blindfolded  herself  on 
hearing  that  he  was  blind.  She  was  the  mother  of  the  Kauravas, 
and  is  represented  as  a  woman  of  superior  character  and  abilities. 
She  was  summoned  to  the  Council  to  try  to  overcome  the  obduracy 
of  her  eldest  son  Duryodhaua.  The  Mahabharata  relates  an 
affecting  interview  which  she  had  with  Krishna  after  the  slaughter 
of  her  sons  in  the  great  war. 

Gandini — Daughter  of  K^siraja  :  the  following  legend  of  her 
birth  is  told  in  the  V.  P.,  "when  the  time  of  delivery  arrived  the 
child  issued  not  from  the  womb,  twelve  years  passed  away  and 
still  the  girl  was  unborn.  Then  Kasiraja  spoke  to  the  child 
'  Daughter,  why  is  your  birth  thus  delayed  ?  come  forth.  I  desire 
to  behold  you  ;  why  do  you  inflict  this  protracted  suffering  upon 
your  mother  ?  Thus  addressed,  the  infant  answered,  if,  father,  you 
will  present  a  cow  every  day  to  the  brahmans  I  shall  at  the  end  of 
three  years  more  be  born.'  The  king  accordingly  presented  daily 
a  cow  to  the  brahmans,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  the  damsel 


220  GAN 

came  into  the  world.  Her  father  called  her  Gandiui,  and  he 
subsequently  gave  her  to  Swaphalka  when  he  came  to  his  palace. 
Gdudiui  as  long  as  she  lived,  gave  a  cow  to  the  brahmans  every  day." 

Gandiva — The  name  of  a  miraculous  bow  which  Arjuna  received 
as  a  present  from  Agni  the  god  of  fire. 

Gandusha— One   of  the    ten  sons    of   Sura,    and   brother   of 
Vasudeva. 

Ganesa — The  son  of  Siva  and  Pdrvati  the  god  of  good  luck, 
and  remover  of  difficulties  and  obstacles  ;  addressed  at  the 
commencement  of  all  undertakings,  and  at  the  opening  of  all 
compositions.  He  is  thus  the  patron  of  learning.  He  is  called 
Ganha,  as  presiding  over  the  troop  of  deities  attendant  on 
Siva — the  ganas,  or  companies  of  celestials  in  Siva's  paradise.  He 
is  also  designated  Vindyaka,  the  god  of  difficulties.  Ganesa  is 
represented  by  an  outrageous  figure,  half-man  and  half-elephant, 
in  a  sitting  posture,  with  a  large  belly.  His  head  is  that  of  an 
elephant,  and  on  it  he  wears  a  crown,  while  his  ears  are  adorned 
with  jewels  and  his  forehead  with  sacred  ashes  ;  of  his  four  arms 
he  elevates  two,  holding  in  the  left  hand  a  rope  and  in  the 
right  an  elephant  goad.  In  his  other  two  hands  he  holds  in  the 
right,  a  piece  of  his  own  elephant's  tooth  which  he  once  broke 
himself  in  a  rage,  and  in  the  left,  a  pancake  ;  he  is  said  to  be 
fond  of  pancakes.  His  image  stands  in  almost  every  house, 
and  is  worshipped  by  men  and  women,  with  offisrings  and  all 
the  prescribed  ceremonies,  especially  when  they  are  about  to 
begin  something  important.  This  eminent  position  was  assigned 
him  as  a  compensation  for  the  strange  head  he  wears,  which 
was  put  upon  his  shoulders  when  he  lost  his  own,  in  infancy, 
by  a  look  of  the  celestial  S^ni—the  Hindu  Saturn.  The  goddess, 
seeing  her  child  headless,  was  overwhelmed  with  grief,  and  would 
have  destroyed  Sani,  but  Brahma  prevented  her,  telling  Sani  to 
bring  the  head  of  the  first  animal  he  should  find  lying  with 
its  head  northwards.  He  found  an  elephant  in  this  position, 
cut  off  its  head,  and  fixed  it  on  Ganesa,  who  then  assumed  the 
shape  he  at  present  wears.  Durga  was  but  little  soothed  when 
she  saw  her  son  with  an  elephant's  head  ;  but,   to  pacify  her. 


GAN  221 

Brahma  said  that,  amongst  the  worship  of  all  the  god^^,  tliat  of 
Ganesa  should  for  ever  have  the  preference.  Shop-keepers  and 
others  paint  the  name  or  image  of  this  god  over  the  doors  of  their 
shops  or  houses,  expecting  from  his  favour  protection  and  success. 
He  is  worshipped  especially  at  the  commencement  of  a  wedding, 
as  well  as  when  the  bride  is  presented  to  the  bridegroom.  No 
public  festivals,  however,  in  honour  of  Ganesa  are  held,  nor  any 
temples  dedicated  to  him  in  Bengal,  though  stone  images  of  the 
god  are  worshipped  in  the  temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  at 
Benares. 

Sir  William  Jones  calls  Ganesa  the  god  of  wisdom,  referring, 
as  a  proof,  to  his  having  an  elephant's  head.  The  Hindus, 
however,  in  general,  consider  the  elephant  a  stupid  animal  ;  and 
to  be  called  "  as  stupid  as  an  elephant"  is  a  bitter  taunt.  He 
corresponds  rather  to  the  Roman  Janus.  In  the  south  Ganesa  is 
usually  termed  Vignesvara  as  he  can  prevent  literary  fame,  if  his 
worship  be  neglected. 

When  Parasurama,  who  was  a  favorite  disciple  of  Siva,  went  to 
Kailasa  to  visit  his  master,  on  arriving  at  the  inner  apartments, 
his  entrance  was  opposed  by  Ganesa,  as  his  father  was  asleep. 
Parasurama  nevertheless  urged  his  way,  and  the  parties  came  to 
blows.  Gaiiesa  had  at  first  the  advantage,  seizing  Parasurama  in 
his  trunk,  and  giving  him  a  twirl  that  left  him  sick  and  senseless  ; 
on  recovering,  Rama  threw  his  axe  at  Ganesa,  who  recognizing  it 
as  his  father's  weapon  (Siva  having  given  it  to  Parasurama) 
received  it  with  all  humility  upon  one  of  his  tusks,  which  it  imme- 
diately severed,  and  hence  Ganesa  has  but  one  tusk,  and  is  known 
by  the  names  Ekadanba  and  Ekadanshtra,  (the  single-tusked).— 
Wihons  Works,  Vol  III,  p.  107. 

Ganesa — A  distinguished  Hindu  mathematician  and  astronomer 
wiio  lived  in  a.  d.  1520. 

Ganesa-upa-Purana — The  main  subject  of  this  work  is  the 
greatness  of  Ganesa  ;  and  pi-ayers  and  formulae  appropriated  to  him 
are  abundantly  detailed.  It  appears  to  be  a  work  originating  with 
the  Ganapatya  sect,  or  followers  of  Ganesa.  Preface  to  Vishnu 
Fur  ana. 


222  GAN 

Ganga — The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  origin  of  the 
Ganges,  as  detailed  in  several  sections  of  the  first  part  of  the 
Ramayana.  Ganga  was  the  daughter  of  Himavat  king  of  moun- 
tains, and  given  by  him  to  the  gods. 

Sagara  king  of  Ayodhya  had  by  one  of  his  wives  sixty  thousand 
sous.  Whilst  performing  the  horse  sacrifice,  the  horse  was  stolen. 
He  commanded  his  sons  to  go  and  search  for  it.  Not  finding  it  on 
the  earth,  they  dug  down  to  Patala,  where  they  found  the  horse 
feeding,  and  Kapila  Muni  near  it  in  profound  meditation.  On 
being  charged  with  the  theft,  he  by  one  glance  reduced  them  all 
to  ashes.  On  account  of  their  long  absence,  Sagara  sent  his 
grandson,  Ausumat,  to  seek  for  them.  He  found  their  ashes,  and 
the  horse  feeding  near  them.  Unable  to  find  water  to  pour  on  the 
ashes,  he  was  directed  by  Kapila  (who  w^as  a  minor  incarnation  of 
Vishnu,)  not  to  pour  common  water  upon  them,  but  now  to  take 
the  horse  and  complete  his  grandfather's  sacrifice  ;  and  be  assured 
that  his  (Ansumat's)  grandson  should  obtain  for  their  ashes  the 
heavenly  Ganges.  Sagara  reigned  30,000  years  ;  Ansumat  32,000  ; 
his  son  Dilipa  30,000  ;  his  grandson  Bhagiratha  intent,  as  his 
ancestors  had  been,  on  bringing  down  the  Ganges,  persevered  in  a 
long  course  of  austerities.  After  1000  years  Brahma  signified 
his  pleasure  by  commanding  him  to  ask  a  boon.  He  begged  that 
the  sons  of  Sagara  might  obtain  w^ater  for  their  funeral  rites  ; 
that,  their  ashes  being  wetted  by  the  celestial  Ganges,  they  might 
ascend  to  heaven.  Brahma  granted  his  request  on  condition  that 
he  prevailed  on  Siva  to  break  the  fall  of  the  waters  ;  else  the  earth 
would  be  washed  away. 

By  further  austerities  he  propitiated  Siva,  who  engaged  to 
receive  the  goddess,  and  commanded  her  to  descend.  In  auger 
she  resolved  to  bear  him  down  by  her  stream  ;  but  he,  aware  of 
her  proud  resolve,  detained  her  in  his  hair.  When  Bhagiratha 
applied  to  him  for  the  waters,  Siva  reminded  him  that  his  request 
was  only  that  he  should  "  receive"  the  Ganges.  Bhagiratha 
engaged  in  further  austerities,  and  Siva  being  pleased  with  them 
discharged  the  waters  from  his  locks  in  seven  streams  ;  one  of 
which  followed  the  king.     As  he  led  the  way  in  a  splendid  chariot, 


GAN— GAR  223 


the  Ganges  followed  ;  but,  overflowing  a  sacrifice  which  Jahnu 
was  performing,  the  enraged  Muni  drank  up  the  whole,  but  was 
afterwards  prevailed  upon  to  discharge  it  from  his  ear.  Thence 
the  stream  followed  the  king  to  Patala,  washed  the  ashes,  and 
liberated  his  ancestors  the  sons  of  Sagara. 

Gan^adwara — A  sacred  spot  near  Himavau,  frequented  by 
the  Rishis.  It  is  the  place  where  the  Ganges  descends  to  the 
plains,  and  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  Daksha's  great  sacrifice.  It 
is  now  called  Haridwar. 

Gara — One  of  the  five  sous  of  Usiuara,  a  descendant  of  Anu. 

Garddhabas,  Garddhabhins — A  race  of  kings  in  the  west 
of  India,  but  not  yet  satisfactorily  identified,  though  many  learned 
conjectures  have  been  made  respecting  them. 

Garga — An  ancient  sage,  who  having  propitiated  Sesha, 
acquired  from  him  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  astronomical 
science,  of  the  planets,  and  of  the  good  and  evil  denoted  by  the 
aspects  of  the  heavens.  He  is  one  of  the  oldest  writers  on 
Astronomy  amongst  the  Hindus.  According  to  Mr.  Bentley  his 
Sanhita  dates  548  b.  c.  The  initiatory  rites  of  Krishna  and  Rama 
were  performed  by  the  sage  Garga,  who  was  sent  to  Gokula  by 
Vasudeva  for  that  purpose.  In  the  Bhagavata  Garga  describes 
himself  as  the  Purohita  or  family  priest  of  the  Yadavas.  Garga 
was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Bhavanmanyu. 

Gargabhumi,   Gargya— Two  of  the  descendants  of  Alarka, 

according  to  the  list  in  the  Vayu  Purana. 

Gargya — A  disciple  of  Bashkali,  and  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda  ; 
also  a  Brahman,  who,  through  arduous  penance,  living  upon  iron 
sand  for  twelve  years,  became  the  father  of  the  hero  Kalayavana. 

Gargya — An  etymologist  and  grammarian  of  much  celebrity  in 
Sanscrit  Literature. 

Gargyas— The  descendants  of  Gargya,  who  although  Kshatriyas 
by  birth  became  Brahmans.  Professor  Wilson  says  that  all  the 
authorities  concur  in  this  statement ;  thus  furnishing  an  additional 
instance  of  one  caste  proceeding  from  another. 


224  GAR— GAU 


Gannanas— Hiudu  or  Buddhist  priests  mentioned  by  the 
geographer  Strabo.  They  are  represented  as  feeding  on  fruits,  and 
wearing  only  a  covering  made  of  the  bark  of  a  tree. 

Garuda — The  king  of  the  feathered  tribes  and  the  remorseless 
enemy  of  the  serpent  race.  He  was  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and 
Vinata.  Garuda  is  always  represented  as  the  bird  on  which  Vishnu 
is  carried  and  described  as  something  between  a  man  and  a  bird. 
Garuda  is  the  vehicle  of  Krishna,  appearing  whenever  he  is  wanted, 
and  conveying  his  master  with  incredible  speed  to  the  most  distant 
localities.  When  Krishna  recovered  the  jewel  mountain,  he  placed 
it,  with  the  umbrella  of  Varuua,  upon  Garuda,  and  mounting  him 
himself,  he  set  off  to  the  heaven  of  the  gods  to  restore  the  ear-rings 
of  Aditl.  Garuda  is  represented  as  a  large  white-necked  kite  or 
eagle.  On  the  walls  of  many  Vaishnava  temples  he  is  represented 
by  the  figure  of  a  young  man  seated,  with  the  palms  of  the  hands 
closed,  and  fingers  pointed  upwards,  denoting  reverence.  "  He 
may  be  compared  with  the  Simurgh  of  the  Persians,  the  Anka  of 
the  Arabs,  the  Griffin  of  chivalry,  the  Phoenix  of  Egypt,  and  the 
bird  that  sits  upon  the  ash  Yggdrasil  of  the  Edda." — Griffiths. 

Garuda  Purana — Professor  Wilson  doubts  whether  a  genuine 
Garuda  Purana  exists.  The  one  he  examined  contained  no  account 
of  the  birth  of  Garuda.  Only  a  brief  notice  of  the  creation  ;  and 
the  greater  part  being  occupied  with  a  description  of  Vratas,  or 
religious  observances,  of  holidays,  of  sacred  places,  &c.  It 
contained  also  treatises  on  astrology,  palmistry,  precious  stones, 
and  medicine. 

Garutwanta — A  name  of  Garuda. 
Gathin — The  same  as  Gadhi,  q.  v. 

Gati— (Movement.)  An  allegorical  personage,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Devahuti,  and  wife  of  Pulaka. 

Gatra — One  of  the  seven  pure  sages,  a  son  of  Vasishta. 
Gatravat — A  son  of  Krishna  by  Lakshmana- 

Gauri — The  name  of  Parvati  as  a  girl  before  she  became  the 
bride  of  Siva.     Also  the  name  of  a  wife  of  Virajas.     The  wife  of 


GAU  225 

Yiivanaswas  was  named  Gauri,  and  having  incurred  the  imprecation 
of  her  husband  became  the  Bahudu  river. 

Gautama  Sakya  Sinha— See  Buddha. 

Gautama — The  founder  of  the  Nyaya  school  of  philosopliy. 
Little  is  Ivnown  of  his  personal  history.  He  was  born  at  Himalaya 
about  the  same  time  as  Rama.  He  married  Ahalya  the  daughter 
of  Bramha,  and  lived  as  a  very  austere  ascetic,  the  Ramayana 
states,  for  thousands  of  years,  in  a  holy  hermitage  adorned  with 
fruits  and  flowers,  daily  performing  religious  austerities. 

One  day  when  the  sage  was  absent  from  his  dwelling,  the  mighty 
Indra  passed  by,  and  burned  with  an  impure  passion  for  the  wife 
of  Gautama  ;  and  he  entered  the  hut  in  the  disguise  of  the  sage, 
and  began  to  entreat  Ahalya  :  and  she,  knowing  him  to  be  king  of 
heaven,  in  the  wantonness  of  her  heart  yielded  to  his  desires.  As 
he  was  leaving  the  hermitage  Gautama  entered,  and  he  was 
invincible  even  to  the  gods  through  the  power  of  his  austerities. 
Indra  was  overwhelmed  with  sadness  ;  and  the  sage  beholding  the 
profligate  celestial,  addressed  him  thus  ;  O  depraved  wretch, 
assuming  my  form  you  have  perpetrated  this  great  crime  !  therefore 
from  this  moment  you  become  a  eunuch !  The  sage  then 
pronounced  this  curse  upon  his  wife  Ahalyu  ;  0  sinful  wretch,  for 
thousands  of  years  shall  you  remain  in  this  forest,  abandoned  by  all 
and  invisible  to  all,  until  Rama  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  shall  enter 
here,  and  you  from  beholding  him  shall  be  cleansed  from  all  sin  and 
again  approach  me  without  fear.  These  words  of  the  illustiious 
Gautama  were  all  fulfilled.  Ramayana  49.  For  an  account  of 
Gautama's  philosophical  system,  see  Nyaya. 

Kumarila  says  :  '  In  the  same  manner,  if  it  is  said  that  Indra 
was  the  seducer  of  Ahalya,  this  does  not  imply  that  the  God  Indra 
committed  such  a  crime,  but  Indra  means  the  sun,  and  Ahalya 
(from  ahau  and  li)  the  night  ;  and  as  the  night  is  seduced  and 
ruined  by  the  sun  of  the  morning,  therefore  is  Indra  called  the 
paramour  of  Ahalya.'™ iVaa-  Muller^  A.  S.  L.,  p.  o30. 

The  legend  is  thus  versified  by  INIr.  GriflTiths  : 
"  This  was  the  grove — most  lovely  then — 
Of  Gaulam,  0  thou  best  of  men, 

29 


226  GAU 

Like  heaven  itself,  most  honoured  by 
The  Gods  who  dwell  above  the  sky. 
Here  with  Ahalyd  at  his  side 
His  fervid  task  the  ascetic  plied. 
Years  fled  in  thousands.     On  a  day 
It  chanced  the  saint  had  gone  away, 
When  Town-destroying  Indra  came, 
And  saw  the  beauty  of  the  dame. 
The  sage's  form  the  God  endued, 
And  thus  the  fair  -Ahalya  wooed  : 
*Love,  sweet  I  should  brook  no  dull  delay, 
But  snatch  the  moments  when  he  may.* 
She  knew  him  in  the  saint's  disguise, 
Lord  Indra  of  the  Thousand  eyes. 
But  touched  by  love's  unholy  fire. 
She  yielded  to  the  God's  desire 

*  Now,  Lord  of  Gods !'  she  whispered,  'flee, 
From  Gau  tam  save  thyself  and  me.' 
Trembling  with  doubt  and  wild  with  dread 
Lord  Indra  from  tlie  cottage  fled  ; 
But  fleeing  in  the  grove  he  met 
The  home -returning  anchoret, 
Whose  wrath  the  Gods  and  fiends  would  shun, 
Such  power  his  fervent  rites  had  won. 
Fresh  from  the  lustral  flood  he  came, 
In  splendour  like  the  burning  flame. 
With  fuel  for  his  sacred  rites. 
And  grass,  the  best  of  eremites. 
The  Lord  of  Gods  was  sad  of  cheer 
To  see  the  mighty  saint  so  near. 
And  when  the  holy  hermit  spied 
In  hermit's  garb  the  Thousand-eyed, 
He  knew  the  whole,  his  fury  broke 
Forth  on  the  sinner  as  he  spoke  : 
*  Because  my  form  thou  hast  assumed. 
And  wrought  this  folly,  thou  art  doomed. 


GAU— GAY  227 


For  this  my  curse  to  thee  shall  cling, 
Henceforth  a  ead  and  sexless  thing.' 

No  empty  threat  that  sentence  carao, 
It  chilled  his  soul  and  marred  his  frame, 
His  might  and  god-like  vigour  fled, 
And  eveiy  nerve  was  cold  and  dead, 

Then  on  his  wife  his  fury  burst. 
And  thus  the  guilty  dame  he  cursed  : 
*  For  countless  years,  disloyal  spouse, 
Devoted  to  severest  vows. 
Thy  bed  the  ashes,  air  thy  food, 
Here  shalt  thou  live  in  solitude. 
This  lonely  grove  thy  home  shall  be, 
And  not  an  eye  thy  form  shall  see^ 
When  Kama,  Dasaratha's  child, 
Shall  seek  these  shades  then  drear  and  wild, 
His  coming  shall  remove  thy  stain, 
And  make  the  sinner  pure  again." 

Qautama — A  Praj^pati ;  one  of  the  seven  Rishis  of  the  seventh 
Manwantara. 

Gavya — All  that  is  derived  from  the  cow ;  milk  and  all 
preparations  of  or  from  milk  ;  these  are  proper  to  be  offered  as 
food  to  deceased  ancestors.  The  sacrifice  of  a  cow  or  calf  formed 
part  of  the  ancient  Sraddha  It  then  became  typical,  or  a  bull  was 
turned  loose,  instead  of  being  slaughtered. 

Gaya— A  son  of  Havirdhaua  by  Dishana  a  princess  of  the  race 
of  Agni ;  also  the  name  of  a  prince  the  son  of  Nahta,  descended 
from  Bharata  ;  also  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Sudyurana,  after  his 
transformation  from  Ila  to  a  mau. 

Gayatri — A  metre  created  from  the  eastern  mouth  of  Bramha. 
The  Gayatri  is  also  the  holiest  verse  of  tlie  Vedas,  not  to  be  uttered 
to  ears  profane  ;  it  is  a  short  prayer  to  tlie  sun,  identified  as  tha 
Supreme,  and  occurs  iu  the  lOth  hymn  of  the  4th  s^tion  of  the 
third  Aeht&ka  of  the  Sanhita  of  the  Eig  Ve^a. 


228  GEN— GHR 


''  We  meditate  on  that  excellent  light  of  the  divine  sun ;  may  he 
illuminate  our  minds."  Such  is  the  fear  entertained  of  profaning 
this  iexi,  that  copyists  of  the  Vedas  not  uufrequently  refrain  from 
transcribiug  it,  both  in  the  Sanhita  and  Bhdshya.  Pious  brahraans 
every  morning  at  sunrise  scatter  water,  purified  by  the  mystical 
Omkara  and  consecrated  by  the  Gayatri  ;  and  by  this  water  as  by 
a  thunderbolt  the  foul  fiends  are  scattered. 

GentOOS— The  name  formerly  applied  by  Europeans  to  the 
Hindus,  especially  to  the  Telugu  people. 

Ghatasrinjayas — A  people  from  the  north-west,  amongst  the 
warriors  of  the  Mahabharata. 

GhatOtkacha — The  son  of  Bhima  by  a  Rakshasi,  or  female 
fiend,  Hidimba,  whose  brother  he  slew.  The  scene  of  these  trans- 
actions was  on  the  east  of  the  Gauges,  and  the  Eakshasi  may 
therefore  mean  a  princess  of  some  of  the  bordering  tribes  east  of 
Hindustan,  or  between  Bhote  and  Ava  ;  all  of  whom  eating  meat, 
and  following  other  impure  practices,  might  w^ell  be  considered 
Rakshasas  or  cannibals,  by  the  Hindus.  Ileramba  is  in  fact 
applied  geographically  to  designate  the  western  portion  of  Asam. 
Ghatotkacha  was  slain  by  Kama  with  the  javelin  he  had  received 
froni  Indra.     See  Kama. —  Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  ;?.  297. 

Ghorata — Terror.  One  of  the  properties  assigned  to  percep- 
tible objects  by  the  Sankya  philosophy. 

Ghosha — A  son  of  Lamba  (an  arc  of  the  heavens.) 

Ghosha — (Ghosha.)  A  female  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  to 
whom  the  Asvins  gave  a  husband  when  she  was  growing  old  in 
lier  father's  house.     0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V.,  p.  247. 

Ghoshavasu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Palindaka  ;  one  of  the  ten 
Sungas,  who  governed  the  earth  for  a  hundred  and  twelve  years. 

Ghritachi—  A  celestial  nymph,  one  of  those  frequently  engaged 
in  the  interruption  of  the  penances  of  holy  sages. 

Ghritachi— The  wife  of  Raja  Kusanabha  and  queen  of  Magadha  ; 
the  mother  of  a  hundred  daugliters,  all  of  whom  Vayu  the  god  of 


GHR— GIR  229 


M'iud,  wished  to  *'  forsake  their  mortal  lot,  and  accompany  him  to 
the  sky,"  and  on  their  rcfui^al. 

''  He  heard  the  answer  they  returned 
And  mighty  rage  Avithin  him  burned, 
On  each  fair  maid  a  blast  he  sent 
Each  stately  form  he  bowed  and  bent." 

They  were  afterwards  married  to  Bramhadatta,  Raja  of  Kampili, 
and  by  this  means  recovered  their  strength  and  beaufy. 

"  Soon  as  the  hand  of  each  young  maid 
In  Bramhadatta's  palm  was  laid, 
Deformity  and  cares  away 
She  shone  in  beauty  bright  and  gay." — Griffiths. 

Ghritaprishtha — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Priyavrata,  according 
to  the  list  in  the  Bhagavata  ;  which  says  that  Priyavrata  drove 
Iiis  chariot  seven  times  round  the  earth,  and  the  ruts  left  by  the 
wheels  became  the  beds  of  the  oceans,  separating  it  into  seven 
Dwipas  ;  it  is  uncertain  which  of  them  was  given  to  Ghritaprishtha. 

Ghriteya — A  prince,  one  of  the  sons  of  Randraswa,  a  descendant 
ofPuru, 

Ghritasamada — A  son  of  Suhotra,  and  father  of  Saunaka  who 
first  established  the  distinctions  of  the  four  castes.     V.  P.  406. 

Giri— One  of  the  sons  of  Swaphalka  by  his  wife  Gandini. 

Girigahvaras — A  race  who  lived  in  caves  ;  probably  between 
Cabul  iind  Eamian,  but  their  cavern  habitations  have  not  been 
satisfactorily  identified. 

Girivraja — A  city  in  the  mountainous  part  of  ^Nlagadha  near 
the  wood  of  Dharraaranya. 

Girivraja  — The  city  of  Raja  Aswapati  to  which  Bharata  and 
Satrughua  were  sent.  The  Raja  was  the  grandfather  of  the  youno- 
princes  and  they  were  sent  to  him  that  they  might  be  out  of  the 
way  when  it  was  resolved  that  Rama  should  be  appointed  Yuvaraja 
at  Avodhva. 


230  GIT— GOK 


Gita-Govinda — Songs  of  Kiishria.  It  is  also  the  title  of 
a  pastoral  mythological  dramatic  poem  in  Sanscrit  in  praise  of 
Krishna  by  Jayadeva.  Eadha  is  in  it  identified  with  Lakshmi. — 
Sir  fV.  Jones. 

Gobhana — A  son  of  Vahni,  and  grandson  of  Turvasu,  whosa 
line  failed  and  merged  into  that  of  Puru,  in  consequence  of  the 
malediction  denounced  on  his  son  by  Yaydti,  for  refusing  to  take 
his  father's  infirmities  ou  him. 

Goghuatas — A  people  who  formerly  resided  in  Gumania,  part 
of  the  Konkan  about  Goa. 

Godaveri — The  river  which  still  bears  that  name  ;  it  is  so 
called  in  all  the  Puranas. 

Gohamukha — A  mountain  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Purdns, 
but  not  identified. 

Gokarna — A  famous  and  venerated  region  near  the  Malabar 
Coast ;  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  Raja  Bhagirath's  austerities, 

**  The  good  Bhagirath,  royal  sage, 
Had  no  fair  son  to  cheer  his  age. 
He,  great  in  glory,  pure  in  will, 
Longing  for  sons  was  childless  still. 
Then  on  one  wish,  one  thought  intent. 
Planning  the  heavenly  stream's  descent. 
Leaving  his  ministers  the  care 
And  burden  of  his  state  to  bear. 
Dwelling  in  far  Gokarna  he 
Engaged  in  long  austerity." 

Goknla— -The  village  in  which  the  cowherd  Nanda  resided, 
when  Krishna  and  Balardma  were  entrusted  to  his  care,  to  be 
brought  up  as  his  own  children,  in  order  to  escape  the  vengeance 
of  Kansa.  It  was  at  Gokula  that  the  female  fiend  Putana  attempted 
the  life  of  the  child  Krishna,  by  giving  him  her  breast  to  suck  ; 
the  infant  Krishna  sucked  it  with  such  violence  that  he  drained  it 
of  the  life  and  she  expired. 


GOL— GOP  231 


Golaka — A  disciple  of  Siikalya,  and  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Goloka~The  highest  world  of  all,  and  the  residence  of  Krishna ; 
represented  as  indestructible  while  all  else  is  subject  to  annihilation. 
Professor  Wilson  thinks  this  is  an  addition  to  the  original  system 
of  seven  worlds,  in  which  ^ve  have  probably  some  relation  to  the 
seven  climates  of  the  ancients,  the  seven  stages  or  degrees  of  the 
earth  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  seven  heavens  of  the  Mahomedans,  if 
not  to  the  seven  Amshaspends  of  the  Parsis.  Seven,  suggested 
originally  perhaps  by  the  seven  planets,  seems  to  have  been  a 
favourite  number  with  various  nations  of  antiquity.  Amongst  the 
Hindus  it  was  applied  to  a  variety  of  sacred  or  mythological 
objects,  which  are  enumerated  in  averse  in  the  Hanumans  Nataka. 
Kdma  is  described  there  as  piercing  seven  palm-trees  with  an  arrow, 
in  which  other  groups  of  seven  take  fright,  as  the  seven  steeds  of 
the  sun,  the  seven  spheres,  the  seven  Munis,  the  seven  seas,  the 
seven  continents  and  the  seven  mothers  of  the  gods. 

Gomanta — A  mountain  in  the  Western  Ghauts  ;  the  name  is 
also  applied  to  the  country  about  Goa,  the  Koukau.  The  inhabit- 
ants  are  sometimes  termed  Gomantas." 

Gomati— A  river  in  Ayodhya  or  Gude. 

Gomatiputra— One  of  the  Andhra  kings,  the  son  of  Sivaswiti, 
who  reigned  21  years. 

Gonds,  or  KhondS — One  of  the  aboriginal  or  non-aryan  tribes 
of  India  who  now  inhabit  part  of  Orissa.  They  have  partially 
preserved  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  primitive  religion  of 
Hindustan — n  religion  that  has  been  designated  devil  worship,  as 
they  sacrifice  only  to  demons  or  malignant  deities. 

Gopas — Herdsman  ;  the  designation  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Gokula,  where  Krishna  spent  his  early  days  ;  they  afterwards 
emigrated  to  Vrindavana  and  were  the  associates  of  Krishna  and 
Balarama,  who  joined  heartily  in  whatever  sports  amused  the  sous 
of  the  herdiimen. 

Gopala-kakshas — Tribes  of  eastern  India. 

Goparashtra— The  district  of  cowherds,  that  is  of  Nomadic 
tribes.     Gova  or  Kuva  is  an  ancient  name  of  the  southern  Konkan. 


232  GOP— GOV 


Gopis — The  wives  of  the  Gopas  or  cowherds.  Their  sports 
with  Krishna  are  narrated  in  detail  in  the  Vishnu  Purina,  as  also 
in  the  Bhagavata,  &c.  The  Gopis  are  said  to  have  wept  bitterly 
when  he  left  Gokula  for  Mathura. 

Goswala— One  of  the  five  disciples  of  Sakalva,  and  teacher  of 
the  Rig  Veda. 

Gotama — One  of  the  twenty-eight  Vyasas  ;  the  arranger  of 
the  Vedas  in  the  twentieth  Dwapara. 

Gotras — Families  or  tribes  of  brahmans.  The  names  of  the 
Gotras  were  liable  to  confusion,  particularly  in  later  times,  when 
their  number  had  become  very  considerable.  But  the  respect 
which  the  brahmans  from  the  very  earliest  time  paid  to  their 
ancestors,  and  the  strictness  with  which  they  prohibited  marriages 
between  members  of  the  same  family,  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the 
genealogical  lists,  even  at  the  present  day,  furnish  in  their  general 
outlines,  a  correct  account  of  the  priestly  families  of  India.  All 
Brahmanic  families  who  keep  the  sacred  fires  are  supposed  to 
descend  from  the  seven  Rishis.  These  are  : — Bhrigii,  Angiras, 
Vih'amiti'a,  Vasisthn,  Kasyapa,  Atri^  Agastya.  The  real  ancestors, 
however,  are  eight  in  number  : — Jamadagni^  Gautama^  and 
Bharadvaja,  Visvdmitra,  Vasishta,  Kasyapa,  Atri,  Agastya. 
The  eight  Gotras,  which  descend  from  these  Rishis,  are  again 
subdivided  into  forty-nine  Gotras,  and  these  forty-nine  branch  off 
into  a  still  larger  number  of  families.  The  names  gotra,  vansa, 
varga,  paksha,  and  gana,  are  all  used  in  the  same  sense,  to  express 
the  larger  as  well  as  the  smaller  families,  descended  from  the  eight 
Rishis. 

A  Brahman,  who  keeps  the  sacrificial  fire,  is  obliged  by  law  to 
know  to  which  of  the  forty-nine  Gotras  his  own  family  belongs, 
and  in  consecrating  his  own  fire  he  must  invoke  the  ancestors  who 
founded  the  Gotra  to  which  he  belongs.  Each  of  the  forty-nine 
Gotras  claims  one,  or  two,  or  three,  or  five  ancestors,  and  the 
names  of  these  ancestors  constitute  the  distinctive  character  of 
each  Gotra.     Max  Mullcr.     A.  S.  L.,  p.  80. 

Gova — An  ancient  name  of  the  Southern  Konkan  ;  it  may 
imply  the  district  of  cowherds,  that  is  of  Nomadic  tribes. 


GOV— GRA  233 


Govardhana — A  moimtain  near  INIatliura.  Tlie  Visbiin 
Puraua  states  that  Krishna  thus;  acUhessed  the  Gopas  :  Cattle  aud 
mountains  are  our  gods.  Brahmaus  otFer  worship  with  prayer  ; 
cultivators  of  the  earth  adore  their  landmarks,  but  we,  who  tend  our 
herds  in  the  forests  aud  mountains,  should  worship  them  and  our 
kine.  Let  prayers  and  offerings  then  be  addressed  to  the  mountain 
Govardiiana,  and  kill  a  victim  in  due  form."  *  *  *  * 
accordingly  the  inhabitants  of  Vraja  worshipped  the  mountain, 
presenting  to  it  curds  aud  milk  aud  flesh  :  and  they  fed  thousands 
of  brahmaus  who  came  to  the  ceremony.  ludra,  offended  by  the 
loss  of  his  offerings,  caused  a  heavy  rain  to  deluge  Gokula. 
Krishna  then  to  calm  the  troubled  cowherds  held  up  the  mountain 
Govardhana  as  a  large  umbrella  to  shelter  them  and  their  cattle. 
For  seven  days  aud  nights  it  rained  incessantly  at  Gokula,  but  the 
inhabitants  were  protected  by  the  elevation  of  the  mountain.  The 
threats  of  Indra  having  been  fruitless,  Krishna  restored  the  great 
mountain  to  its  original  site.  Professor  Wilson  says  that  it  seems 
not  unlikely  that  this  legend  has  some  reference  to  the  caves  or 
cavern  temples  in  various  parts  of  India.  A  remarkable  represen- 
tation of  it  occurs  upon  the  sculptured  rocks  of  Mahabalipur. 

Govinda — A  name  of  Krishna,  given  to  him  by  Indra  after 
having  preserved  the  cattle  by  raising  the  mountain  Govardhana. 
Govinda  is  he  who  knows,  finds,  or  tends  cattle.  As  the  Indra  of 
the  cows  he  w^as  called  Govinda.  Pilgrims  invoke  Govinda  when 
travelling  to  Tripati,  &c. 

Govithi — A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions  :  in  the  Central  or 
Jaradgava  Avasthaua. 

Gramadevatas — Tutelar  deities  which  are  supposed  to  protect 
the  fields,  villages  and  towns  from  evil  spirits  ;  aud  to  ward  off  all 
sorts  of  plagues,  famine,  pestilence,  war,  couflagration,  and  inunda- 
tion, and  are,  in  short,  regarded  as  beings  who  can  avert  much 
evil,  though  they  may  not  be  able  to  bestow  positive  blessings. 
It  is  probable  they  are  the  gods  worshipped  by  the  Aborigines 
when  the  Aryans  first  came  to  India.  In  Southern  India  the 
Gramadevata=  properly  so  called  are  Ayeuar,  with  his  two  wives 

30 


234  GRA— GRI 


Puranic  and  Pudkalai  ;  Ellamma,   Mariamma,  Ankalamma,  Blia- 
diakili,  Pidari,  Chamundi,  and  Durga. 

Gramanis — The  seven  attendants  on  the  sun's  car  ;  the  agents 
in  the  distribution  of  cold,  heat,  and  rain  at  their  respective 
season.     They  are  also  called  Yakshas. 

Grammar — The  Hindus  and  the  Greeks  are  the  only  two 
nations  in  the  whole  history  of  the  world  which  have  conceived 
independently,  and  without  any  suggestions  from  others,  the  two 
sciences  of  Logic  and  Grammar.*  Carefully  collecting  the  facts 
brought  to  light  by  critical  and  pains-taking  observation,  they 
have  elaborated  a  system  of  Grammar,  of  gigantic  dimensions,  far 
surpassing  anything  that  has  ever  been  effected,  in  this  branch  of 
study,  in  any  country  or  age  of  the  world.  Their  greatest  and 
most  brilliant  champion,  in  this  science,  is  Paiiini  :  yet  many  other 
grammarians  helped  to  rear  the  stupendous  fabric  which  now 
excites  the  admiration  of  mankind.  And  while  they  emulated  the 
genius  of  the  Greeks  in  generalising  upon  the  results  of  their 
observations,  they  far  outshine  them  in  the  correctness  and  extent 
of  their  investigations.f     See  Panini. 

Grantha — lu  the  later  literature  of  India,  Grantha  was  used  for 
a  volume,  and  in  granthakuti,  a  library,  we  see  clearly  that  it  has 
that  meaning.  But  in  the  early  literature,  grantha  does  not  mean 
pustaka,  or  book  ;  it  means  simply  a  composition  as  opposed  to  a 
traditional  work. 

Gridhrika — A  daughter  of  Kasyapa  and  his  wife  Tamra,  the 
parent  of  vultures. 

Grihastha — A  householder  ;  his  duties  are  thus  defined  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana.  "  When  the  scriptural  studies  appropriate  to  the 
student  have  been  completed,  and  he  has  received  dismissal  from 
iiis  Guru,  let  (he  regenerate  man  enter  into  the  order  of  the  house- 
holder ;  and  taking  unto  himself,  with  lawful  ceremonies,  house, 
wife,  and  wealth,  discharge  to  the  best  of  his  ability  the  duties  of 
hif:  station  ;  satisfying  the  manes   with  funeral  cakes  ;  the  gods 


*  Max  MuUer.  f  Shemng. 


GUD—GUH  235 


with  oblations  ;  guests  with  hospitality  ;  the  sages  with  holy 
study  ;  the  progenitors  of  mankind  with  progeny  ;  the  spirits  w^ith 
the  residue  of  oblations  ;  and  all  the  -world  with  words  of  truth. 
A  householder  secures  heaven  by  the  faithful  discharge  of  these 
obligations.  There  are  those  who  subsist  upon  alms,  and  lead  an 
erratic  life  of  self-denial,  at  the  end  of  the  term  during  which 
they  have  kept  house.  They  wander  over  the  world  to  see  the 
earth,  and  perform  their  ablutions,  with  rites  enjoined  by  the 
Vedas,  at  sacred  shrines  :  houseless,  and  without  food,  and  restiug 
for  the  night  at  the  dwelling  at  which  they  arrive  in  the  evening. 
The  householder  is  to  them  a  constant  refuge  and  parent  :  it  is  his 
duty  to  give  them  a  welcome,  and  to  address  them  with  kindness  ; 
and  to  provide  them,  whenever  they  come  to  his  house,  with  a  bed, 
a  seat,  and  food.  A  guest  disappointed  by  a  householder,  who 
turns  away  from  his  door,  transfers  to  the  latter  all  his  own 
misdeeds,  and  bears  away  his  religious  merit.  In  the  house  of  a 
good  man,  contumely,  arrogance,  hypocrisy,  repining,  contradic- 
tion, and  violence  are  annihilated  :  and  the  householder  who  fully 
performs  this  his  chief  duty  of  hospitality  is  released  from  every 
kind  of  bondage,  and  obtains  the  highest  of  stations  after  death." 

GudaraS — A  class  of  mendicants,  deriving  their  name  from  a 
pan  of  metal,  which  they  carry  about  with  them,  containing  fire 
for  burning  scented  woods  at  the  house  of  those  from  whom^they 
receive  alms.  They  do  not  solicit  alms  directly,  but  repeat  the 
word  Alakh,  "  invisible"  expressive  of  the  indescribable  nature 
of  the  deity. 

Guha — The  Raja  of  the  Bhils  wdio  welcomed  Rama  at 
Sringavera,  the  border  town  between  the  kingdom  of  Kosala  and 
the  country  of  the  Bhils.  After  entertaining  Rama  with  great 
liberality,  the  Raja  provided  a  well-furnished  boat  in  which  his 
distinguished  guest  crossed  the  Ganges.  He  also  afforded  great 
assistance  to  Bharata  when  proceeding  to  the  hermitage  of 
Bharadwaja  in  search  of  Rama, 

Guhas — The  kings  of  Kalinga  and  Mahondra  :  some  parts  of 
Orissa  and  Berar. 


236  GUH— GUR 


Guhyas — The  name  of  a  class  of  demigods  who  attend  on 
Kuvera  the  god  of  wealth,  and  whose  city  is  Alakapura. 

Guna — Quality,  virtue,  excellence.  A  property  of  all  created 
beings  ;  three  are  particularized,  the 

1.  Satwa,  principles  of  truth  or  existence. 

2.  Raja,  passion  or  foulness. 

3.  Tamas,  darkness  or  ignorance. 

Gupta — A  name  said  in  the  Vishnn  Purina  to  be  suited  to 
Vaisyas  and  Sudras. 

Guptas — A  race  of  kings  who  reigned  in  Magadha.  They  were 
Rajas  of  the  Yaisya  caste.  Of  the  existence  and  power  of  the 
Guptas  we  have  recently  had  ample  proofs  from  inscriptions  and 
coins,  as  in  the  Chandragupta  and  Samudragupta  of  the  Allahabad 
column,  etc.,  in  all  which  the  legends  are  written  in  a  character 
prior  to  the  use  of  the  modern  Devanagiri  and  was  current  probably 
about  the  5th  century  of  our  era.     See  Vishnu  Purdna,  p.  480. 

Guru — "  A  spiritual  preceptor  occupying  in  some  measure  the 
place  of  the  confessor  of  the  middle  ages.  He  is  regarded  as  a 
representative  and  vehicle  of  divine  power,  and  therefore  entitled 
to  receive  the  most  implicit  obedience  from  his  disciples.  The 
Gurus  are  a  class  of  priests  carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
Purohita,  who  is  a  sort  of  domestic  chaplain  and  must  be  married. 
The  Gurus  generally  live  in  celibacy,  though  some  are  married. 
Each  caste  and  sect  has  its  particular  Guru,  who  may  be  either  a 
Brahman  or  a  Sudra,  and  who  exercises  great  authority  and 
influence.  He  superintends  those  under  his  jurisdiction  and 
enforces  the  observance  of  the  rules  and  customs  of  the  sect.  He 
can  expel  from  caste,  and  some  Gurus  can  restore  those  who  have 
been  expelled.  All  Gurus  do  not  possess  equal  authority.  There 
is  a  gradation  amongst  them  and  the  inferior  Gurus  frequently 
derive  their  power  from  the  superior,  and  are  sometimes  deposed 
by  them  and  others  appointed. 

When  the  people  come  into  the  presence  of  the  Guru,  they  make 
the  Sashtanga,  i.  e.,  prostration  of  the  eight  members,,  and  this. 


GUR  237 

when  folloAved  by  the  Guru's  Asirviida,  i.  e.^  beuediction,  is  effectual 
for  the  remission  of  all  sins.  The  look  even  of  a  Guru  has  the 
same  efficacy.  The  Prasada,  i.e.,  the  present  which  the  Guru 
confers  upon  his  disciples  consists  in  things  otherwise  of  small 
value,  such  as  a  portion  of  cow-dung  ashes,  to  beautify  the 
forehead,  flowers  that  were  previously  offered  up  to  idols,  the 
crumbs  from  his  meals,  or  the  water  in  which  he  had  washed  his 
feet,  which  is  preserved  and  sometimes  drunk  by  those  who 
receive  it.  These  and  other  things  of  like  nature  coming  from 
their  holy  hands,  possess  the  virtue  of  purifying  body  and  soul 
from  all  uncleanness. 

But  if  the  benediction  of  the  Guru  and  the  other  little  tokens  of 
his  favour,  which  he  bestows  on  his  disciples,  have  so  wonderful 
an  influence  in  attracting  the  respect  and  reverence  of  the  populace, 
his  cu7'se  is  thought  to  be  not  less  powerful,  and  fills  them  with 
terror  and  awe.  The  Hindus  are  persuaded  that  it  never  fails  to 
take  effect,  whether  justly  or  unjustly  incurred.  Their  books  are 
full  of  stories  which  seem  to  have  been  invented  for  the  express 
purpose  of  inspiring  this  belief;  and,  to  add  greater  force  to  it,  the 
attendants  of  the  Guru,  who  are  interested  in  the  success  of  the 
impostor's  game,  do  not  fail  to  recount  many  marvellous  stories 
respecting  him,  of  which  they  pretend  to  have  been  eye-witnesses  ; 
and  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  detection,  they  lay  the  scene  of  the 
miracles  in  some  distant  country. 

The  Gurus,  in  general,  rank  as  tlie  first  and  most  distinguished 
order  of  society.  Those  who  are  elevated  to  this  great  dignity, 
receive,  in  most  cases,  marks  of  reverence  or  rather  of  adoration 
which  are  hardly  rendered  to  the  gods  themselves.  But  this  is  not 
surprising  when  it  is  understood  that  the  power  of  controlling  the 
gods  is  generally  attributed  to  them,  by  which  it  is  supposed  they 
have  the  means  of  obtaining  whatsoever  the  deities  can  bestow. 

As  a  rule,  the  Gurus  reside  in  a  kind  of  monasteries  or  insulated 
hermitages,  named  Matas.  The  place  of  residence  of  the  principal 
Gurus  is  commonly  called  Simhasana,  i.  e.,  throne,  and  that  of  the 
inferior  ones  Pitha,  ?.  e.,  seat. 

The  great  Gurus  never  appear  in  public  except  with  great 
pomp  ;  but  it  is  when  they  proceed  to  a  visitation  of  their  district 


238  GUR 

that  they  are  seen  suiTounded  with  their  whole  splendour.  They 
commonly  make  the  procession  on  the  back  of  an  elephant,  or 
seated  in  a  rich  palanquin.  Some  of  them  have  a  guard  of  horse, 
and  are  surrounded  with  troops  both  cavalry  and  infantry,  armed 
with  pikes  and  other  weapons.  Several  bands  of  musicians 
precede  them  playing  on  all  the  instruments  of  the  country.  Flags 
in  all  the  varieties  of  colour  wave  round,  them,  adorned  with  the 
pictures  of  their  gods.  Some  of  their  officers  take  the  lead,  singing 
odes  in  their  praise,  or  admonishing  the  spectators  to  be  prepared 
to  pay  the  mighty  Guru,  as  he  comes  up,  the  honor  and  reverence 
which  are  due  to  him.  Incense  and  other  perfumes  are  burnt  in 
profusion  ;  new  cloths  are  spread  before  him  on  the  road.  Boughs 
of  trees,  forming  triumphal  arches,  are  expanded  in  many  places  on 
the  way  through  which  he  passes.  Bands  of  young  women,  the 
dancing  girls  of  the  temples,  relieve  each  other,  and  keep  up  with 
the  procession,  enlivening  it  with  lewd  songs  and  lascivious  dances. 

During  the  visitation,  their  principal  object  is  to  amass  money. 
Besides  the  fines  which  are  levied  from  persons  guilty  of  offences 
or  any  breaches  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  caste  or  sect,  they  often 
rigorously  exact  from  their  adherents  a  tribute  to  the  utmost  extent 
of  their  means.  This  is  called  Pada-kanika,  i.  e.,  feet  offering. 
There  is  no  affront  or  indignity  which  the  Gurus  are  not  disposed 
to  inflict  on  any  disciple,  who  fails,  either  from  inability  or 
unwillingness,  to  produce  the  sum  at  which  he  is  rated,  and  in  the 
last  resort,  they  threaten  to  inflict  the  curse.  And  such  is  the 
credulity  of  the  Hindu,  and  such  is  the  dread  of  the  evils  he 
supposes  to  spring  from  the  malediction  of  a  Guru,  that  this 
extreme  denunciation  seldom  fails  to  exact  the  payment. 

The  dignity  of  Guru  descends,  among  the  married,  from  father 
to  son  ;  but  upon  the  death  of  one  who  has  lived  single,  a  successor 
is  appointed  by  some  one  of  the  grand  Gurus,  who,  in  the  exercise 
of  this  power,  generally  nominates  one  of  his  own  dependants."— 
Abbe  Dubois, 


H 


Haihaya,  Haya — Two  princes  of  the  Yaduva  race,  the  sons  of 
Satajit,  the  family  in  which  Krishna  was  born. 

Haihayas — Descendants  of  Yadu.  They  conquered  Baliu,  and 
his  country  was  overrun  hj  them,  in  consequence  of  which  he  fled 
into  the  forests  with  his  wives.  The  Haihayas  were  afterwards 
almost  destroyed  by  Sagara,  the  posthumous  son  of  Bahu.  Tliere 
were  five  great  divisions  of  the  Haihaya  tribe  ;  but  from  their 
common  ancestor  Yadu  they  are  usually  termed  Yadavas.  These 
tribes  only  appear  after  the  Christian  era.  They  are  thought  to 
be  of  Scythian  origin.  The  word  haya,  a  horse,  is  confirmatory 
evidence  of  this. 

Haitakas — Causalists  ;  either  the  followers  of  the  Nyaya  or 
logical  philosophy,  or  Bauddhas,  those  w^ho  take  nothing  upon 
authority,  and  admit  nothing  that  cannot  be  proved  ;  or  it  is 
explained,  those  who  by  argument  cast  a  doubt  upon  the  efficacy 
of  acts  of  devotion. 

Hala — A  prince,  the  son  of  Arishtakarman,  one  of  the  thirty 
Andhrabhritya  kings,  whose  united  reigns  amounted  to  four 
hundred  and  fifty-six  years. 

Hansa — A  mountain  in  the  north  of  Meru  ;  projecting  from  its 
base  like  a  filament  from  the  root  of  the  lotus.     V.  P. 

Hanuman — l.  The  sou  of  the  wind,  or  as  he  is  sometimes 
represented,  an  incarnation  of  Vayu  the  god  of  the  wind.  He 
was  the  chief  general  of  the  monkey  king  Sugriva,  who  assisted 
Rama  in  his  war  with  the  giant  Ravana.  When  Rama  was  in 
distress  at  the  loss  of  his  wife  Sita,  Hanuman  was  employed  as 
a  spy  ;  and,  after  many  researches  discovered  that  Sita  was 
kept  a  close  prisoner  in  Lanka,  Four  armies  of  monkeys  and 
bears  were  dispatched,  but  only  that  to  the  south,  under  the 
command  of  Hanuman,  met  with  any  success,  and  brought  back 
lidiugs  of  the  lost  Sila.     The  story  of  Hanumiin's  adventures  in 


240  HAN 

Lanka  is  oue  of  the  best  sustained  efforts  of  pure  innaginatiou  to 
be  found  in  the  Ramayana.  The  exploits  of  the  vast  monkey- 
hero,  who  could  swell  himself  to  the  size  of  a  mountain,  or  dwarf 
himself  to  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb  ;  are  narrated  in  a  Baron 
Munchausen  style,  sometimes  ludicrous,  sometimes  almost  sublime. 
The  following  incidents  may  be  mentioned  : 

When  Hanuman  arrived  at  the  sea-shore,  opposite  Ceylon, 
several  of  his  companions  offered  to  leap  across,  but  Hanuman 
alone  was  equal  to  so  great  a  leap. 

"  Then  by  Sampati's  counsel  led 

Brave  Hanuman  wdio  mocked  at  dread, 
Sprang  at  one  wild  tremendous  leap, 
Two  hundred  leagues  across  the  deep." 

Having  discovered  Sita  in  a  grove  of  asoka  trees  attached  to 
Ravana's  palace,  he  gave  proofs  of  his  supernatural  strength,  and 
was  then  conducted  into  the  presence  of  the  king,  where  he 
announced  himself  as  the  ambassador  of  his  master,  king  Sugriva, 
who  demanded  the  restoration  of  Sita  on  behalf  of  Rama.  This  so 
irritated  Ravana  that  he  ordered  Hanuman  to  be  put  to  death,  but 
Vibhishana,  Ravana's  brother,  reminded  him  that  the  life  of  an 
ambassador  w^as  always  sacred.  It  was  therefore  decided  that  he 
should  be  punished  by  having  his  tail  set  on  fire.  Hanuman  then 
escaped  from  his  guards,  jumped  on  the  house-tops  with  his 
burning  tail,  and  set  the  wdiole  city  on  fire.  After  having  satisfied 
himself  that  Sita  had  not  perished  in  the  conflagration,  and  exhorted 
her  to  maintain  her  spirits  and  firmness,  he  bade  her  adieu,  and 
sprang  from  a  mountain  which  staggered  under  the  shock  and 
sank  into  the  earth.  He  then  darted  through  the  air,  rejoined  his 
companions  on  the  opposite  coast,  and  recounted  to  them  the 
narrative  of  his  adventures.  When  the  monkeys  returned  to 
Sugriva,  Rama  learnt  the  hiding-place  of  Sita.  Hanuman  described 
his  interview  with  her,  and  to  attest  the  truth  of  his  story,  gave 
Sita's  token  to  Rama,  who  praised  the  monkey  general,  enquired 
about  the  fortifications  of  Lanka,  and  soon  marched  southwards, 
attended  by  Hanuman  and  the  monkey  army,  to  fight  for  Sita's 
deliverance. 


HAN  241 

Iq  (he  course  of  the  battle  when  Intlrajit  the  bravest  of  the  sous 
of  Ravana,  had,  by  meaus  of  magical  weapons,  iuflictecl  terrible 
wounds  on  all  the  leaders  of  Rd,ma's  army,  Hanumat  flew  to  the 
Himalaya  mountains  for  four  medicinal  herbs  by  which  the  dead 
and  wounded  might  be  restored  ;  but  the  divine  plants  suspected 
his  object,  and  rendered  themselves  invisible.  Upon  this  the 
irritated  monkey  chief  tore  up  the  mountain  peak  and  carried  it 
with  all  its  contents  into  the  camp  of  Rama  and  Lakshmaiia  ;  who 
with  all  the  dead  and  wounded  generals  were  instantly  restored 
by  the  exhalations  issuinoj  from  the  healing  plants. 

When  Lakshmana  was  dangerously  wounded,  the  physician 
Sushena  said  that  a  celebrated  medicinal  plant  (mahaushadi), 
growing  on  the  northern  mountain  Gandha-madana,  would  cure 
him,  Hanuman  undertook  to  fetch  it  and  accordingly  flew  there. 
As  he  passed  over  Ayodhya  and  Nandigramu  he  was  observed  by 
Bharata,  who  seeing  a  strange  object  in  the  sky  prepared  to  shoot 
it ;  but  Hanuman  descended,  and  arresting  the  arrow,  gave 
Bharata  tidings  of  his  brothers.  On  reaching  the  mountain 
Gandha-madana,  he  was  attacked  by  a  terrible  Rakshasa  named 
Kdla-nemi,  who  had  been  sent  by  Ravana  to  kill  Hanuman.  This 
demon  first  took  the  form  of  an  anchorite,  and  persuaded  Hanuman 
to  drink  some  water  out  of  a  lake  where  there  was  a  monstrous 
crocodile.  Hanuman,  however,  killed  both  the  crocodile  and  Kala- 
nemi,  and  afterwards  destroyed  30,000  gandharvas  who  attacked 
him.  He  then  looked  about  for  the  plant,  and  not  finding  it,  took 
up  the  whole  mountain  bodily  in  his  arms,  and  deposited  it,  with 
its  rocks,  metals,  forests,  lions,  elephants,  and  tigers,  at  the  feet  of 
Sushena,  who  knew  well  where  to  look  for  the  plant,  gathered  it, 
and  made  Lakshmana  breathe  its  healing  exhalations.  Hanuman 
then  restored  the  mountain  to  its  place,  killing  with  his  feet  and 
tail  more  Rakshasas  who  attacked  him  on  his  way  while  he  carried 
the  mountain,  and  was  unable  to  use  his  hands. 

When  Ravana  was  at  last  killed  Hanuman  was  sent  by  Rama 
with  a  message  to  Sita,  and  subsequently  sent  to  announce  his 
return  to  Bharata.* 


*  Williams  ;  Indian  Epic  Toetry,    A.  and  M.  I. 

31 


242  HAR 

"  Hauumau,  best  of  monkey  kind, 
Was  son  of  him  who  breathes  the  wind, 
Like  thunderbolt  in  frame  was  he, 
And  swift  as  Garud's  self  could  flee." 

Hauumau  is  now  regarded  as  a  demi-god,  and  his  whole  race  as 
sacred  ;  and  because  of  this  monkeys  are  allowed  to  multiply 
indefinitely,  and  commit  mischief  of  every  kind,  no  one  being 
willing  to  interfere  with  them. 

Hara — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras.  Also  a  name  of  Siva, 
meaning  the  supremely  powerful. 

Hari — A  name  of  Vishnu,  as  to  the  origin  of  which  nothing  is 
known. 

Hari-hara-putra — Vishnu,  Siva's  son,  because  he  is  said  to 
owe  his  origin  to  the  union  of  Siva  and  Vishnu  in  a  female  form, 
called  Mohini.  A  name  of  Ayendr,  the  chief  male  deity  among 
the  Gramadevatas.     See  Ayenar. 

Harikesa — The  name  of  one  of  the  seven  solar  rays. 

Haris — A  class  of  deities  in  successive  Manwantaras. 

Harischandra — The  son  of  Trisanku,  king  of  Ayodha,  a  Hindu 
king  of  the  Solar  dynasty,  a  descendant  of  Ikshwaku,  and  a 
prominent  person  in  the  legendary  history  of  ancient  India.  In 
the  Aitareya  Brahmana  he  is  described  as  a  king  without  a  son, 
though  he  had  a  hundred  wives.  In  his  house  lived,  Parvata  and 
Ndrada.  He  asked  Narada  '  Tel]  me  what  do  people  gain  by  a  son 
whom  they  all  wish  for  ?' 

Being  asked  by  one  verse,  Narada  replied  in  ten  verses  : 

*  If  a  father  sees  the  face  of  a  son,  born  alive,  he  pays  a  debt  in 
him,  and  goes  to  immortality. 

*  The  pleasure  which  a  father  has  in  his  son  is  greater  than  all 
the  pleasures  that  are  from  the  earth,  from  the  tire,  and  from  the 
waters. 

'  Always  liave  the  fathers  overcome  the  great  darkness  by  a 
son  ;  for  a  self  is  born  from  his  self ;  it  (the  new-born  self,  the 
son)  is  like  a  ship,  full  of  food,  to  carry  him  over. 


HAR  243 

'  What  is  the  flesh  ?  What  is  the  skin  ?  What  are  the  hairs  ? 
What  the  heat  ?  Try  to  get  a  son,  you  Brahmans  ;  he  is  undoubt- 
edly the  world. 

*  Food  is  life  for  men,  clothing  is  protection,  gold  is  beauty, 
cattle  is  strength.  His  wife  is  a  friend,  his  daughter  is  a  pity  ; 
but  the  son  is  his  light  in  the  highest  world. 

*  As  husband  he  embraces  a  wife,  who  becomes  his  mother, 
when  he  becomes  her  child.  Having  been  renewed  in  her,  he  is 
born  in  the  tenth  month. 

*  A  wife  is  a  wdfe  (jaya)  because  man  is  born  (juyate)  again  in 
her.  She  is  a  mother  (abhuti)  because  she  brings  forth  (abhuti)  ; 
a  germ  is  hidden  in  her. 

'  The  gods  and  the  old  ages  brought  great  light  unto  her.  The 
gods  said  to  men  :  "  In  her  you  will  be  born  again." 

*  There  is  no  life  for  him  who  has  no  son,  this  the  animals  also 
know. 

*  The  path  which  those  follow  who  have  sons  and  no  sorrows, 
is  widely  praised  and  happy.  Beasts  and  birds  know  it,  and  they 
have  young  ones  everywhere.' 

Having  thus  spoken,  he  said  to  him  :  '  Go  to  Varuna  the  king, 
and  say  :  May  a  son  be  born  to  me,  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to 
you.'  The  king  assented,  he  went  to  Varuna  the  king,  and  said  : 
'  May  a  son  be  born  to  me  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to  you.' 
Varuna  said,  '  Yes.'  A  son  -was  born  to  him,  called  Rohita. 
Then  Varuna  said  to  Harischandra  :  *  A  son  is  born  to  thee, 
sacrifice  him  to  me.'  Harischandra  said  :  '  When  an  animal  is 
more  than  ten  days  old,  it  can  be  sacrificed.  May  he  be  older  than 
ten  days  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to  you.' 

Varuna  assented.  The  boy  was  more  than  ten  days  old,  and 
Varuna  said  :  '  He  is  older  now  than  ten  days,  sacrifice  him  to  me.' 
Harischandra  said  :  '  When  an  animal's  teeth  come,  then  it  can  be 
sacrificed.  May  his  teeth  now  come,  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to 
you.' 

Varuna  assented.  His  teeth  came,  and  Varuna  said  :  His  teeth 
have  come,  sacrifice  him  to  me.'     Harischandra  said  :  '  When  an 


244  HAR 

aDimal's  teeth  fall  out,   then  it  can  be  sacrificed.     May  his  teeth 
fall  out,  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to  you.' 

Varuna  assented  ;  his  teeth  fell  out,  and  Varuna  said  :  *  His 
teeth  have  fallen  out,  sacrifice  him  to  me.'  Harischandra  replied  : 
'  When  an  animal's  teeth  come  again,  then  it  can  be  sacrificed. 
May  his  teeth  come  again,  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to  you.' 

Varuna  assented  :  His  teeth  came  again,  and  Varuna  said  :  *  His 
teeth  have  come  again,  sacrifice  him  to  me.'  Harischandra  said  : 
'  When  a  warrior  (kshatriya)  is  girt  with  his  armour,  then  he  can 
be  sacrificed.     May  he  be  girt,  and  I  shall  sacrifice  him  to  you,' 

Varuna  assented.  He  was  girt,  and  Varuna  said  :  *  He  has 
been  girt,  let  him  be  sacrificed  to  me.' 

Harischandra  assented.  He  addressed  his  son  and  said  :  '  Child, 
he  gave  you  to  me  ;  Death  !  that  I  sacrifice  you  to  him.'  The 
son  said,  '  No  !'  took  his  bow,  and  went  to  the  forest,  and  lived 
there  for  a  year. 

And  Varuna  seized  Harischandra,  and  his  belly  swelled.  This 
Rohita  heard  [and  went  from  the  forest  to  the  village  (grama). 
Indra,  in  the  form  of  a  man,  went  round  him,  and  said  :  *  For  a 
man  who  does  not  travel  about  there  is  no  happiness,  thus  we  have 
heard,  0  Rohita  !  A  good  man  who  stays  at  home  is  a  bad  man. 
Indra  is  the  friend  of  him  who  travels.     Travel.' 

Rohita  thought,  a  Brahman  has  told  me  to  travel,  and  thus  he 
travelled  a  second  year  in  the  forest.  When  he  went  from  the 
forest  to  the  village,  Indra,  in  the  form  of  a  man,  went  round  him, 
and  said  : 

'  A  traveller's  legs  are  like  blossoming  branches,  he  himself 
grows  and  gathers  the  fruit.  All  his  wrongs  vanish,  destroyed  by 
his  exertion  on  the  road.     Travel  !' 

Rohita  thought,  a  Brahman  has  told  me  to  travel,  and  thus  he 
travelled  a  third  year  in  the  forest.  When  he  went  from  the 
forest  to  the  town,  Indra,  in  the  form  of  a  man,  went  round  him, 
and  said  : 

<  The  fortune  of  a  man  who  sits,  sits   also  ;  it  rises,  when  he 


HAR  245 

rises;  it  sleep?,  -when  he  sleeps;  it  moves  well  wheu  he  moves. 
Travel  !' 

Rohita  thought,  a  Brahman  has  told  me  to  travel,  and  thus  he 
travelled  a  fourth  year  in  the  forest.  When  he  went  from  the 
forest  to  the  town,  Indra,  in  the  form  of  a  man,  went  round  him, 
and  said  : 

*  A  man  who  sleeps  is  like  the  Kali  age  ;  a  man  who  awakes  is 
like  the  Dvapara  age  ;  a  man  Avho  rises  is  like  the  Treta  age  ;  a 
man  who  travels  is  like  the  Krita  age.     Travel  !' 

Rohita  thought,  a  Brahman  has  told  me  to  travel,  and  thus  he 
travelled  a  fifth  year  in  the  forest.  When  he  went  from  the  forest 
to  the  town,  Indra,  in  the  form  of  a  man,  went  round  him,  and  said  : 

*  A  traveller  finds  honey,  a  traveller  finds  sweet  figs.  Look  at 
the  happiness  of  the  sun,  who  travelling  never  tires.     Travel  !' 

Rohita  thought,  a  Brahman  has  told  me  to  travel,  and  thus  he 
travelled  a  sixth  year.  He  met  in  the  forest  a  starving  Rishi, 
Ajigarta^  the  son  of  Suyavasa.  He  had  three  sons,  Siuiahpnccha, 
Simahsepha,  and  Sunolangula.  Rohita  said  to  him  :  '  Rishi,  I 
give  you  a  hundred  cows,  I  ransom  myself  with  one  of  these  thy 
sons.'  The  father  embraced  the  eldest  son,  and  said  :  *  Not  him.' 
'  Nor  him,'  said  the  mother,  embracing  the  youngest.  And  the 
parents  bargained  to  give  Sunahsepha,  the  middle  son.  Rohita 
gave  a  hundred,  took  him,  and  went  from  the  forest  to  the  village. 
And  he  came  to  his  father,  and  said  :  '  Father,  Death  !  I  ransom 
myself  by  him.'  The  father  went  to  Varuna,  and  said  :  *  I  shall 
sacrifice  this  man  to  you.'  Varuna  said,  '  Yes,  for  a  Brahman  is 
better  than  a  Kshatriya.'  And  he  told  him  to  perform  a  Rajasiiya 
sacrifice.  Harischandra  took  him  to  be  the  victim  for  iIk^  day, 
when  the  Soma  is  spent  to  the  gods. 

Visvamitra  was  his  Hotri  priest,  Jamadagyii  his  Adhvaryu 
priest,  Vasishtha,  the  Brahman,  Ayasyuj  the  Adyatri  priest. 
When  Sunahsepha  had  been  prepared,  they  found  nobody  to  bind 
him  to  the  sacrificial  post.  And  Ajigarta,  the  son  of  Suyavasa 
said  :  '  Give  me  another  hundred,  and  I  shall  bind  him.'  They 
gave  him  another  hundred,  and  he  bound  him,     When  he  had 


240  HAR 

been  prepared  and  bound,  when  the  Apri  hymns  had  been  sung, 
and  he  had  been  led  round  the  fire,  they  found  nobody  to  kill  him. 
And  Ajigarta,  the  son  of  Suyavasa  said  :  *  Give  me  another 
hundred,  and  I  shall  kill  him.'  They  gave  him  another  hundred, 
and  he  came  whetting  his  sword.  Then  Sunahsepha  thought, 
*  They  will  really  kill  me,  as  if  1  was  not  a  man.  Death  !  I  shall 
pray  to  the  gods.'  He  went  with  a  hymn  to  Prajdpati  (Lord  of 
the  w^orld),  the  first  of  gods.  Prajapati  said  to  him  :  *  Agni  (fire) 
is  the  nearest  of  gods,  go  to  him.  He  went  wuth  a  hymn  to 
Agni,  and  Agni  said  to  him  :  *  Savilri  (the  progenitor)  rules  all 
creatures,  go  to  him.'  He  went  with  a  hymn  to  Savitri,  and 
Savitri  said  to  him  :  '  Thou  art  bound  for  Varuna  the  kiug,'  and 
Varuna  said  to  him  :  '  Agni  is  the  mouth  of  the  gods,  the  kindest 
god,  praise  him,  and  we  shall  set  thee  free.'  Thus  he  praised 
Agni,  and  Agni  said  to  him  :  Praise  the  Visve  Devah,  and  we 
shall  set  thee  free.'  Thus  he  praised  the  Visve  Devah,  and  they 
said  to  him  :  '  Indra  is  the  greatest,  mightiest,  strongest,  and 
friendliest  of  the  gods,  praise  him,  and  we  shall  set  thee  free.' 
Thus  he  praised  Indra,  and  Indra  was  pleased,  and  gave  him  in 
his  mind  a  golden  car,  which  Sunahsepha  acknowledged  by 
another  verse.  Indra  said  to  him  :  *  Praise  the  Asvinau,  and  we 
shall  set  thee  free.'  Thus  he  praised  the  Asvinau,  and  they  said  to 
him  :  *  Praise  Ushas  (dawn),  and  we  shall  set  thee  free.'  Thus 
he  praised  Ushas  with  three  verses.  While  each  verse  was 
delivered,  his  fetters  w^ere  loosed,  and  Harischandra's  belly  grew 
smaller,  and  when  the  last  verse  was  said,  his  fetters  w^ere  loosed, 
and  Harischandra  well  again."     A.  S.  L.,  p.  408-414. 

Harischandra  is  represented  in  all  the  legends  as  a  king  of  great 
uprightness.  The  following  story  illustrates  this.  Once  when  all 
the  gods  and  Kishis  were  assembled  in  Devendra's  audience 
chamber,  the  latter  asked  Vasishtha,  whether  he  knew  of  any  one 
among  men  on  earth  who  did  never  lust  after  another's  wife,  nor 
speak  a  lie  ;  to  which  the  Rishi  replied  ;  "  Yes,  there  is  a  disciple 
of  mine,  kiug  Harischandra,  he  never  spoke  a  lie."  On  hearing 
this  Visvamitra  called  out :  "Harischandra  is  a  deceiver  and  liar." 
Then  said  Vasishtha  :  "  If  Harischandra  is  found  to  speak  the  least 
untruth,  I  will  cease  to  be  a  Rishi  and  to  come  into  this  assembly." 


HAR  247 

"Well,"  auswered  Visvamitra,  "if  I  find  him  altogether  truthful, 
I  will  give  him  all  the  merit  of  my  peuauce  ;  but  I  am  afraid,  you 
will  at  ouce  tell  him  that  I  am  about  to  try  him."  Upon  this 
Vasishtha  took  an  oath,  that  he  would  not  at  all  go  near  the  kiug 
till  the  matter  was  settled  ;  and  Visvamitra  went  to  Harischaudra 
and  tempted  him  in  different  ways,  more  especially  through  women, 
to  speak  an  untruth  ;  but  the  king  did  not  swerve  from  the  truth. 
At  last  the  Rishi  asked  him  far  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  having 
received  it,  he  returned  it  to  him  with  the  request  to  take  care  of 
it  till  he  would  require  it.  After  a  very  long  time  Visvamitra 
came  and  desired  all  the  money,  together  with  compound  interest, 
which  amounted  to  a  sum  exceeding  the  value  of  his  kingdom  ; 
but  Harischandra,  in  order  to  pay  the  sum,  sold  all  he  had, 
and  also  himself  together  with  his  wife  and  son.  Subsequently 
he  was  separated  from  his  wife  Satyavati,  and  employed  to  burn 
corpses.  Then,  behold,  one  day,  there  comes  a  woman  to  have  her 
dead  child  burnt,  and  he  recognizes  her  as  his  wife  by  her  Tali 
(the  marriage-badge)  ;  which  he  requires  of  her  as  his  wages  for 
burning  the  child,  and  which  she  will  not  give  away.  While  they 
yet  talk,  there  come  messengers  to  seize  the  woman,  because  she 
was  suspected  of  having  kidnapped  a  royal  prince  who  happened 
to  be  very  similar  to  her  child.  Being  found  guilty,  she  is 
condemned  to  death,  and  Harischandra  is  ordered  to  behead  her  ; 
and  he  is  ready  to  obey  :  but,  behold,  suddenly  the  sword  is  turned 
into  flowers,  the  child  becomes  alive,  and  the  royal  couple  are 
restored  to  their  former  glory." 

In  consequence  he  was  elevated  with  his  subjects  to  heaven, 
from  whence,  having  been  insidiously  led  by  Narada  to  boast  of  his 
merits,  he  was  again  precipitated.  His  repentance  of  his  pride, 
however,  arrested  his  downwards  descent,  and  he  and  his  train 
paused  in  mid-air.  The  city  of  Harischandra  is  popularly  believed 
to  be  at  times  still  visible  in  the  skies.  The  indignation  of 
Vasishtha  at  Viswamitra's  insatiablencss  produced  a  quarrel,  in 
which  their  mutual  imprecations  changed  them  to  two  birds,  the 
Sarali,  a  sort  of  Turdus,  and  the  Baka,  or  Crane.  In  these  forms 
they  fought  for  a  considerable  term,  until  Brahma  interposed,  and 
reconciled  them.    The  Bh^gavalu  alludes  to  thi^  sjtory,  in  its  notice 


248  HAR 

of  Hariscliandra  ;  but  the  Vayu  refers  the  conflict  to  the  reign  of 
a  different  prince :  According  to  the  Siva  Parana,  Harischandra 
was  an  especial  worshipper  of  that  deity  ;  and  his  wife  Satyavati 
was  a  form  of  Jaya,  one  of  Durga's  handmaids. 

Harisrava — A  river  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  but  not 
identified. 

Harita — A  prince  the  son  of  Yuvanaswa  from  whom  the 
Angirasa  Haritas  were  descended ;  also  a  grandson  of  Harischandra ; 
one  of  the  five  sons  of  Paravrit,  and  king  of  Videha. 

Haritas— The  descendants  of  Harita,  the  son  of  Yuvanaswa. 
They  were  brahmans  with  the  properties  of  Kshatriyas. 

Haritas — A  class  of  gods  in  the  twelfth  Manwantara  ;  one  of 
the  tribes  of  Aborigines,  who  occupy  the  hills  and  jungles. 

Haritaswa — A  son  of  Sudyumna  after  his  transformation  from 
Ila  into  a  man. 

Hari  Vansa — The  last  portion  of  the  Mahabharata,  and 
believed  to  be  a  comparatively  recent  addition  to  that  work.  It  is 
chiefly  occupied  with  the  adventures  of  Krishna,  but,  as  introductory 
to  his  era  it  records  particulars  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of 
the  patriarchal  and  regal  dynasties  ;  done,  says  Professor  Wilson, 
with  much  carelessness  and  inaccuracy  of  compilation. 

Hari-varsha — A  country  to  the  north  of  Hemakuta  and  south 
of  Nish^dha.  Also,  the  name  of  the  nine  sons  of  Aguiothra, 
king  of  Nishadha. 

Harsha — (Joy).  A  son  of  Kama  (Love)  by  his  wife  Nandi 
(delight). 

Harsha  Deva — A  king  of  Kashmir  who  reigned  between  a.  d. 
1113  and  1125,  and  the  reputed  author  of  the  play  called 
"Ratnavali,  or  the  necklace,"  translated  by  Wilson,  in  the 
Hindu  Theatre. 

Harsha varddhana— A  prince,  the  son  of  Ynjuakrit,  one  of 
the  descendants  of  Kshattravriddha. 


HAR  lMD 

Haryaksha — One  of  the  five  sons  of  Prithu,  according  to  the 
Bhagavata  enumeration. 

Haryanga — A  prince,  the  son  of  Champa  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Ann.  Champa  was  the  founder  of  Champapuri,  a 
city  of  which  traces  still  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  Bhiigulpur. 

Haryaswa — The  son  and  successor  of  Dridhaswa.  Dridhaswa 
was  one  of  the  three  sons  of  KuTulayaswa  wlio  survived  the 
conflict  with  the  Asura  Dhundu,  all  the  others,  to  the  extent  of 
twenty  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-seven,  having  perished. 

Haryaswa  was  also  the  name  of  a  son  of  Prishadaswa  ;  of 
a  son  of  Drishtaketu  ;  and  of  a  son  of  Cliakshu. 

Haryaswas~In  the  Vishnu  Puruua  it  is  stated  that  Daksha, 
being  commanded  by  Bramha,  created  living  creatures.  The 
creation  and  disappearance  of  the  Haryaswas  i?  thus  described. 
"In  the  first  place  he  willed  into  existence  the  deities,  the  Rishis, 
the  quiristers  of  heaven,  the  Titans,  and  the  snake-gods.  Finding'- 
tliat  his  will-born  progeny  did  not  multiply  themselves,  he 
determined,  in  order  to  secure  their  increase,  to  establish  sexual 
intercourse  as  the  means  of  multiplication.  For  this  purpose  he 
espoused  Asikni,  the  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Tirana,  a  damsel 
addicted  to  devout  practices,  the  eminent  supportress  of  the  world. 
By  her  the  great  father  of  mankind  begot  five  thousand  mighty 
sons,  through  whom  he  expected  the  world  should  be  peopled, 
Narada,  the  divine  Rishi,  observing  them  desirous  to  multiply 
posterity,  approached  them,  and  addressed  them  in  a  friendly  tone  : 
'Illustrious  Haryaswas,  it  is  evident  that  your  intention  is  to 
beget  posterity ;  but  first  consider  this  :  why  should  you,  who,  like 
fools,  know  not  the  middle,  the  height,  and  depth  of  the  worhf, 
propagate  offspring  ?  When  your  intellect  is  no  more  obstructed  by 
interval,  height,  or  depth,  then  how,  fools,  shall  ye  not  all  behold 
the  term  of  \\\q  universe  V  Having  heard  the  words  of  Nfirada, 
the  sons  of  Daksha  dispersed  themselves  through  the  regions,  and 
to  the  present  day  have  not  returned  ;  as  rivers  that  lose  themselver^ 
in  the  ocean  come  back  no  more." 

Haryatma— Called  also  Uttama,  the  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-fir?t 
Dwapara." 

no 


250  HAS— HEM 


Hasta — A  lunar  raausion  in  Govitlii,  iu  the  Central  Avashthaua. 
Hastin — The   son    of    Suhotra  and   founder   of    the   city   of 
Hastinapura. 

Hastinapura — Is  the  name  of  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Kurus, 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Mahabharata.  The  Vishnu  Purana 
relates  tliat  it  was  founded  by  Hastin,  washed  away  by  the  Gauges — 
under  the  reign  of  Nichakra,  who,  in  consequence  of  this  event, 
Iiad  to  remove  the  seat  of  his  government  to  Kausambi — and 
at  a  later  period  it  was  undermined  by  Balararaa.  It  was  situated 
on  the  Ganges,  and  is  placed  by  Lassen,  in  his  map  to  the  Indische 
Alterthuns  Kimde,  about  78°  long,  and  28°  50'  lat. 

Hastisima — A  river  mentioned  iu  the  Vishnu  Purana  list,  but 
7iot  identiiiGd. 

Havirbha— (Oblation-born).  The  wife  of  the  Eishi  Pulastya, 
nnd  mother  of  Agastya. 

Havirdhana— The  son  of  Autarddhana  by  his  wife  Sikhaudini. 

Havishmantas — A  class  of  Pitris,  of  the  corporeal  order, 
living  in  the  solar  sphere,  sons  of  Angiras,  and  Pitris  of  Kshatriyas. 
See  Pitris. 

Havya — According  to  the  Vayu  Purana,  one  of  the  five  sons  of 
Atri  after  his  penance. 

Havyavahana— The  fire  of  the  gods,  the  son  of  Suchi. 

Hayasiras — The  daughter  of  Vrishaparvan,  the  renowned 
Danava,  and  wife  of  Kratu. 

Hema — The  son  of  Ushadratha,  a  descendant  of  Yayati.  Also 
the  name  of  a  river  in  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Hemachandra— 1,  The  king  of  Vaisali,  a  place  celebrated 
amongst  the  Buddhists  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  labours  of  Sakhya 
and  his  first  disciples— now  Allahabad  ;  2,  A  zealous  and  able 
propagator  of  the  Jain  doctrines  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was 
well  versed  in  the  peculiarity  of  the  system  which  he  taught,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  a  safe  guide.  He  was  the  author  of  a  useful 
vocabulary  termed  the  Abhuhma  Chmtamajii,  and  of  a  life  of 
MnJia  Viva,  Wilson. 


HEM— HIN  251 


Hemakuta — Ouc  of  the  boundary  moimtains  of  the  earth,  lyiug 
to  the  south  of  Meru. 

Hermit — See  Vauaprastha. 

Heti — A  Rdkshas,  that  always  resides  iu  the  sun's  car  during 
the  month  of  Madha  or  Chaitra,  as  one  of  its  seven  guardians. 

Hidimba — A  hideous  Asura  and  cannibal,  with  yellow  eyes 
and  a  horrible  aspect,  but  possessed  of  great  strength.  He  lived 
in  the  jungle  south  of  Varanavata,  and  attacked  the  Paudavas  on 
their  march,  but  was  killed  by  Bhima  after  a  severe  contest. 

Hidimbi — The  sister  of  the  above  avIio  is  described  as  beautiful, 
and  was  afterwards  married  to  Bhima. 

Himavat — The  king  of  mountains.  Part  of  the  snowy  range. 
The  w^ell-known  range  of  mountains  now  called  the  Himalaya, 
forming  the  northern  barrier  of  the  Indian  j^eninsula,  containing 
the  highest  elevations  in  the  world.  The  Imiis  or  Emodus  of 
classical  w^riters.  In  Mythology  Himavat  is  husband  of  the 
Air-nymph  Menaka  ;  father  of  the  river  Gunga  and  of  Durga  or 
Uma,  in  her  descent  as  Parvati  to  captivate  Siva,  and  seduce  him 
from  the  austerities  which  he  practiced  in  those  mountains.  In 
this  personification  the  name  belongs  to  the  Puranic  ;  as  a 
mountain  only,  to  the  Epic. 

On  account  of  the  majestic  height  of  this  mountain  range,  and 
the  apparent  impossibility  of  reaching  its  summit,  the  imaginatiou 
of  the  ancient  Hindus  invested  it  with  the  most  mysterious 
properties,  and  connected  it  with  the  history  of  some  of  their 
deities.  In  the  Puranas,  Himavat  is  j^laced  to  the  south  of 
the  fabulous  mountain  Meru,  which  stands  iu  the  centre  of 
the  world,  and  described  as  the  king  of  the  mountains,  who  was 
inaugurated  as  such  when  Prithu  was  installed  in  the  government 
of  the  earth.  As  the  abode  of  Siva,  he  is  the  goal  of  penitent 
pilgrims,  who  repair  to  his  summit  in  order  to  win  the  favours  of 
this  terrific  god.  His  wife  was  Mena,  whom  the  Pitris  or 
demigods  Vairajas,  engendered  by  the  mere  power  of  their  thought. 

Hindi — One  of  the  tongues  of  India  ;  it  abounds  iu  Sanskrit 
words,  and  has  many  dialects.     Sjicakiug  generally  the  tongues 


25:i  HIN 

spokeu  iu  the  whole  of  upper  luJia,  iucludiug  the  Punjab,  from  the 
Himalayan  to  the  Vindhyan  range,  may  be  said  to  be  Hindi.  Also 
the  languages  of  Kamaon  and  Garhwal,  all  along  the  Sub-Himalayan 
range  as  far  as  the  Gogra  river  ;  the  impure  dialect  of  the 
Gorkhas  ;  the  Brij-Bhasha  (or  Eaka  as  it  is  pronounced  on  the 
Ganges,)  the  Panjabi,  Multani,  Sindi,  Jataki,  Haruti,  Marwari  and 
it  is  said  Konkani.  The  Bengali  is  a  form  of  Hindi,  but  so  highly 
polished  as  to  be  classed  as  a  distinct  tongue. 

Hindus — *'  The  great  bulk  of  the  people  known  by  this  appella- 
tion are  the  descendants  of  Scythian  and  Aryan  immigrants,  who 
in  bye-gone  days,  as  conquerors,  in  search  of  a  milder  clime, 
left  the  cold  regions  of  the  north,  some  oft-shoots  moving  westward 
and  others  to  the  south.  Remnants  of  Scythian  languages  are 
found  iu  Beluchistan,  and  the  seat  of  the  great  Sanskrit  speaking 
people  was  long  in  Kashmir,  proving  that  one  great  highway  to 
the  south,  had  been  along  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  through 
Kashmir,  and  the  Panjab.  But  between  the  valley  of  the  Indus, 
and  that  of  the  Brahmaputra,  there  are  twenty  or  thirty  other 
passes  in  the  Himalayas,  through  which  the  northern  races  could 
stream  to  the  genial  south.  Amongst  the  first  of  these  immigrants 
seemingly  were  the  Tamil  races,  belonging  to  the  Turanian  or 
Tartar  family  of  mankind,  a  body  of  whom  seem  to  have  followed 
the  course  of  the  Indus  and  spread  themselves  over  the  peninsula. 
As  to  the  date  of  their  advent,  however,  history  is  silent  ;  but 
there  seems  no  doubt  that  great  branches  of  the  Scythic 
stock  were  occupants  of  India,  at  the  time  that  it  was  inVaded, 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  conquered,  by  the  Sanskrit  speaking 
tribes  of  the  Aryan  family.  In  the  north,  the  subjugation  or 
ousting  of  the  Tamilians  from  all  rank  and  power  was  so  complete 
that  Sanskrit  forms  of  speech  became  the  language  of  the  country, 
and  the  Kashmiri,  the  Panjabi,  the  Sindi,  the  Guzerathi,  the 
Hindustani  and  the  Bengali,  all  of  them  with  a  large  admixture 
of  Sanskrit,  are  sister  tongues  known  as  forms  of  Hindi.  South 
of  the  Nerbudda,  however,  it  is  otherwise.  Throughout  the 
peninsula,  the  languages  differ  from  the  Sanskrit  in  grammar,  and 
only  admit  Sanskrit  words,  iu  the  same  way  that  the  Anglo-Saxon 


HIN  258 

admitted  terms  of  law  and  civilization  from  tlic  Kormaii  French. 
At  the  present  day,  the  south  of  India  more  largely  represents 
the  Tartar,  aud  the  north,  the  Aryan  nice.  But  the  fair,  yellow 
colored  Aiyaus  are  to  be  met  with  south  even  to  Cape  Comorin, 
and  though  mixing  with  the  various  Tamil  nations,  races  aud 
tribes,  for  at  least  two  thousand  years,  in  physical  form,  com- 
plexion, intellect  and  manners,  the  Brahmanical  and  other  Aryan 
families  are  as  distinct  as  when  their  forefathers  first  came 
conquering  from  the  north.  The  great  Aryan  migration,  however, 
which  seems  to  have  received  its  first  check  south  of  the  Aravali, 
took  place  between  the  fourteenth  and  eighth  centuries  before  our 
era.  Major  Cunningham  in  his  learned  work  on  the  Bhilsa  topes 
(p.  15)  uses  the  term  Aryan  in  allusion  to  '*  the  race  of  Aryya, 
whose  emigrations  are  recorded  in  the  Zendavesta,  who  starting 
from  Ericene  Vijo,  gradually  spread  to  the  south-east,  over  Arya- 
vartha  or  Arya-desa,  the  northern  plains  of  India,  and  to  the 
south-west,  over  Iran  or  Persia  :  he  adds  that  the  Medas  are  called 
Apitol  by  Herodotus.  The  original  meaning  of  the  word  is  also 
said  to  have  been  equivalent  to  Upper  Noble.  It  has  also, 
however,  been  suggested  that  as  the  Aryans  were  originally  and 
essentially  an  agricultural  and  therefore  a  peasant  race,  they  may 
have  derived  their  name  from  their  plough.  The  Aryans  seem  to 
have  brought  with  them  a  servile  race,  or  to  have  had  amongst 
them  a  social  distinction  between  the  noble  and  the  common 
jjeople  which  has  ever  continued.  As  they  conquered  southwards;, 
amongst  the  Tartar  races  whom  they  found  in  the  country,  they 
reduced  them  everywhere  to  a  state  of  slavery.  They  named 
them  in  fierce  contempt  Dasa  or  slave,  and  these  formed  the  true 
servile  race  of  Manu  aud  other  writers.  Where  the  races  who 
liad  preceded  them  retained  their  independence,  these  proud 
immigrants  styled  them  M'hlechhas,  a  term  which  even  to  the 
present  day,  is  intended  to  comprise  eveiy  thing  that  is  hateful  or 
vile.  In  Vedic  times,  along  the  western  coast  of  Hindustan  dwelt 
other  races,  different  alike  from  the  Scythic  tribes  and  from  the 
Aryans  of  the  Vedas — earlier  colonizers  or  emigrants,  most 
probably  from  Assyria  and  the  west, — who  liad  a  civilization  of 
their  own.     Mr.  Wheeler  divides  the  history  of  the  Hindus  into 


254  HIN 

four  great  epochs  correspoudiug  with  the  four  great  changes  iu 
their  religious  belief  : — 

1  —The  Vedic  age,  which  was  characterised  by  the  worship  of 
the  elementary  deities,  such  as  Agui  aud  Indra,  and  appears  to 
have  prevailed  in  the  Panjab  prior  to  the  disappearance  of  the 
Saraswati  river  in  the  sand. 

2 — The  Brahmanic  age,  which  was  characterised  by  the  worship 
of  Brahma,  and  appears  to  have  prevailed  between  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Saraswati  in  the  sand,  and  the  advent  of  Sakya  Muni 
about  B.  c.  600. 

3 — The  Buddhist  age,  which  was  characterised  by  the  pursuit 
of  Nirvana,  aud  appears  to  have  prevailed  from  about  b.  c.  600  to 
A.  D.  800  or  1000. 

4 — The  Erahmanical  revival,  which  was  characterised  by  the 
worship  of  incarnations  of  deities,  and  appears  to  have  prevailed 
from  about  a.  d.  800  to  the  present  time." 

Professor  Wilson  writes  "  The  circumstances  that  are  told  of 
the  first  princes  have  evident  relation  to  the  colonization  of  India, . 
and  the  gradual  extension  of  the  authority  of  new  races  over  an 
uninhabited  or  uncivilized  region.  It  is  commonly  admitted,  that 
the  Brahmanical  religion  aud  civilization  were  brought  into  India 
from  without.  Certainly,  there  are  tribes  on  the  borders,  and  in 
the  heart  of  the  country,  w^ho  are  still  not  Hindus  ;  and  passages 
in  the  Ramayana,  and  Mahabharata,  aud  Manu,  and  the  uniform 
traditions  of  the  people  themselves,  point  to  a  period  when 
Bengal,  Orissa,  aud  the  whole  of  the  Dakhin  were  inhabited  by 
degraded  or  outcaste,  that  is,  by  barbarous  tribes.  The  traditions 
of  the  Puranas  confirm  these  views  :  but  they  lend  no  assistance 
to  the  determination  of  the  question  whence  the  Hindus  came  ; 
whether  from  a  central  Asiatic  nation,  as  Sir  William  Jones 
supposed,  or  from  the  Caucasian  mountains,  the  plains  of  Babylonia, 
or  the  borders  of  the  Caspian,  as  conjectured  by  Klaproth,  Vans 
Kennedy,  and  Schlegel.  The  affinities  of  the  Sanskrit  language 
prove  a  common  origin  of  the  now  widely  scattered  nations 
amongst  whose  dialects  they  are  traceable,  and  render  it  unques- 
tionable that  they  must  all  have  spread  abroad  from  some  centrical 


HIN  255 

spot  ill  that  part  of  tlic  globe  first  inhabited  by  maukiutl,  according 
to  the  inspired  record.  "W  hether  any  indication  of  such  an  event 
be  discoverable  in  the  Vedas,  remains  to  be  determined  ;  but  it 
would  have  been  obviously  incompatible  with  thePauranik  system 
to  have  referred  the  origin  of  Indian  princes  and  principalities  to 
other  than  native  sources.  We  need  not  therefore,  expect,  from 
them,  any  information  as  to  the  foreign  derivation  of  the  Hindus. 
We  have,  then,  wlioily  insufficient  means  for  arriving  at  any 
information  concerning  the  ante-Indian  period  of  Hindu  history, 
beyond  the  general  conclusion  derivable  from  the  actual  presence 
of  barbarous  and  apparently,  aboriginal  tribes — from  the  admitted 
progressive  extension  of  Hinduism  into  parts  of  India  where  it  did 
not  prevail  when  the  code  of  Manu  was  compiled — from  the 
general  use  of  dialects  in  India,  more  or  less  copious,  which  arc 
different  from  Sanskrit— and  from  the  affinities  of  that  language 
with  forms  of  speech  current  in  the  western  woild— thnt  a  people 
who  spoke  Sanskrit,  and  followed  the  religion  of  the  Vedas,  came 
into  India,  in  some  very  distant  age,  from  lands  west  of  the  Indus. 
Whether  the  date  and  circumstances  of  their  immigration  will 
ever  be  ascertained,  is  extremely  doubtful  :  but  it  is  not  difficult 
to  form  a  plausible  outline  of  their  early  site  and  progressive 
colonization. 

The  earliest  seat  of  the  Hindus,  Avithin  the  confines  of  Hindus- 
than,  was,  undoubtedly,  the  eastern  confines  of  the  Panjab.  The 
holy  land  of  Manu  and  the  Puranas  lies  between  the  Drishadwati 
and  Saraswati  rivers, — the  Caggar  and  Sursooty  of  our  barbarous 
maps.  Various  adventures  of  the  first  princes  and  most  ftimous 
sages  occur  in  this  vicinity  ;  and  the  Asramas  or  religious 
domiciles  of  several  of  the  latter  are  placed  on  the  banks  of  the 
Saraswati.  According  to  some  authorities  it  was  the  abode  of 
Vyasa,  the  compiler  of  the  Vedas  and  Puranas  ;  and  agreeably  to 
another,  when  on  one  occasion,  the  Vedas  had  fallen  into  disuse 
and  been  forgotten,  the  Brahmaus  were  again  instructed  in  them 
by  Saraswata,  the  son  of  Saraswati.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  tribes  of  the  Brahmaus  is  known  as  the  Saraswata  ;  and  the 
same  word  is  employed  by  Mr.  Colebrooke,  to  denote  that  modifi- 
cation of  Sanskrit  which  is  termed   rrenorally  Prakrit,  and  which 


256  HIN 

in  tills  case,  he  supposes  to  have  been  the  language  of  the  Saraswata 
nation,  '  which  occupied  the  banks  of  the  river  Saraswati.'  The 
river  itself  receives  its  appellation  fi-om  Saraswati,  the  goddess  of 
learnius^,  under  whose  auspices  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Hindus 
assumed  shape  and  authority.  These  indications  render  it  certain, 
that,  whatever  seeds  were  imported  from  without,  it  was  in  the 
country  adjacent  to  the  Saraswati  river  that  they  were  first 
planted,  and  cultivated  and  reared,  in  Hindusthan. 

The  tract  of  land  thus  assigned  for  the  first  establishment  of 
Hinduism  in  India,  is  of  very  circumscribed  extent  and  could  not 
have  been  the  site  of  any  numerous  tribe  or  nation.  The  traditions 
that  evidence  the  early  settlement  of  the  Hindus  in  this  quarter, 
ascribe  to  the  settlers  more  of  a  philosophical  and  religious,  than 
of  a  secular  character,  and  combine,  with  the  very  narrow  bounds 
of  the  holy  land  ;  to  render  it  possible,  that  the  earliest  emigrants 
were  the  members,  not  of  a  political,  so  much  as  of  a  religious 
community  ;  that  they  were  a  colony  of  priests,  not  in  the 
restricted  sense  in  which  we  use  the  term,  but  in  that  in  which  it 
still  applies  in  India,  to  an  Agrahara,  a  \illage  or  hamlet  of 
Brahmaus,  who  although  married,  and  having  families,  and 
engaging  in  tillage,  in  domestic  duties  and  in  the  conduct  of  secular 
interests  affecting  the  community,  are,  still,  supposed  to  devote 
their  principal  attention  to  sacred  study  and  religious  offices.  A 
society  of  this  description  with  its  artificers  and  servants,  and, 
perhaps,  with  a  body  of  martial  followers,  might  have  found  a 
home  in  the  Brahmavarta  of  Mauu,  the  land  which,  thence,  was 
entitled  *  the  holy,'  or,  more  literally,  '  the  Brahman  region,'  and 
may  have  communicated  to  the  rude,  uncivilized,  unlettered, 
aborigines  the  rudiments  of  social  organization,  literature,  and 
religion  ;  partly  in  all  probability,  brought  along  with  them,  and 
partly  devised  and  fashioned,  by  degrees,  for  the  growing  necessities 
of  new  conditions  of  society.  Those  with  whom  this  civilization 
commenced  would  have  had  ample  inducements  to  prosecute  their 
successful  work  ;  and  in  the  course  of  time,  the  improvement 
which  germinated  on  the  banks  of  the  Saraswati  was  extended 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges. — rreface  to 

r.  p. 


HIR 


Hiranmaya — A  mountaiuous  country  lying  between  the  Sevefa 
and  Si'inji  ranges  ;  to  the  north  of  mount  Meru. 

Hiranvat — The  king  of  Sweta,  installed  by  his  father,  the  pious 
king  Agnidhra,  before  he  retired  to  a  life  of  penance  at  Salagrama. 

Hiranyag'arbha — A  name  of  Brahma,  '  he  who  wa8  born  from 
the  golden  egg,' 

In  the  Rig  Veda  Hiranyagarbha  is  celebrated  with  all  the 
attributes  of  supremacy.  In  the  12 1st  hymn  of  the  tenth  book  this 
god  is  said  to  have  arisen  in  the  beginning,  the  one  lord  of  all 
beings,  who  upholds  heaven  and  earth,  who  gives  life  and  breath, 
whose  command  even  the  gods  obey,  who  is  the  god  over  all  gods, 
and  the  one  animating  principle  of  their  being.  0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  /F, 
pp.  U,ff.  V.p.  355. 

Hiranyahasta — The  son  given  by  the  Asvius  to  the  wise 
Vadhrimati,  in  answer  to  her  prayers.     O.  S.  T.  v.,  p.  247. 

Hiranyakasipu — A  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti,  who  became 
king  of  the  Daityas,  and  usurped  the  authority  of  Indra,  and 
exercised  of  himself  the  functions  of  the  sun,  of  the  air,  of  the 
waters,  of  fire,  and  of  the  moon.  Having  conquered  the  three 
worlds  he  was  inflated  with  pride,  and  enjoyed  whatever  he 
desired.  "  He  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  all  the  immortals  for  a 
hundred  million  years."  (0.  S.  T.,  iv,  159.)  Prahlada,  his  son, 
remained  devoted  to  Vishnu,  and  when  ordered  by  his  father  to 
be  put  to  death,  Vishnu  appeared  as  his  deliverer.  Hiranyakasipu 
was  reconciled  to  his  son,  but  was  notwithstanding  put  to  death 
by  Vishnu  as  Narasimha  (the  man-lion)  and  Prahlada  became  the 
sovereign  of  the  Daityas. 

Hiranyaksha— The  brother  of  the  above,  termed  '-the  invin- 
cible." He  was  destroyed  by  Vishnu  in  his  boar  incarnation.  In  the 
Fadma  Purana  it  is  said  that  this  occurred  in  the  first,  or  Matsva 
avatara  :  that  Vishnu  in  the  form  of  a  fish  entered  the  ocean  and 
destroyed  Hiranyaksha. —  Wilson  s  Works,   Vol.  III.,  p.  58. 

Hiranyanabha— One  of  the  descendants  of  Rama,  a  pupil  of 
Jaimini,  and  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda.  He  had  a  large  number 
of  disciples  who  ^vere  termed  the  northern  and  eastern  chaunters 
of  the  Saman,  and  founders  of  schools, 

33 


258  HIK— HUT 


Hiranyaretas—Ooe  of  the  ten  sons  of  Priyavrata,  accordiug  to 
the  enumeration  in  the  Bhagavata. 

Hiranyaroman— A  Lokapala,  regent  of  the  North,  son  of 
Parjanya  and  Marichi. 

Hlada— One  of  the  four  mighty  sons  of  Hiranyakasipu. 

Hladini — The  Gladdener  ;  the  name  of  one  of  the  seven  rivers 
mentioned  in  the  Riimayana,  in  connection  with  the  descent  of 
Ganga.  Only  two,  the  Ganges  and  Indus,  are  known  to 
geographers. 

Homa — A  sort  of  burnt  offering  which  can  be  made  by 
Brahmans  only.  It  is  only  made  on  special  occasions,  such  as  the 
celebration  of  a  festival,  the  investiture  of  a  young  brahman  with 
the  sacred  thread,  marriages,  and  funerals.  The  method  of  making 
it  is  as  follows  :  During  the  utterance  of  Mantras,  five  species  of 
consecrated  wood,  together  with  the  Dharba  grass,  rice  and  butter, 
are  kindled  and  burnt ;  and  the  fire  is  then  kept  burning  as  long  as 
the  festival  or  ceremony  lasts.   Great  efficacy  is  ascribed  to  this  rite. 

Hotri — The  priest  who  recites  the  hymns  at  the  performance  of 
sacrificial  rites. 

Hraswarman— One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of 
Suvarnarman  ;  sometimes  called  Hrasvaroma. 

jjj-i — <  Modesty,'  An  allegorical  personage  represented  as  one  of 
the  daughters  of  Daksha,  and  wife  of  Dharma. 

Hridika — A  Yadava  prince,  the  son  of  Swayambhoja,  and 
father  of  Sdra,  in  whose  family  Vishnu  took  a  human  form. 

Hrishikesa — A  name  of  Vishnu,  meaning  '  lord  of  the  senses.' 

Humas — The  white  Huns,  or  Indo-scythians,  who  were  estab- 
lished in  the  Punjab  and  along  the  Indus,  at  the  commencement  of 
our  era,  as  we  know  from.  Arrian,  Strabo,  and  Ptolemy,  confirmed 
by  recent  discoveries  of  their  coins. 

Hutasana— The  god  of  flame. 


Ida — One  of  the  daughters  of  Dakslia  who  was  married  to 
Kasyajia. 

Idhmajihwa — Oue  of  the  ten  sous  of  Priyavrata  according  to 
the  Bhagavata. 

Idvatsara— The  name  of  the  third  cycle  or  Yuga,  of  which 
five  are  enumerated,  each  cycle  comprehending  sixty-one  solar 
months  or  1,830  days. 

Ijikas,  also  Itikas— A  peojDle  of  the  South  of  India. 

^  Ikshula  Ikshumati— The  name  of  a  river  mentioned  in  the 
Eiimayana  and  Vishnu  Purana,  but  not  identified. 

Ikshwaku— One  of  the  ten  sons  of  the  lawgiver  Maun 
Vaivaswata,  considered  to  be  the  first  prince  of  the  Solar  dynasly  ; 
he  reigned  at  Ayodha  the  capital  of  Kosala,  in  the  second  or  Treta 
yuga.  He  had  one  hundred  sous,  and  is  said  to  have  been  born 
from  the  nostril  of  Mauu  when  he  happened  to  sneeze.     V.  P. 

"  Ikshwaku  was  the  son  of  Manu,  the  first  king  of  Kosala,  and 
founder  of  the  solar  dynasty  or  family  of  the  children  of  the  Sun, 
the  god  of  that  luminary  being  the  father  of  Manu. ' 

The  following  extract  from  the  Ramayana  gives  the  line  of  kings 
from  Ikswaku  to  Bharata. 

"  From  viewless  nature  Brahma  rose. 
No  change,  no  endj  no  waste,  he  knows. 
A  son  had  he,  Marichi  styled, 
And  Kasyap  was  Marichi's  child. 
From  him  Vivaswat  sprang  ;  from  him 
Mauu  whose  fame  shall  ne'er  be  dim. 
INIanu,  who  life  to  mortals  gave, 
Begot  Ikshvaku  good  and  brave. 
First  of  Ayodhya's  kings  was  he, 
Pride  of  her  famous  dynasty. 


260  ILA— ILW 


From  him  the  glorious  Kukshi  sprang, 

Whose  fame  through  all  the  regions  rang. 

Rival  of  Kukshi's  ancient  fame, 

His  heir,  the  great  Vikukshi  came. 

His  son  was  Vana,  lord  of  might, 

His  Anaranya,  strong  to  fight. 

His  son  was  Prithu,  glorious  name, 

From  him  the  good  Trisanku  came. 

He  left  a  son  renowned  afar, 

Known  by  the  name  of  Dhundumar, 

His  son  who  drove  the  mighty  .car 

Was  Yuvanaswa  fear'd  in  war. 

He  passed  away.     Him  followed  theo 

His  son  Maudhata,  king  of  men, 

His  son  was  blest  on  high  emjDrise 

Susandhi  fortunate  and  wise. 

Two  noble  f^ons  had  he,  to  wit, 

Dhruvasandhi  and  Prasenajit 

Bharat  was  Dhruvasandhi's  son, 

And  glorious  fame  that  monarch  won." —  Griffiths. 
Ila — Before  the  birth  of  the  sous  mentioned  above,  the  Manu, 
being  desirous  of  sons,  offered  a  sacrifice  for  that  purpose  to  Mitra 
and  Varuaa  ;  but  the  rite  being  deranged  through  an  irregularity 
of  the  ministering  priest,  a  daughter.  Ha  was  produced.  Through 
the  favour  of  the  two  divinities,  however  her  sex  was  changed,  and 
she  became  a  man  named  Sudyumua,  q.  v. 

Ilavila — One  of  the  sons  of  Dasaratha,  who  does  not  appear 
however  to  have  achieved  any  distinction. 

Ilavila — The  daughter  of  Trinavinda,  became  the  wife  of 
Visravas,  and  mother  of  Kuvera  the  god  of  wealth. 

Ilavrita — One  of  the  nine  sons  of  Agnidhra,  king  of  Jamba- 
dwipa.  The  region  in  the  centreof  which  Mount  Meruis  situated 
was  conferred  on  Ilavrita. 

Ilwala — A  celebrated  demon,  the  sou  of  Hlada.  He  is  the  hero 
of  various  legends  in  t)ie  Piiraua?.     He  had  a  cousin  of  the  ?5ame 


IND  261 

name,  the  son  of  Viprachitti,  who  was  also  distinguished  amongst 
the  Dauavas. 

India,  "  is  bounded  on  tlic  north  and  the  east  by  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  on  the  west  by  the  Indus,  aud  on  the  south  by  the  sea. 
Its  length  from  Kashmere  to  Cape  Comorin  is  1,900  miles;  its 
breadth  from  Kurrachee  to  Sudiya,  in  Assam,  1,500  miles.  The 
superficial  contents  are  1,287,000  miles,  and  the  population,  under 
British  and  native  rule,  is  now  estimated  at  200,000,000.  It  is 
crossed  from  east  to  west  by  a  chain  of  mountains  called  the 
Vindya,  at  the  base  of  which  flows  the  Nerbudda.  The  country 
to  the  north  of  this  river  is  generally  designated  Hindustan,  and 
that  to  the  south  of  it  the  Deccan.  Hindustan  is  com2)06ed  of  the 
basin  of  the  Indus  on  one  side,  and  of  the  Ganges  on  the  other, 
with  the  great  sandy  desert  on  the  west,  and  an  elevated  tract 
now  called,  from  its  position.  Central  India.  The  Deccan  has  on 
its  northern  boundary  a  chain  of  mountains  running  parallel  with 
the  Vindya,  to  the  south  of  which  stretches  a  table  land  of  trian- 
gular form,  terminating  at  Cape  Comorin,  with  the  western 
Ghauts,  on  the  western  coast,  and  the  eastern  Ghauts,  of  minor 
altitude,  on  the  opposite  coast.  Between  the  Ghauts  and  the  sea 
lies  a  narrow  belt  of  land  which  runs  round  the  whole  peninsula. 

Of  the  ancient  history  or  chronology  of  the  Hindus  there  are  no 
credible  memorials.  The  history  was  compiled  by  poets,  who 
drew  on  their  imagination  for  their  facts,  and  the  chronology  was 
computed  by  astronomers,  who  have  made  the  successive  ages  of 
the  world  to  correspond  with  the  conjunctions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  The  age  of  the  world  is  thus  divided  into  four  periods  : 
the  satya  yuga  extending  to  1,728,000,  and  the  second,  or  treta 
yxiga,  to  1,296,000  years  ;  the  third,  or  the  divdpara  yuga^ 
comprises  864,000  years  ;  and  the  fourth,  or  kali  yuga  is  predicted 
to  last  432,000  years.  A  kalpa,  or  a  day  of  Brahma,  is  composed 
of  a  thousand  such  periods,  or  4,320,000,000  years.  Extravagant 
as  these  calculations  may  appear,  they  are  outdone  by  the  Burmese, 
who  affirm  that  the  lives  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  extended  to  a 
period  equal  to  the  sum  of  every  drop  of  rain  which  falls  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe  in  three  years.  The  dates  given  for  the  first 
three  ages  must,   therefore,   be  rejected  as  altogether  imaginary. 


262  IND 

■while  the  commeucemeut  of  the  fourth,  or  present  age,  which 
corresponds,  to  a  certain  degree,  with  the  authentic  eras  of  other 
nations,  may  be  received  as  generally  correct. 

India  is  designated  by  native  Y^^riters  Bharata  Varsha,  from  king 
Bharat,  who  is  said  to  have  reigned  over  the  whole  country.  That 
he  did  not  enjoy  universal  monarchy  in  India  is  certain,  though  he 
was  doubtless  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  renoAvned  of  its  rulers  ; 
but  this  fact  loses  all  historical  value  when  we  are  told  in  the 
shasters  that  he  reigned  ten  thousand  years,  and  on  his  death  was 
transformed  into  a  deer.  Thus  do  we  plod  our  way  through 
darkness  and  mystery  ;  at  every  step  fact  is  confounded  with 
fable,  and  all  our  researches  end  only  in  conjecture.  The  original 
settlers  are  identified  with  the  various  tribes  of  Bhils,  Koles, 
Gonds,  Minas,  and  Chiiars,  still  living  in  a  state  almost  of 
nature,  in  the  forests  of  the  Soane,  the  Nerbudda,  and  the  Maha- 
uuddi,  and  in  the  hills  of  Surguja  and  Chota  Nagpore.  Their 
languages  have  no  affinity  Avith  the  Sanskrit,  and  their  religion 
differs  from  Hinduism.  In  those  fastnesses,  amidst  all  the  revolu- 
tions which  have  convulsed  India,  they  have  continued  to  maintain, 
unchanged,  their  original  simplicity  of  habits,  creed,  and  speech. 
They  were  apparently  driven  from  the  plains  by  fresh  colonies  of 
emigrants  ;  and  these  were  in  their  turn  conquered  by  the  Hindus, 
who  brought  their  religion  and  language  with  them  from  regions 
beyond  the  Indus,  and,  having  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  a  servile 
condition,  branded  them  with  the  name  of  sudras.  Of  the  four 
Hindu  castes,  three  are  designated  the  twice-born,  which  seems  to 
indicate  that  they  all  belonged  to  the  conquering  race,  although 
the  term  is  now  applied  exclusively  to  brahmans.  In  the  Institutes 
of  Manu  reference  is  also  made  to  cities  governed  by  sudras, 
which  the  twice-born  were  forbidden  to  enter,  and  the  allusion 
evidently  applies  to  siidra  chiefs,  who  continued  to  maintain  their 
independence  after  the  Hindu  invasion. 

The  Hindus  who  originally  crossed  the  Indus  took  possession  of 
a  small  tract  of  laud,  100  miles  north-west  of  Delhi,  about  65 
miles  by  30,  which  was  considered  the  residence  of  gods  and  holy 
sages,  while  the  brahmans  appear  to  have  subsequently  occupied 
the  country  north  of  the  Jumna  and  the  Gauges,  stretching  to  tlie 


IND  2G3 

confines  of  north  Beliar.  The  India  of  the  Vedas,  of  Manu,  and 
the  earliest  Avriters  was  exclusively  confined  to  the  region  north 
of  the  Nerbudda,  and  comprised  but  a  small  portion  even  of  that 
limited  quarter.  It  was  in  the  north  that  the  four  places  of 
greatest  sanctity  were  situated  during  the  early  ages,  though  the 
Deccan  now  contains  many  places  of  distinguished  merit.  The 
north  was  also  the  seat  of  the  solar  and  lunar  races,  the  scene  of 
chivalrous  adventures,  and  the  abode  of  all  those  who  are  celebrated 
in  the  legends,  the  mythology,  and  the  philosophy  of  the  Hindus. 
Even  in  the  j^olished  age  in  which  the  Ramayan  and  the  Maha- 
bharat  were  composed,  the  south  was  the  land  of  fable,  the 
dwelling  of  bears  and  monkeys,  and  it  was  not  till  a  very  late 
period  that  these  apes  and  goblins  and  monsters  were  transformed 
into  orthodox  Hindus.  It  must,  therefore,  be  distinctly  borne  in 
mind  that  the  revolutions  described  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Hindus  belong  to  Hindustan  and  not  to  the  Deccan."* 

Indra — The  king  of  heaven  ;  the  king  of  the  Devas  ;  is 
represented  with  four  arms  and  liands,  with  two  he  holds  a  lance, 
in  the  third  one  the  thunderbolt  (Vajrayudha)  and  the  fourth  one 
is  empty.  Sometimes  he  is  drawn  as  a  white  man  sitting  on  au 
elephant,  with  the  thunderbolt  in  his  right  hand  and  a  bow  in  his 
left.  His  reign  is  to  continue  one  hundred  years  of  the  gods,  after 
which  another  individual  from  among  the  gods,  the  giants,  or  men, 
by  his  own  merit,  raises  himself  to  this  eminence.  The  sacrifice 
of  a  horse  one  hundred  times  Avill,  it  is  said,  raise  a  person  to  the 
rank  of  Indra.  The  Puranas  relate  many  stories  of  Indra,  who  is 
described  as  very  jealous  lest  any  person  should,  by  sacred 
austerities  or  sacrifices,  excel  him  in  religious  merit,  and  thus 
obtain  his  kingdom.  To  prevent  these  devotees  from  succeeding 
in  their  object,  he  generally  sends  one  of  the  celestial  nymphs  to 
draw  away  their  minds,  and  thus  ])ring  them  from  thoir  religious 
observances,  induce  them  to  return  to  a  life  of  sensual  gratification. 
It  was  Indra  who  stole  the  horse  consecrated  by  king  Sagara,  who 
was  about  to  perform  for  the  hundreth  time  the  sacrifice  of  that 
animal. 

*  ]Marslmiau's  Histoiv  of  India,  vol.  1. 


264  IND 

'•  Iiidra  plays  an  important  part  in  each  of  the  three  periods  of 
Indian  mythology.  In  the  earliest  age  he  seems  to  have  been  the 
unknown  mysterious  being  who  inhabited  the  sky,  the  firmament 
between  earth  and  the  sun,  who  rode  upon  the  clouds,  who  poured 
forth  the  rain,  hurled  the  forked  lightning  upon  earth,  and  spoke  in 
the  awful  thunder.  His  character  was  at  once  beneficent  as  giving 
rain  and  shade  ;  and  awful  and  powerful  in  the  storm.  He  is  the 
ori«^iual  of  the  Jupiter  Tonans  of  the  west,  and  the  Thor  of  the 
north,  and  like  them  ros^e  in  the  earliest  ages  to  the  first  place,  and 
the  sovereignty  among  the  gods.  Fear,  a  stronger  motive  among 
men  than  gratitude,  raised  him  above  the  elementary  triad.  In 
the  Epic  period  he  is  the  first  person  of  the  pure  mythological 
triad,  Indra,  Agni,  and  Yama.  In  the  Puranic  age,  when  the 
powers  of  a  Supreme  Being  were  personified  in  the  superior  triad 
of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  Indra's  star  declines.  He  is  no 
longer  the  principal  divinity,  but  only  the  chief  of  the  inferior 
deities  ;  and,  as  such,  is  at  constant  war  with  the  giants  and 
demons,  by  whom  he  is  for  a  time  deposed.  A  curse  from  the 
Rishi  Durvasa  causes  his  power  and  that  of  the  deities  subject  to 
him  gradually  to  decline  ;  and  he  is  defeated  by  Krishna  in  a  fight 
for  the  Parijata  tree,  which  had  been  produced  at  the  churning 
of  the  ocean,  and  planted  by  Indra  in  his  own  garden.  An  amusing 
account  of  this  battle  is  given  in  the  Vishnu-Purana,  p.  587. 
His  wife's  name  is  Sachi.  He  is  lord  of  the  eight  Vasus.  The 
sage  Gautama  pronounced  upon  him  the  curse  of  -wearing  one 
thousand  disgraceful  marks  which  he  afterwards  turned  to  eyes. 
He  ravished  the  daughter  of  Puloman,  whom  he  slew  to  avoid  his 
curse.  He  is  borne  on  a  white  horse.  The  rain-bow  is  supposed 
to  be  his  bow  bent  for  the  destruction  of  his  foes,  and  thunderbolts 
are  his  weapons.  The  heaven  over  which  he  rules,  and  which  the 
other  secondary  deities  inhabit,  is,  in  the  Epic  age,  called  Swarga, 
and  later,  Indraloka,  or  Devaloka.  His  horse  is  Uchchhaihshravas  ; 
his  elephant,  AiraVata  ;  his  city,  Amaravati  ;  his  palace,  Vaija- 
yanta.     These  details  belong  to  the  Puranic  age."     (Thomson.) 

Dr.  Muir  w^rites  "  Indra  and  Agni  are  said  to  be  twin  brothers. 
A  variety  of  vague  and  general  epithets  are  lavished  upon  Indra. 
He  is  distinguished  as  youthful,   ancient,  strong,   agile,   martial. 


IND  265 

Iicroic,  bright,  undecaying,  all-conquering,  lord  of  unbounded 
Tvisdom  and  irresistible  power  and  prowess,  wielder  of  the  thunder- 
bolt, &c.  He  has  vigour  in  his  body,  strength  in  his  arms,  a 
thunderbolt  in  his  hand,  and  wisdom  in  his  head.  *  *  *  * 
The  thunderbolt  of  Indra  is  generally  described  as  having  been 
fashioned  for  him  by  the  Indian  Hephaistos,  Tvashtri,  the  artificer 
of  the  gods.  Another  instrument  of  warfare,  a  net,  is  assigned  to 
Indra.  *  This  world  was  the  great  net  of  the  great  Sakra.  With 
this  net  of  Indra  I  envelope  them  all  in  darkness.' 

"  Invoked  by  his  mortal  worshippers  Indra  obeys  the  summons, 
and  speedily  arrives  in  his  chariot  to  receive  their  offerings.  He 
finds  food  provided  for  his  horses,  and  large  libations  of  soma 
juice  are  poured  out  for  himself  to  quaff.  He  becomes  exhilarated 
by  these  libations,  which  are  also  frequently  described  as  stimu- 
lating his  warlike  dispositions  and  energies,  and  fitting  him  for  his 
other  functions,  even  for  supporting  the  earth  and  sky.  He  is 
said  to  have  drunk  at  one  draught  thirty  bowls  of  soma."  *  *  *  * 
Thus  exhilarated  by  soma  juice,  "  Indra  hurries  off  escorted  by 
troops  of  Mariits,  and  sometimes  attended  by  his  faithful  comrade 
Vishnu,  to  encounter  the  hostile  powers  in  the  atmosphere,  who 
malevolently  shut  up  the  watery  treasures  in  the  clouds.  These 
demons  of  drought,  called  by  a  variety  of  names,  as  Vrittra,  Ahi, 
Sushna,  Namuchi,  Pipru,  Sambara,  Urana,  &c.,  armed  on  their 
side  also,  with  every  variety  of  celestial  artillery,  attempt,  but 
in  vain,  to  resist  the  onset  of  the  gods.  Heaven  and  earth  quake 
with  affright  at  the  crash  of  Indra's  thunder.  The  enemies  of 
Indra  are  speedily  pierced  and  shattered  by  the  discharge  of  his 
iron  shafts.  The  waters,  released  from  their  imprisonment, 
descend  in  torrents  to  the  earth,  fill  all  the  rivers  and  roll  along  to 
the  ocean.  The  gloom  which  had  overspread  the  sky  is  dispersed, 
and  the  sun  is  restored  to  his  position  in  the  heavens. '  Constant 
allusions  to  these  elemental  conflicts  occur  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  Rig  Veda  ;  and  the  descriptions  are  sometimes  embellished 
with  a  certain  variety  of  imagery.  The  clouds  arc  represented  as 
mountains,  or  as  cities  or  fortresses  of  tlic  Asura«,  or  atmospheric 
demons,  which  Indra  overthrows." 

Dr.  Muir  selects  a  great  variety  of  pa^^r^agcs  a^  specimen!:  of  the 

34 


2G6  IND 

language  in  which  Indra  is  most  commonly  celebrated  in  the 
hymns.  He  adds,  "  it  will  be  observed  that  the  attributes  which 
are  ascribed  to  him  are  chiefly  those  of  physical  superiority,  and 
of  dominion  over  the  external  world.  In  fact  he  is  not  generally 
represented  as  possessing  the  spiritual  elevation  and  moral  grandeur 
with  which  Varuna  is  so  often  invested."     Vol.  V.,  p.  103, 

"  Thou  Indra  art  a  friend,  a  brother 
'  A  kinsman  dear,  a  father,  mother. 

Though  thou  hast  troops  of  friends,  yet  we, 
Can  boast  no  other  friend  but  thee. 

With  faith  we  claim  thine  aid  divine, 
For  thou  art  ours  and  we  are  thine. 
Thou  art  not  deaf  ;  though  far  away, 
Thou  hearest  all,  whate'er  we  pray. 

Preserve  us  friend,  dispel  our  fears, 
And  let  us  live  a  hundred  years. 
And  when  our  earthly  course  we've  run, 
And  gained  the  region  of  the  sun, 
Then  let  us  live  in  ceaseless  glee, 
Sweet  nectar  quaffing  there  with  thee." 

O.  S.  T.,VoK  v.,  p.  139- 

Indrani — The  wife  of  Indra  (called  also  Sachi)  is  represented 
as  an  ever-blooming  virgin,  and  whilst  the  dignity  of  the  king  of 
the  gods  pai'ses  from  one  to  another,  she  remains  the  wife  of  each 
succeeding  Deveudra.  Indrani,  never  a  mother  herself,  had  a  son, 
Chitraputra,  born  unto  her  of  a  cow,  as  a  reward  for  the  austerities 
which  she  practised  in  honour  of  Iswara,  to  the  end  that  he  might 
grant  her  a  son.  When  Chitraputra  was  born  from  the  cow, 
Indi-ani  felt  like  a  woman  in  travail,  and  her  breasts  became  full, 
so  that  she  could  nurse  the  child. 

In  the  Rig  Veda  one  speaker  says  ''I  have  heard  that  among  all 
these  females  Indrani  is  the  most  fortunate  ;  for  her  husband  shall 
never  at  any  future  time  die  of  old  age."  The  Aitareya  Brahmana 
alludes  to  a  wife  of  Indra,  called  Pr^saha.  The  Satap.  Br.  says 
"  Indrani  is  ludra's  beloved  wife,  and  she  has  a  head  dress  of  aii 
forms."     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V.,  p.  82. 


IND  267 

Indras  of  the  Manwantara— Each  Manwautara  has  its  own 
Indra.  The  Indra  of  the  second  Manwantara  was  Vipaschil  ;  of 
the  thh'd,  Susanti  ;  of  the  fourth  Siva  (also  named  Satakrata,  as 
he  obtained  the  honour  bj  his  performance  of  a  hundred  sacrifices,) 
of  the  fifth  Vibha  ;  of  the  sixth,  Manojava  ;  of  the  seventh, 
Purandara  ;  of  the  eighth,  Bali  ;  of  the  ninth,  Adbhuta  ;  of  the 
tenth,  Santi  ;  of  the  eleventh,  Vrisha  ;  of  the  twelfth,  Rithudama  ; 
of  the  thirteenth,  Divaspati  ;  of  the  fourteenth,  Suchi. 

Indra-dwipa — One  of  the  nine  portions  of  the  Varsha  of 
Bharata. 

Indradyumna— The  king  of  Avanti,  who  erected  the  temple 
of  Vishnu  at  Purushottama  Kshetra,  and  set  up  the  image  of 
Jagganatha,  made  for  him  by  Visvakarman. 

Indrajit — The  bravest  and  most  powerful  of  the  sons  ofRavana- 
His  original  name  was  Megha-nada,  but  was  changed  by  Brahma 
to  Indrajit,  in  commemoration  of  the  latter  having  obtained  a 
victory  over  Indra.  He  was  skilled  in  magic,  could  render  himself 
invisible,  possessed  enchanted  weapons,  described  as  a  kind  of  rope, 
which  when  thrown  at  an  enemy  became  transformed  into  a  serpent, 
and  retained  him  in  its  folds.  By  means  of  these  magical  weapons 
he  pierced  a  great  number  of  warriors  and  inflicted  terrible 
wounds  on  all  the  leaders  of  Rama's  array  ;  viz.,  Sugriva,  Angada, 
Nila,  Jambavat,  Nala,  Tara,  Sarabha,  Sushena,  Panasa,  Gandha- 
madana,  Dwivida,  Kesari,  Sampati,  Binata,  Rishabha  ;  as  well  as 
on  Rama  and  Lakshmana,  leaving  them  for  dead.  They  were  all 
restored  by  the  exhalations  issuing  from  the  healing  plants  brought 
by  Hanuman  from  Knilasa.  All  this  occurred  after  Hanuman  had 
destroyed  the  great  army  of  Rakshasas  sent  against  him  by  Ravana, 
the  latter  being  filled  with  dismay,  ordered  his  son  Aksha  to  go 
forth,  and  he  was  also  slain.  Then  Ravana  filled  with  grief  sent 
for  his  famous  son  Indrajit,  and  said  go  you  and  conquer  this  evil 
Monkey.  Indrajit  then  ascended  his  chariot,  drawn  by  four  tigers, 
and  went  out  at  the  head  of  a  vast  army  to  fight  against  the 
Monkey  chief.  The  combat  commenced,  but  Indrajit  could  not 
conquer  until  he  bound  Hanuman  in  the  iiTcsistible  noose  of 
Brahma.  Afterwards  Indrajit  performed  three  sacrifices  to  Agni, 
and  confined  Rama  and  Lakshmana  in  his  noose,  and  successfully 


208  IND 

charged  tlie  army  of  Monkeys.  He  was  ultimately  killed  by 
Lakshmaua,  with  an  arrow  given  to  him  by  Indra  at  the  hermitage 
of  Agastya. 

Indra-kila— A  mountain  of  the  Vishnu  Purana  but  not  identified. 

Indra-loka—Amaravati,  the  heaven  of  Indra  and  Kshatriyas, 
called  also  Swarga.  It  was  built  by  Visvakarma,  the  architect  of 
the  gods,  a  son  of  Brahma.  It  is  described  as  eight  hundred  miles 
in  circumference,  and  forty  miles  high.  Its  pillars  are  composed 
of  diamonds  ;  all  its  thrones,  beds,  etc.,  of  pure  gold,  as  also  its 
palaces.  It  is  surrounded  by  beauteous  gardens  and  pleasure 
grounds,  interspersed  with  pools,  fountains,  etc.,  while  rausio, 
dancing,  and  every  sort  of  festivity  entertain  the  celestial 
inhabitants.  The  audience  chamber  is  so  large  that  it  accom- 
modates all  the  three  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  celestials, 
together  with  the  forty-eight  thousand  Rishis,  and  the  multitude 
of  attendants. 

Indrapramita — A  pupil  of  Paila  and  teacher  of  a  Sanhita  of 
the  Rig  Veda,  Indrapramita  imparted  his  Sanhita  to  his  son 
Mandakeya,  and  it  thence  descended  through  successive  generations 
as  well  as  disciples. 

Indra-prastha—The  city  of  the  Pandavas  situated  between 
Delhi  and  the  Kutub.  "  The  pilgrim  who  wends  his  way  from  the 
modern  city  of  Delhi  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  strange  relics  of  the 
ancient  world  which  surround  the  mysterious  Kutub,  will  find  on 
either  side  of  his  road  a  number  of  desolate  heaps,  the  debris  of 
thousands  of  years,  the  remains  of  successive  Capitals  which  date 
back  to  the  very  dawn  of  history  ;  and  local  tradition  still  points  to 
these  sepulchres  of  departed  ages  as  the  sole  remains  of  the  Raj  of 
the  sons  of  Paudu,  and  their  once  famous  city  of  Indra-prastha."* 
The  Mahabh^rata  contains  a  poetical  description  of  the  flourishing 
state  of  the  kingdom  under  the  rule  of  Raja  Yudhishthira.  When 
he  resolved  on  retiring  from  the  world  he  gave  the  Rdj  of 
Hastinapur  to  Parlkshit  the  son  of  Abhimanyu,  and  the  Raj  of 
Indra-prastha  to  Yuyutsa,  the  only  surviving  son  of  Mahdrija 
Dritarishtra. 

*  Wheeler. 


IND— IVI  269 


Indrasavarni-^TIie  Mauu  of  the  fouvteeuth  Mauwautara, 
according  to  the  Bhdgavata. 

Indriyatma — "  Oue  with  the  senses  ;"  a  name  of  Vishnu,  who 
is  described  bj  five  appellations. 

1.  Bhutatma,  One  with  created  things. 

2.  Pradhanitam,  One  w^ith  crude  nature. 

3.  Indriyatma,  One  with  the  senses. 

4.  Paramatma,  Supreme  spirit. 

5.  Atma,  Soul,  living  soul  animating  nature  and  existing 

before  it. 

Indumati  Devi — The  daughter  of  the  Raja  of  Vidarbha  and 
wife  of  Aja.     [See  Aja.] 

Iravat — A  sou  of  Arjuna  by  the  serpent  uymph  Ulupi. 

Iravati— The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Bhava  according  to  the 
Bhagavata. 

Isana— Oue  of  the  eight  Rudras  of  the  Vishnu  Purana  whose 
statue  was  the  air. 

Isa — A  name  of  a  month  occurring  in  the  Vedas,  and  belonging 
to  a  system  now  obsolete.  It  is  one  of  the  months  according  to  the 
Vishnu  Purina  iu  which  the  sun  is  in  his  southern  declination. 

Iswara— Brahma  in  the  neuter  form  is  abstract  supreme  spirit  : 
and  Iswara  is  the  Deity  in  his  active  nature,  he  who  is  able  to  do, 
or  leave  undone,  or  to  do  anything  in  any  other  manner  than  that 
in  which  it  is  done.  Iswara  is  that  which  knows  all  things  as  if 
they  were  present.  Mahat  is  also  called  Iswara  from  its  exercising 
supremacy  over  all  things.  In  Southern  India  Iswara  is  identical 
with  Siva.  All  who  profess  the  Siva  mata  (the  religion  of  Siva) 
regard  Iswara  as  the  highest  god  in  whose  honour  they  have 
everywhere  built  pagodas,  and  celebrate  many  festivals.  Iswara 
is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  Rudras  iu  the  Vayu  list. 

Itihasa — Historical  tradition  taught  by  Vyasa.  It  is  usually 
supposed  that  by  the  Itihasa  the  Mahabharata  is  meant. 

Ivilaka — One  of  the  Andhra  kings,  the  son  of  Lambddara. 


Jabala— The  mother  of  Satyakama,  who  could  not  tell  her  son 
who  was  his  father  and  to  what  gotra  he  belonged  ;  the  son  had 
consequently  the  utmost  difficulty  in  obtaining  permission  to 
become  a  Brahma  charin.     See  Satyakama. 

JabalaS  — Students  of  a  branch  of  the  Vajasaneyi,  or  white 
Yajush. 

Jaggannatha* — This  is  perhaps  the  most  famous  form  of 
Krishna.  The  image  has  no  legs,  and  only  stumps  of  arms.  The 
head  and  legs  are  very  large.  At  the  festivals,  the  Brahmans 
adorn  him  with  silver  or  golden  hands. 

Krishna  having  been  accidentally  killed  by  Jara,  a  hunter,  he 
left  the  body  to  rot  under  a  tree.  Some  pious  persons,  however, 
collected  the  bones  of  Krishna  and  placed  them  in  a  box.  There 
they  remained  till  King  Indradyumna  (a  great  ascetic)  was 
directed  by  Vishnu  to  form  the  image  of  Jaggannatha,  and  put 
into  its  belly  these  bones  of  Krishna.  Visvakarma  (the  architect 
of  the  gods)  undertook  to  prepare  it,  on  condition  that  he  should 
be  left  undisturbed  till  its  completion.  The  impatient  king, 
however,  after  fifteen  days,  went  to  the  spot  ;  on  which  Visvakarma 
desisted  from  his  work,  and  left  the  god  without  hands  or  feet. 
The  king  was  much  disconcerted,  but  on  praying  to  Brahma,  he 
promised  to  make  the  image  famous  in  its  present  shape.  Indra- 
dyumna then  invited  all  the  gods  to  be  present  at  the  setting  up  of 
this  image.  Brahma  himself  acted  as  high  priest,  and  gave  eyes 
and  a  soul  to  the  god,  which  completely  established  the  fame  of 
Jaggannatha.  This  image  is  said  to  lie  in  a  pool,  near  the  famous 
temple  at  Juggannatha-kshetra  {i.  e.  Jagganath's  field),  near  the 
town  of  Puri  in  Orissa,  commonly  called  by  the  English,  Jugger- 
nath's  Pagoda. 


Vulg,  ''  JuggernatK'"  i.e.  **  The  Lord  of  the  World." 


JAG  271 

There  arc  many  other  temples  to  Jaggaunatha  iu  Beugal  and 
other  parts  of  India,  besides  that  in  Orissa,  built  by  rich  men  as 
works  of  merit,  and  endowed  with  lands,  villages,  and  money,  at 
which  the  worship  of  the  god  is  performed  every  morning  and 
evening. 

There  are  two  great  annual  festivals  in  honour  of  the  god,  viz., 
the  Snan-yatra  in  the  month  Jyaistha  (May,  June)  and  the  Rath- 
yathra  in  the  following  month  Aaarha.  These  are  everywhere 
most  numerously  attended  ;  but  especially  those  celebrated  at  tho 
great  temple  at  Puri.  Thither  pilgrims  from  the  remotest  corners 
of  India  flock  to  pay  their  adoration  at  the  hallowed  shrine. 
Between  two  and  three  thousand  persons,  it  is  computed,  used  to 
lose  their  lives  on  the  annual  pilgrimages  to  this  temple,  and  not 
less  than  200,000  worshippers  were  present  at  the  festivals,  from 
which  the  Brahmans  draw  an  immense  revenue.  Since  the  with- 
drawment  of  the  large  annual  grant,  however,  which  the  British 
Government  of  India,  till  very  recently,  made  to  the  Orissa  Temple, 
the  numbers  attending  these  festivals  have  very  greatly  diminished. 
All  the  land  Avithin  twenty  miles  round  the  "  Pagoda"  is  considered 
holy  ;  but  the  most  sacred  spot  is  an  area  of  about  six  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  square,  which  contains  fifty  temples,  the  most 
conspicuous  of  which  is  a  lofty  tower,  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty-four  feet  in  height,  and  about  twenty-eight  feet  square 
inside,  iu  which  the  idol,  with  his  brother  Bala-Rama,  and  his  sister 
Subhadra,  is  lodged.  Adjoining  are  two  pyramidical  buildings. 
In  one,  about  forty  square,  the  idol  is  worshipped,  and  in  the 
other,  the  food  prepared  for  the  pilgrims  is  distributed.  These 
buildings  were  erected  in  a.  d.  1198.  The  walls  are  covered  with 
statues,  many  of  which  are  in  highly  indecent  postures.  The 
grand  entrance  is  on  the  eastern  side,  and  close  to  the  outer  wall 
stands  an  elegant  stone  column,  thirty-five  feet  in  height,  the 
shaft  of  which  is  formed  of  a  single  block  of  basalt,  presenting 
sixteen  sides.  The  pedestal  is  richly  ornamented.  The  column 
is  surrounded  by  a  finely  sculptured  statue  of  Hanuman,  the 
monkey  chief  of  the  Ramayana.  The  establishment  of  priests  and 
others  belonging  to  the  temple  has  been  stated  to  consist  of  three 
thousand  cine  hundred  families,   for  whom  the  daily  provision  is 


272  JAH 

euormous.  The  holy  food  is  presented  to  the  idol  three  times  a 
day.  His  meal  lasts  about  an  hour,  during  which  time  the  dancing 
girls,  the  Devadasi,  belonging  to  the  temple,  exhibit  their  profes- 
sional skill  in  an  adjoining  building.  "  At  the  Suan-yatra  (or 
bathing  festival)  the  god  is  bathed  by  pouring  water  on  his  head 
durino-  the  reading  of  incantations.  At  the  Rath-yatr^  (or  car 
festival)  the  carriage,  containing  the  three  images  (which  has 
sixteen  wheels  and  two  wooden  horses)  is  drawn  by  the  devotees, 
by  means  of  a  hawser,  for  some  distance.  On  this  occasion  many 
cast  themselves  beneath  the  ponderous  wheels  and  are  crushed  to 
dc&ih:'— Small,  H.  S.  L.,  p.  157. 

Jahnu — The  son  of  Suhotra.  This  prince  whilst  performing  a 
sacrifice,  saw  the  whole  of  the  place  overflowed  by  the  waters  of 
the  Ganges  ;  being  highly  offended  at  this  intrusion,  he  united  the 
spirit  of  sacrifice  with  himself  by  the  power  of  his  devotion,  and 
drank  up  the  river.  The  gods  and  sages  upon  this  came  to  him 
and  appeased  his  indignation,  and  re-obtained  Ganga  from  him  in 
the  capacity  of  his  daughter. 

"  It  chanced  that  Jahnu,  great  and  good 
Engaged  with  holy  offerings  stood. 
The  river  spread  her  waves  around 
Flooding  his  sacrificial  ground. 
The  saint  in  auger  marked  her  pride, 
And  at  one  draught  her  stream  he  dried. 
"  Then  god  and  sage  and  bard  afraid, 
To  noble  high-souled  Jahnu  prayed. 
And  begged  that  he  would  kindly  deem 
His  own  dear  child  that  holy  stream. 
Moved  by  their  suit,  he  soothed  their  fears, 
And  loosed  her  waters  from  his  ears. 
Hence  Ganga  through  the  world  is  styled 
Both  Jahnavi  and  Jahnu's  child." —  Griffiths. 

Jahnu  is  also  the  name  of  a  son  of  Kuru.     V.  P. 

Jahnavi— A  name  of  Ganga  as  the  daughter  of  Jahnu,  as 
related  above. 


JAI  27:^ 

Jaimini— A  pupil  of  Vyasa,  and  teacher  of  the  Sam  a  Veda. 
Also  the  name  of  a  celebrated  author  in  the  South  of  India,  who 
lived  about  the  thirteenth  century.  Ho  wrote  a  free  translation 
from  the  Sanskrit  of  the  Aswamedhika  Parva  of  the  Mah^bharata, 
detailing  the  horse  sacrifice.  This  work  is  acknowledged  by  all 
sects  to  be  the  finest  specimen  of  Canarese  poetry  in  existence. 
*  He  has  read  Jaimini'  is  a  proverbial  saying,  equivalent  to  '  he  is 
an  accomplished  man.' 

JainaS — The  Jainas  were  a  very  numerous  and  important  sect 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  The  founder 
of  the  system  was  Rishaba-deva,  a  Hindu,  but  the  system  itself 
was  an  oiF-shoot  or  after-growth  of  Buddhism  with  which  it  has 
many  leading  doctrines  in  common,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  by 
its  recognition  of  a  divine  personal  Ruler  of  all,  and  by  its  political 
leaning  towards  Erahmanism.  The  Jainas  have  left  many 
monuments  of  their  skill  and  power  in  the  fine  temples  built  in 
different  parts  of  the  Deccan,  as  well  as  in  the  provinces  of  Mewar 
and  Marwar,  which  have  been  designated  the  cradle  of  their 
system.  The  literature  of  the  Jainas  is  very  extensive,  including, 
besides  Puranas  of  their  own,  various  works  in  grammar,  astronomy, 
mathematical  science,  medicine,  &c.  They  were  the  first  who 
reduced  the  Canarese  language  to  writing,  and  cultivated  it  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  The  best  Epic  poem  in  the  Tamil 
language,  the  Chintamani,  is  the  work  of  a  Jaina. 

"  The  leading  tenets  of  the  Jainas  and  those  which  chiefly 
distinguish  them  from  the  rest  of  the  Hindus,  are,  first,  the  denial 
of  the  divine  origin  and  infallible  authority  of  the  Vedas  :  secondly, 
the  reverence  of  certain  holy  mortals,  now  termed  Tirthankara,  or 
saints,  who  acquired  by  practices  of  self-denial  and  mortification  a 
station  superior  to  that  of  the  gods  ;  and  thirdly,  extreme  and  even 
ludicrous  tenderness  for  animal  life. 

"  The  Jainas  are  still  found  in  most  of  the  provinces  of  Upper 
Hindustan  ;  in  the  cities  along  the  Ganges,  in  Calcutta,  but^more 
especially  to  the  westward.  They  are  also  numerous  in  Guzerat, 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  Malabar  Coast,  and  are  scattered 
throughout  the  Peninsula.     They  still  form  a  large  and  importan 

35 


274  JAI 

clivisioD  of  the  population  of  India.  The  name  of  the  sect  means  a 
follower  of  Jina,  the  latter  being  one  of  the  denominations  of  their 
deified  saints  ;  and  as  another  name  of  these  saints  is  Arhat,  the 
Jainas  are  also  called  Arhattas. —  Wilson. 

The  following  account  of  Jainism  was  written  in  Tamil  by  Munsbi,  Sastram 
Aiyar.  *  '"'  The  Jainas  verily  believe  that  their  system  alone  was  the  primeval 
system  of  the  world  ;  that  all  other  systems  were  derived  from  it ;  that  some 
of  the  learned  professors  of  their  system,  by  the  fault  of  the  time  in  which 
they  lived,  formed  various  other  systems  ;  that  Mdksha  [bliss]  can  be  obtained 
in  this  system  and  in  no  other ;  that  this  alone  is  the  true  system ;  and  that 
all  other  systems  believe  falsehood  to  be  truth. 

*'  The  Jainas  positively  affirm  that  the  world  exists  from  all  eternity,  and 
that  it  will  exist  for  ever,  without  being  destroyed,  and  that  it  was  not  created 
by  God,  or  by  any  other  person.  They  moreover  affirm  that  this  world  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  namely,  the  lower  world,  the  middle  world,  and  the 
upper  world  ;  and  that  below  this  Avorld,  there  is  a  world  called  Adhogati 
[abyss,  the  nethermost  hell],  above  which  there  are  seven  infernal  worlds  ; 
and  above  those  again  are  ten  Pavanalokas,  purifying  worlds  [Purgatories], 
above  which  is  this  world  of  earth ;  above  this  again  is  the  Jotiloka,  world  of 
light  [starry  world]  ;  and  that  in  this  our  world  of  earth  there  are  two  worlds 
included,  namely,  the  Vyantraloka,  world  of  demons  [devils],  and  the 
Vidyadharaloka,  world  of  demi-gods ;  and  again  above  these  are  sixteen 
different  kinds  of  Devalokas,  worlds  of  the  gods,  over  which  is  the  Ahamin- 
draloka,  world  of  Indra  ;  and  above  that  again  is  the  Mokshaloka,  world  of 
bliss  ;  where  dwells  the  Lord  of  all  these  worlds,  the  Supreme  Being,  called 
the  Anadi'Chitta-para-meshti  [Eternal-intellectual-heavenly-dweller.] 

**They  believe  that  this  earth  is  sixteen  cords  high,  and  seven  cords  broad ; 
but  this  measurement  is  not  within  the  comprehension  of  men  ;  it  is  known 
only  to  the  wise.  The  seas  and  islands  that  are  situated  on  the  earth  cannot 
be  perceived  and  estimated  by  man's  understanding.  They  affirm  that  in  the 
midst  of  the  earth  is  the  great  mountain  Meru,  and  that  to  the  South  of  it  is 
situated  the  Bharata  region,  and  to  the  North  the  Airavata  region,  and  to  the 
East  and  West  is  the  Videha  region.  They  also  affirm  that  on  both  sides  of 
Mount  Meru  are  situated  the  three  kinds  of  Bhogabhumi,  fruitful,  or 
felicitous  regions  ;  and  that  the  natives  of  these  regions  attain  to  great  age 
and  size  ;  that  they  cannot  interchange  places  ;  and  that  while  it  is  day  in 
one  of  the  lands,  it  is  night  in  the  other.  The  people  of  Videha  also  attain  to 
great  age  and  stature. 

"  The  Jainas  consider  Arugan  to  be  their  principal  god,  and  worship  him. 

*  From  the  Chintamani.    By  the  Eev.  H.  Bower.     Madras,  1868. 


JAI  275 

The  popular  name  of  this  god  is  Jinan ;  and  from  this  the  appellation  Jainaa 
is  derived.  To  this  god  one-thousand  and  eight  sacred  names  are  ascribed. 
Hls  greatness  is  such  that  the  three  worlds  worship  and  adore  him.  His 
knowledge  is  so  great  that  it  extends  simultaneously  to  all  things  sentient, 
and  unsentient,  to  things  that  have  been  conceived  and  that  will  be  conceived, 
to  worlds  and  to  worldless  spaces.  He  is  powerful  to  impart  the  knowledge 
of  his  doctrines  simultaneously  to  all  kinds  of  living  beiiigs,  in  their  respective 
language,  without  the  aid  of  mind,  word,  or  body  ;  and  this  he  does  of  pure 
grace,  and  not  from  any  selfish  motives.  He  does  not  possess  the  power 
[act]  of  creating  anything,  or  of  preserving  anything.  He  is  not  subject 
to  birth  or  death.  He  manifests  great  grace,  and  love,  and  mercy,  to  all 
sentient  beings.  He  is  of  infinite  wisdom,  of  infinite  intelligence,  of  infinite 
power,  and  of  infinite  bliss.  It  is  he  that  in  the  beginning,  with  a  view  of 
causing  happiness  to  all  living  beings,  made  known  the  twelve  primeval  Vedas, 
He  is  the  possessor  of  the  triple-umbrella.  He  is  without  beginning  and 
without  end.  He  is  the  possessor  of  the  three  wheels  of  justice.  He  is 
represented  with  four  holy  faces,  and  as  seated  in  the  shade  of  the  ashdka 
tree.  He  has  forsaken  the  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  actions  of  life.  He 
has  declared  that  the  Veda,  the  World,  Time,  Souls,  Action,  and  Virtue  are, 
like  himself,  imperishable  and  eternal  objects. 

"  The  god  Arugan  has  declared  that  there  is  no  other  god  besides  himself  ; 
that  all  who  worship  and  adore  him  will  obtain  bliss,  and  that  those  who  do 
not  worship  him  will  not  obtain  bliss  ;  that  all  living  beings  will  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  their  good  or  evil  actions  ;  that  by  preponderance  of  evil,  souls  enter 
hell,  and  by  preponderance  of  good,  they  enter  the  world  of  the  gods  ;  but 
when  good  and  evil  are  equally  balanced,  they  are  born  as  human  beings  ; 
when  evil  alone  exists,  they  are  born  as  irrational  animals;  and  when  both 
good  and  evil  are  destroyed,  then  they  are  liberated.  Since  Arugan  has 
declared  these  things,  the  Jains  firmly  believe  them  to  be  true  doctrines,  and 
since  all  other  systems  have  been  intermediately  introduced  by  certain 
persons,  they  positively  affirm  them  all  to  be  false  systems. 

*'  As  Time  is  considered  to  be  eternal,  it  is  indestructable  in  its  nature,  and 
is  divided  into  two  sorts,  viz  ,  the  Utsarpini  and  the  Avasarpini  time.  The 
Avasarpini  time  has  six  stages,  viz.,  good-good  time,  good  time,  good-bad 
time,  bad -good  time,  bad  time,  and  bad-bad  time.  In  like  manner  the 
Utsarpini  time  has  six  stages,  only  that  it  begins  at  the  bottom  of  the  list 
with  bad-bad  time  and  goes  backwards.  In  the  Utsarpini  time,  beginning 
from  bad-bad  time,  the  age  and  stature  of  men  increase,  as  that  of  the  waxing 
moon.  But  in  the  Avasarpini  time,  beginning  from  the  good-good  time,  the 
age  and  stature  of  men  decrease,  as  that  of  the  waxing  moon.  The  increase 
and  decrease  of  stature  is  up  to  six  thousand  Vils  [bows],  and  down  to  a 
cubit.     The    increase    and    decrease  of    age    will  be    from    three  pallaraf', 


276  JAI 

to  fifteen  years.  This  account  of  pallams  is  not  to  be  understood 
by  men.  In  the  above  specified  six  divisions  of  time,  the  first  consists 
of  four  krores  of  krores  of  oceans  of  years.  The  second  consists  of  three 
krores  of  krores  of  oceans  of  years.  The  third  consists  of  two  ki'ores  of  krores 
of  oceans  of  years.  The  fourth,  one  krore  of  krores  of  oceans  of  years,  save 
forty-two  thousand  years.  The  fifth  consists  of  twenty  thousand  years.  The 
sixth  also  consists  of  twenty  thousand  years.  This  account  of  oceans  is  not 
to  be  understood  by  men.  The  stage  in  which  we  now  live  is  the  fifth,  viz., 
the  bad  time.  When  the  two  sorts  of  time,  viz.,  the  Utsarpini  and  Avasarpini 
times  run  out,  it  is  Haid  to  be  a  Yugam.  Utsarpini  means  the  age  of  increase, 
and  Avasarpani  means  the  age  of  decrease. 

"  As  the  present  is  the  Avasarpini  time,  we  must  infer  that  the  three  good 
stages  of  time  have  already  passed  by,  and  that  the  Bharata  region,  and  the 
Airavata  region  have  both  been  Bhogabhumis,  fruitful  lands.  The  people  of 
those  times,  as  before  stated,  had  stature  of  body,  and  length  of  age  adequate 
to  the  times.  The  people  of  those  times  forty-five  days  after  their  birth, 
became  perfect  men,  and  were  well  up  in  all  sciences,  and  attained  all 
knowledge  by  themselves,  simply  from  the  plastic  power  of  the  time. 
Moreover  in  these  three  stages  of  time  there  was  no  light  of  the  sun  or  of 
the  moon  ;  but  day  and  night  were  formed  from  the  reflection  and  non- 
reflection  of  the  Kalpaka  trees.  Those  people  at  death  entered  the  world  of 
the  gods,  and  did  not  go  to  hell.  And  they  were  not  subject  to  the  ordinary 
physical  evils  connected  with  disease,  the  discharges  of  the  body,  &c. 

*'  Thus  after  the  existence  of  the  Bhogabhumi,  when  yet  there  was  one. 
eighth  of  time,  in  the  third  stage,  fourteen  Manus  were  born.  It  was  in  the 
time  of  these  Manus  that  the  sun  and  moon,  the  stars  and  clouds  appeared  ; 
division  of  time  into  years  and  months,  the  equinoctical  or  solstitial  course, 
the  lunar  half-month  or  fortnight,  the  six  seasons,  the  day  of  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  day  as  distinguished  from  night,  were  instituted  ;  means  of 
warding  ofi"  the  evils  arising  from  wild  beasts  were  discovered  ;  rivers,  tanks, 
reservoirs,  mountains,  and  a  variety  of  means  of  Hvelihood  were  brought  into 
use.  Of  the  above  mentioned  Manus,  ths  fourteenth  is  said  to  have  been 
Nabhi  Maharajah.  In  the  reign  of  this  Manu,  as  the  people  were  born  with 
the  umbilical  cord,  the  name  Nabhi  was  given.  In  his  reign  clouds  appeared, 
and  it  rained.  Then  appeared  trees  and  various  kinds  of  corn.  By  this  Manu 
men  were  taught  to  eat  fruit  and  grain,  and  the  way  of  preparing  food  ;  and 
he  also  pointed  out  the  way  of  weaving  cloths  from  cotton,  and  of  wearing 
them  ;  and  the  use  of  flowers,  garlands,  perfumes,  and  ornaments,  to  adorn 
the  person,  came  into  vogue. 

"This  Nabhi  Maharajah  is  said  by  some  to  be  Brahma.  His  consort  was 
Murudeviammal.  In  his  reign  was  born  the  first  incarnated  personage  named 
A'li^habha  Tirthankara.     After  him   were  born   twenty-three   Tirthankara>, 


JAI  277 

equal  to  himself.  In  their  days,  the  twelve  Chakravartis,  the  niue  Baladevas, 
the  nine  Vasudeva«,  and  the  nine  Prativasudevas  were  all  born  in  the  fovxrth 
stage.  These  sixty-three  persons  were  called  Salaka  purushas,  divine 
personages. 

*'  The  twenty-four  Tirthankaras,  without  the  instruction  of  a  Guru,  were 
skilled  in  the  circle  of  the  sciences,  knew  the  five  Kaliyanas  or  ceremonies  of 
the  gods,  were  worshipped  by  the  four  classes  of  the  gods,  and  at 
their  very  birth  were  endued  with  the  three  kinds  of  knowledge ; 
they  also  had  the  fourth  kind  of  knowledge,  by  the  exercise  of  which 
they  were  cognizant  of  the  thoughts  of  all  living  beings,  and  they  also 
possessed  the  fifth  kind  of  knowledge  called  Kevalajuanam  [spiritual 
knowledge,]  by  which  they  were  instantaneously  cognizant  of  all  things  done 
in  all  the  worlds.  They  sat  exalted  on  the  throne  in  the  temple  called 
Sambhavasai-anam,  constructed  by  the  Devendras.  They  were  the  possessors 
of  the  triple-umbrella  and  the  Ashoka  tree  ;  they  were  believed  in  as  gods 
over  gods,  as  omniscient,  as  lords  of  the  three  worlds,  as  removers  of  sin  and 
bestowers  of  heavenly  bliss,  as  persons  praised  by  all  living  beings,  as 
possessors  of  divine  attributes,  as  bearing  the  one  thousnd  and  eight  divine 
appellations,  as  having  the  one  thousand  and  eight  divine  marks  on  their 
sacred  bodies,  and  as  manifesting  abundant  grace,  love,  and  mercy  to  all 
living  beings,  and  pre-eminent  in  imparting  instruction  in  their  respective 
languages  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  celestial  and  the  terrestial  worlds,  to 
those  of  the  Nagaloka,  Vaiyantriloka,  and  Jotiloka,  and  also  to  irrational 
animals,  and  inculcating  the  virtues,  such  as  not  killing,  &c.,  prescribed  in 
the  twelve  Vedas.  As  these  twenty-four  Tirthankaras  are  incarnations  of 
wisdom,  and  are  divine  personages  who  appeared  in  the  world  and  attained 
the  enjoyment  of  heavenly  bliss,  the  Jainas  consider  them  to  be  Swamis 
equal  to  the  divine-natured  Arugan,  who  exists  in  this  Avasarpini  time.  And 
accordingly  they  build  temples  in  honour  of  these  Tirthankaras,  and  make 
images  like  them  of  stone,  wood,  gold,  and  precious  gems,  and  considering 
these  idols  as  the  god  Arugan  himself,  they  perform  daily  and  special  pujas 
[worship],  and  observe  fasts,  and  celebrate  festivals,  in  their  honour. 

"  They  moreover  say  that  in  the  time  of  Vrishaba  Tirthankara,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Baradeswara,  the  first  Chakravarti,  the  four  castes,  namely,  the 
Brahman,  the  Kshatriya,  the  Vaisya,  and  the  Sudra,  were  instituted  in 
connection  with  this  system. 

"They  moreover  allege  that  in  the  time  of  Vrishaba  Swami,  who  was  the 
first  Tirthankara,  the  Saiva  system  was  first  introduced  ;  and  about  the  same 
period,  by  the  fault  of  the  time,  one  hundred  and  six  heterodox  sects  were 
established  by  Marichi,  a  Prajapati  [Patriarch] ;  and  that  from  the  time  of 
Vimalaswami,  the  13th  Tirthankara.  the  Vaishnava  system  wa.?  introduced; 


278  JAI 

and  that  in  the  time  of  Paraawanatha,  the  20th  Tirthankara,  Mahomedanism 
was  established.  They  also  say  that  there  are  three  hundred  and  thirty-six 
false  systems  of  religion. 

"  They  moreover  affirm  that  during  the  j^eriod  of  the  20th  Tirthankara,  by 
the  fault  of  the  time,  Yagam,  animal  sacrifice,  was  first  introduced  by  an 
Asura  named  Mahakalesuran  ;  and  after  the  introduction  of  these  Yagams, 
temples  were  built  for  Siva  and  Vishnu, 

"  Moreover,  as  it  is  declared  in  the  Jaina  Vedas  that  all  the  gods  worshipped 
by  the  various  Hindu  Sects,  namely,  Siva,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Ganapati, 
Subramaniyan,  and  others,  were  devoted  adherents  of  the  abovementioned 
Tirthankaras,  the  Jainas  therefore  do  not  consider  them  as  unworthy  of  their 
worship ;  but  as  they  are  servants  of  Arugan,  they  consider  them  to  be 
deities  of  their  system,  and  accordingly  perform  certain  pujas  in  honour  of 
them,  and  worship  them  also. 

"  As  Jaina  temples  and  idols  are  to  be  seen  in  all  villages  and  countries, 
and  in  some  places  even  underground,  it  is  evident  that  the  Jaina  system, 
as  declared  in  their  Vedas,  was  the  primeval  system  of  the  Hindus.  As 
moreover,  when  the  Jaina  Vedas  are  carefully  examined,  there  will  be  found 
in  them  many  things  calculated  to  benefit  mankind  ;  and  since  Jaina  idols 
are  to  be  found  in  all  countries  ;  and  as  the  deities  worshipped  by  others  are 
believed  to  be  devotees  of  Arugan  ;  and  as  all  the  precepts  of  Arugan  point 
only  to  what  is  good  to  all  sentient  beings  ;  and  by  the  great  doctrine  that 
no  sentient  being  whatever,  even  a  tree,  should  be  destroyed ;  and  as 
there  are  many  things  in  the  system  beyond  the  reach  of  man's  understanding, 
and  which  can  by  no  means  whatever  be  comprehended  ;  and  as  it  is  evident 
from  their  Vedas  as  well  as  from  experience,  that  all  other  systems  originated 
among  themselves  through  the  fault  of  the  time,  from  misunderstanding,  and 
from  a  variety  of  other  causes  ;  it  is  evident  that  this  system  was  the 
primeval  one. 

"  The  Jainas  are  divided  into  two  parties,  the  Swetambaras,  and 
Digambaras.  Though  both  parties  have  the  same  Veda,  they  disagree  in  a 
few  things.  The  Swetambaras  have  many  internal  divisions,  and  the 
Digambaras  also  appear  to  have  a  few  internal  divisions. 

"  The  Jainas  are  prevalent  in  the  North.  Their  tenets  and  observances  are 
the  following  :  They  believe  that  not  to  kill  any  sentient  being  is  the  greatest 
virtue ;  not  to  tell  lies,  not  to  steal  other  men's  goods,  not  to  covet  other 
men's  wives,  and  to  desire  moderately  such  things  as  money,  grain,  house, 
garden,  land,  vehicle,  clothing,  &c.  ;  these  four  ordinances  they  consider  of 
equal  importance  with  the  injunction  not  to  kill. 

"  Moreover,  not  to  eat  at  night,  and  to  drink  water  strained,  are  held  to  be 
high  virtues.     And  not  to  drink  toddy,  or  honey,  or  arrack,  are  also  believed 


JAI  279 

to  be  important  injunctions.  They  are  also  forbidden  to  eat  figs,  the  fruit  of 
the  banian,  the  peepul,  the  koli  and  the  jujube,  as  well  as  the  snake-vegetable, 
the  calabash,  gunjah  (bhang),  opium,  onions,  assafsetida,  garlic,  radish, 
mushroom,  &c.  Such  articles,  and  others  which  have  much  seed  in  them, 
they  will  not  ao  much  as  think  of  eating  even  in  an  emergency  where  death 
is  imminent  on  such  abstinence  ;  and  any  kind  of  flesh  meat  they  will  not 
even  inadvertently  touch  with  the  hand. 

*'  These  and  similar  observances  are  enjoined  on  those  who  live  in  the 
domestic  state  ;  and  if  we  were  to  write  largely  upon  them  many  books 
would  be  required  ;  we  shall,  therefore,  abridge  what  we  have  to  say.  They 
have  in  fact  twelve  thousand  injunctions  to  observe.  But  regarding  those 
who  live  in  the  ascetic  state,  as  much  time  will  be  required  both  to  write  and 
to  read,  we  have  not  ventured  to  describe  them.  However,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  that  they  firmly  believe  that  there  is  no  final  liberation  [bliss]  in  the 
domestic,  but  only  in  the  ascetic  state  ;  nor  is  liberation  to  be  attained  by 
females,  irrational  animals,  or  Sudras,  nor  by  celestial,  nor  infernal  beings  ; 
and  they  moreover  hazard  the  assertion  that  during  the  fifth  and  sixth 
stages  of  time  there  is  no  liberation  for  any  one  ;  and  they  show  that  Time 
alone  is  the  cause  of  this  evil.  They  also  affirm  that  there  are  always  three 
less  nine  krores  of  IMunis  [ascetics]  on  earth. 

"  The  Jainas  hold  that  the  function  [act,  work]  of  the  Divine  Being  is  to 
exercise  love  and  mercy  to  all  living  beings,  and  reveal  to  them  the  Vedas,  in 
order  that  they  may  walk  according  to  the  precepts  enjoined  in  them  ;  and 
that  the  function  [act,  work]  of  all  living  beings  is  either  to  do  good  or  evil, 
and  have  fruition  of  their  deeds  ;  and  that  the  attainment  of  heaven  or  hell 
is  also  their  own  act,  and  that  it  is  in  their  own  power  to  renounce  sin,  and 
to  obtain  merit.     This  they  consider  to  be  true  doctrine." 

According  to  Mr.  Max  MUller  the  Nirwaua  of  the  Buddhists  is 
absolute  and  total  annihilation  ;  but  the  Jainas  certainly  do  not 
attach  any  such  meaning  to  the  terra  ;  it  is  with  thera  a  more 
defined  state  of  existence  than  the  Moksha  of  the  Hindus.  "  The 
Jainas  not  only  affirm  that  there  is  such  a  state,  but  they  define 
the  size  of  the  emancipated  souls,  the  place  where  they  live,  their 
tangible  qualities,  the  duration  of  their  existence,  the  distance  at 
which  they  are  from  one  another,  their  parts,  natures  and  numbers. 
Those  who  attain  to  this  nirwaua,  this  extinction  of  action,  this  final 
liberation,  do  not  return  to  a  wordly  state,  and  there  is  no  interrup- 
tion to  their  bliss.  They  have  perfect  vision  and  knowledge,  and  do 
not  depend  on  works.     (Rev.  J.  Stevenson.     The  Kalpa  Sutra.) 

As  noticed  in  the  extract  given  above  from  Muushi  Sastrara,  the 


280  JAI 

Jainas  are  divided  into  two  principal  divisions,  Digambaras  and 
Swetambaras.  The  former  word  means  'sky-clad,'  or  naked,  but 
in  the  present  day,  ascetics  of  this  division  wear  coloured  garments, 
and  confine  the  disuse  of  clothes  to  the  period  of  their  meals. 
Swetambara  means  '  one  who  wears  white  garments  ;'  but  the 
points  of  difference  between  these  two  divisions  are  far  from  being 
restricted  to  that  of  dress  :  it  is  said  to  comprehend  a  list  of  seven 
hundred  topics,  of  which  eighty-four  are  considered  to  be  of 
paramount  importance.  Amongst  the  latter  are  mentioned  the 
practice  of  the  Swetambaras  to  decorate  the  images  of  their  saints 
with  earrings,  necklaces,  armlets,  and  tiaras  of  gold  and  jewels  ; 
Avhereas  the  Digambaras  leave  their  images  without  ornaments. 
Again,  the  Swetambaras  assert  that  there  are  twelve  heavens  and 
sixty-four  Indras  ;  whereas  the  Digambaras  maintain  that  there 
are  sixteen  heavens  and  one  hundred  Indras.  In  the  south  of 
India,  the  Jainas  are  divided  into  two  castes  ;  in  Upper  Hindustan, 
they  are  all  of  one  caste.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  amongst 
themselves  they  recognise  a  number  of  families  between  which  no 
intermarriage  can  take  place,  and  that  they  resemble,  in  this  respect 
also,  the  ancient  Brahmanical  Hindus,  who  established  similar 
restrictions  in  their  religious  codes. 

As  regards  the  pantheon  of  the  Jaiua  creed,  it  is  still  more 
fantastical  than  that  of  the  Brahmanical  sects,  whence  it  is 
borrowed  to  a  great  extent,  but  without  any  of  the  poetical  and 
philosophical  interest  Avhich  inheres  in  the  gods  of  the  Vedic  time. 
The  highest  rank  amongst  their  numberless  hosts  of  divine  beings — 
divided  by  them  into  four  classes,  with  various  sub-divisions — they 
assign  to  the  deified  saints,  wliich  they  call  Jina,  or  Arhat,  or 
Tirthankara,  besides  a  variety  of  other  generic  names.  The  Jainas 
enumerate  twenty-four  Tirthaukaras  of  their  past  age,  twenty-four 
of  the  present,  and  twenty-four  of  the  age  to  come  ;  and  they 
invest  these  holy  personages  with  thirty-six  superhuman  attributes 
of  the  most  extravagant  character.  Notwithstanding  the  sameness 
of  these  attributes,  they  distinguish  the  twenty-four  Jainas  of  the 
present  age  from  each  other  in  colour,  stature,  and  longevity. 
Two  of  them  are  red,  two  white,  two  blue,  two  black  ;  the  rest 
are  of  a    golden   hue,    or  a   yellowish   brown.     The    other  two 


JAI— JAM  281 


peculiarities  are  regulated  by  them  with  equal  precision,  and 
according  to  a  system  of  decrement,  from  Rishabha,  the  first  Jina, 
who  was  five  hundred  poles  in  stature,  and  lived  8,400,000  great 
years,  down  to  Mahavira,  the  24th,  who  had  degenerated  to  the 
size  of  a  man,  and  was  no  more  than  forty  years  on  earth  ;  the  age 
of  his  predecessor,  Pilrswanatha,  not  exceeding  one  hundred  years. 
The  present  worship  is  almost  restricted  to  the  two  lastTirthaukaras  ; 
and  as  the  stature  and  years  of  these  personages  have  a  reasonable 
possibility,  II.  T.  Colebrooke  inferred  that  they  alone  are  to  be 
considered  as  historical  personages.  As,  moreover,  amongst  the 
disciples  of  Mahavira  there  is  one,  Indrabhuti,  who  is  called 
Gautama,  and  as  Gautama  is  also  a  name  of  the  founder  of  the 
Buddha  faith,  the  same  distinguished  scholar  concluded  that,  if 
the  identity  between  these  names  could  be  assumed,  it  would  lead 
to  the  further  surmise  that  both  these  sects  are  branches  of  the 
same  stock.  But  against  this  view,  which  would  assign  to  the 
Jaina  religion  an  antiquity  even  higher  than  543  before  Christ — 
the  date  which  is  commonly  ascribed  to  the  apotheosis  of  Gautama 
Buddha — several  reasons  are  alleged  by  Professor  Wilson.  As  to 
the  real  date,  however,  of  the  origin  of  the  Jaina  faith,  as  the 
same  scholar  justly  observes,  it  is  immersed  in  the  same  obscurity 
which  invests  all  remote  history  amongst  the  Hindus.  We  can 
only  infer  from  the  existing  Jaina  literature,  and  from  the  doctrines 
it  inculcates,  that  it  came  later  into  existence  than  Buddhism. 

Jaitra — The  name  of  the  chariot  of  Krishna. 

Jajali — A  pupil  of  Pathya,  and  teacher  of  the  Atharva  Veda. 

Jaleyu — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Raudraswa,  a  descendant  of  Puru. 

Jamadagni — One  of  the  seven  Rishis,  or  great  sages  of  the 
seventh  Manwantara,  the  present  period. 

Jamadagni — The  son  of  Richlka,  was  a  pious  sage,  who  by  the 
fervour  of  his  devotions,  whilst  engaged  iu  holy  study,  obtained 
entire  possession  of  the  Vedas.  Having  gone  to  king  Praseuajit, 
he  demanded  in  marriage  his  daughter  Renuka,  and  the  king  gave 
her  unto  him.  The  descendant  of  Bhrigu  conducted  the  princess 
to  his  hermitage,  and  dwelt  with  her  there,  and  she  was  contented 
to  partake  in  his  ascetic  life.     They  had  four  sous,  and  then  a 


282  JAM 

fifth,  who  was  eJamadagiiya,  (Rama)  the  last  but  not  the  least  of 
the  brethren.  Once  when  her  sons  were  all  absent,  to  gather  the 
fruits  on  which  they  fed,  Renuka,  who  was  exact  in  the  discharge 
of  all  her  duties,  went  forth  to  bathe.  On  her  way  to  the  stream 
she  beheld  Chitraratha,  the  prince  of  Mrittikjivati,  with  a  garland 
of  lotuses  on  his  neck,  sporting  with  his  queen  in  the  water,  and 
she  felt  envious  of  their  felicity.  Defiled  by  unworthy  thoughts, 
wetted  but  not  purified  by  the  stream,  she  returned  disquieted  to 
the  hermitage,  and  her  husband  perceived  her  agitation.  Beholding 
her  fallen  from  perfection,  and  shorn  of  the  lustre  of  her  sanctity, 
Jamadagni  reproved  her,  and  was  exceeding  wrath.  Upon  this 
there  came  her  sons  from  the  wood,  first  the  eldest,  RumauAvat, 
then  Sushena,  then  Vasu,  and  then  Viswavasu  ;  and  each,  as  he 
entered,  was  successively  commanded  by  his  father  to  put  his 
mother  to  death  ;  but  amazed,  and  influenced  by  natural  affection, 
none  of  them  made  any  reply  :  therefore  Jamadagni  was  angry, 
and  cursed  them,  and  they  became  as  idiots,  and  lost  all 
understanding,  and  were  like  unto  beasts  or  birds.  Lastly,  Rama 
returned  to  the  hermitage,  when  the  mighty  and  holy  Jamadagni 
said  unto  him,  *Kill  thy  mother,  who  has  sinned  ;  and  do  it,  son, 
w^ithout  repining.'  Rama  accordingly  took  up  his  axe,  and  struck 
off  his  mother's  head  ;  whereupon  the  wrath  of  the  illustrious  and 
mighty  Jamadagni  was  assuaged,  and  he  was  pleased  with  his  sou, 
and  said,  '  Since  thou  hast  obeyed  my  commands,  and  done  what 
was  hard  to  be  performed,  demand  from  me  whatever  blessings 
thou  wilt,  and  thy  desires  shall  be  all  fulfilled.'  Then  Rama 
begged  of  his  father  these  boons  ;  the  restoration  of  his  mother  to 
life,  with  forgetfuluess  of  her  having  been  slain,  and  purification 
from  all  defilement  ;  the  return  of  his  brothers  to  their  natural 
condition  ;  and,  for  himself,  invincibility  in  single  combat,  and 
length  of  days  ;  and  all  these  did  his  father  bestow. 

"  It  happened  on  one  occasion,  that,  during  the  absence  of  the 
Rishi's  sons,  the  mighty  monarch  Karttavirya,  the  sovereign  of 
the  Haihaya  tribe,  endowed  by  the  favour  of  Dattatreya  with  a 
thousand  arms,  and  a  golden  chariot  that  went  wheresoever  he 
willed  it  to  go,  came  to  the  hermitage  of  Jamadagni,  where  the 
wife  of  the  sage  received  him  with  all  proper  respect.     The  king^, 


JAM  283 

inflated  with  the  pilJe  of  valour,  made  no  return  to  her  liospitality, 
but  carried  off  with  him  by  violence  the  calf  of  the  milch  cow  of 
the  sacred  oblation,  and  cast  down  the  tall  trees  surrounding  the 
hermitage.  When  Rama  returned,  his  father  told  him  what  had 
chanced,  and  he  saw  the  cow  in  affliction,  and  he  was  filled  with 
wrath.  Taking  up  his  splendid  bow,  Bluirgava,  the  slayer  of 
hostile  heroes,  he  assailed  Karttavirya,  who  had  now  become  subject 
to  the  power  of  death,  and  overthrew  him  in  battle.  With  sharp 
arrows  Rama  cut  off  his  thousand  arms,  and  the  king  perished, 
The  sons  of  Karttavirya,  to  revenge  his  death,  attacked  the 
hermitage  of  Jamadagni,  when  Rama  was  away,  and  slew  the 
pious  and  unresisting  sage,  who  called  repeatedly,  but  fruitlessly, 
upon  his  valiant  son.  They  then  departed  ;  and  when  Rama 
returned,  bearing  fuel  from  the  thickets,  he  found  his  father 
lifeless.     V.  P.    See  Rama. 

Jambavat--The  kicg  of  the  bears,  that  killed  the  lion  that  slew 
Prasena,  the  possessor  of  the  Syamautaka  gem.  The  lion  had  the 
jewel  in  his  mouth  when  he  was  killed  by  Jimbavat,  who  carrying 
off  the  gem  retired  into  his  cave,  and  gave  it  to  his  son  Sukumara 
to  play  with.  The  murder  of  Prasena  having  been  ascribed  to 
Krislnm,  he  determined  to  recover  the  gem,  and  having  found  the 
cavern  of  Jambavat,  he  saw  the  brilliant  jewel  in  the  hands  of  the 
nurse,  who  called  loudly  for  help.  Hearing  her  cries  Jambavat 
came  into  the  cave,  and  a  conflict  ensued  between  him  and.Krishiia 
which  lasted  twenty-one  days.  At  last  eJambavat  was  vanquished 
and  acknowledged  the  divinity  of  Krishna,  who  then  alleviated 
the  bodily  pain  the  bear  suffered  from  the  fight.  Jambavat 
prostrated  himself  and  offered  his  daughter  Jambavati  along  with 
the  Syamantaka  jewel.  Jambavat  was  one  of  the  generals  in 
Rama's  army  at  the  siege  of  Lanka.  H(}  was  severely  wounded  by 
the  magical  weapons  of  Indrajit  ;  but  Avas  still  conscious,  and  made 
known  to  Hanuman  the  existence  of  the  four  medicinal  herbs,  that 
grew  at  Kailasa  on  the  Himalaya  mountains,  and  by  virtue  of 
which  all  the  dead  and  wounded  might  be  restored.  Hanuman  at 
once  flew  to  the  spot,  and  brought  the  mountain  peak  and  all 
its  contents  back  with  him  to  the  camp,  and  Jambavat,  with  the 
other  chiefs  were  soon  made  well. 


284  JAM— JAN 


Jamabvati — One  of  the  wives  of  Krishna  obtained  as  related 
in  the  preceding  article. 

Jambu — The  name  of  the  rose-apple  tree  on  Mount  Gandha- 
madaua,  the  southern  buttress  of  Mount  Meru.  From  the  Jambu- 
tree  the  insular  continent,  Jambu-dwipa  derives  its  appellation. 
The  apples  are  said  to  be  as  large  as  eJeiDhants.     V.  P. 

Jambu-dwipa — The  centre  of  the  seven  great  insular  conti- 
nents, which,  with  the  seven  seas,  are  supposed  to  form  alternate 
concentric  circles.  In  the  centre  of  Jambu-dwipa  is  the  golden 
mountain  Meru. 

Jambumali — The  son  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Rakshasas,  who  was  sent  by  Ravana  against  Ilanumau  with  orders 
not  to  return  until  he  had  slain  the  blood-thirsty  monkey.  But 
Hauuman  took  up  a  large  tree  and  hurled  it  at  the  head  of  his 
enemy  ;  afterwards  he  took  up  a  pillar  and  threw  it  at  Jambu-mali, 
dashing  him  and  his  chariot  to  pieces. 

Jambunada — The  soil  in  the  banks  of  the  river  Jambu, 
absorbing  the  Jambu  juice,  and  being  dried  by  gentle  breezes 
becomes  the  gold  termed  Jambunada,  of  which  the  ornaments  of 
the  Siddhas  are  fabricated. 

Jambu  river — The  apples  of  the  Jambu  tree  are  as  large  as 
elephants  ;  when  they  are  rotten  they  fall  upon  the  crest  of  the 
mountain,  and  from  their  expressed  juice  is  formed  the  Jambu- 
river,  the  waters  of  which  are  drunk  by  the  inhabitants  ;  and  in 
consequence  of  drinking  of  that  stream  they  pass  their  days  in 
content  and  health,  being  subject  neither  to  perspiration,  to  foul 
odours,  to  decrepitude,  nor  organic  decay.     V.  P. 

Janaka — The  Raja  of  Mithila  (the  modern  Tirhoot)  the 
successor  of  Nimi,  called  Janaka  from  being  born  without  a 
progenitor.  Another  Raja  of  Mithila  of  the  same  name,  called  also 
Siradharaja,  is  the  more  celebrated  as  the  father  of  Sita. 

He  received  Viswamitra  the  sage  with  Rilma  and  Lakshmana, 
and  exhibited  to  them  the  great  bow  of  Siva,  informing  them  that 
his  daughter  Sita  was  promised  to  the  Raja  who  could  bend  the 
bow.     Rama  then  bent  the  bow  in  their  presence  and  claimed  his 


JAN  285 

reward.  The  Raja  invited  Dasaratha  to  tlie  marriage,  and 
proposed  to  marry  his  two  daughters  to  Rama  and  Lakshmuna  ; 
and  his  two  nieces  to  Bharata  and  Satrughna.  The  sages  approved 
of  the  marriages  of  the  four  damsels  to  the  four  sons  of  Dasaratha. 
The  Latter  performed  a  great  Sraddha  to  the  ghosts  of  his  deceased 
ancestors,  and  gave  four  lakhs  of  cows  with  their  calves  to  the 
Brahmaus,  being  a  lakh  for  each  sou,  and  each  cow  was  adorued 
with  horns  of  pure  gold.  The  marriage  rites  were  then  performed 
Avith  great  pomp  and  overpowering  splendour.  (Ramayaua) 
Janaka  was  also  the  name  of  a  king  of  Magadha,  and  seems  to  have 
been  a  general  title  of  Mithila  kings. 

Janakpur— A  ruined  city  in  the  northern  skirts  of  the  Mithila 
district  (Tirhiit)  and  supposed  to  indicate  the  site  of  a  city  founded 
by  one  of  the  princes  of  that  name. 

Jana-loka — The  heaven  of  saints  where  Sanandaua  and  other 
pure-minded  sons  of  Brahma  reside,  situated  twenty  millions  of 
leagues  above  Dhruva.  During  a  pralaya  or  general  conflagration 
of  all  things  at  the  end  of  a  Kalpa,  Jana-loka  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  all-devouring  flame  ;  and  the  saints  who  dwell  in  Mahar- 
loka,  when  the  heat  of  the  flames  that  destroy  the  world,  is  felt  by 
them,  repair  to  Jana-loka  in  thin  subtile  forms,  destined  to  become 
re-embodied,  in  similar  Cxipacities  as  their  former,  when  (he  world 
is  renewed  at  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  Kalpa.     Y.  P. 

Janamejaya — The  king  of  Vaisali,  whose  father  Somadatta 
celebrated  ten  times  the  sacrifice  of  a  horse.  Also  a  sou  of 
Puraujaya,  a  descendant  of  Ana.  Parikshit,  the  son  of  Kuru,  had 
also  a  son  named  Janamejaya  ;  and  another  Parikshit,  the  son  of 
Abhimauyu,  had  a  son  named  Janamejaya. 

Janarddana— The  name  of  Vislmu  as  the  one  only  God, 
derived  from  Jana  '  men'  and  Arddana,  worship,  the  object  of 
adoration  to  mankind. 

Janasruti— A  king  mentioned  in  the  Chhandogya-Upanishad, 
described  as  charitably-disposed,  the  giver  of  large  gifts,  and  the 
preparer  of  much  food  ;  who  built  houses  everywhere  that  people 
from  all  sides  mip:lit  come  and  feast  therein. 


28G  JAN—JAR 


Jangalas — One  of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  dwellers  in  thickets 
and  jungles.  Many  of  the  aborigines  were  driven  into  the  forests 
by  the  Aryan  invaders. 

Jangams,  or  LingayatS — One  of  the  forms  in  which  the 
Linga  worship  appears,  is  that  of  the  Lingayats,  Lingawants,  or 
Jangams,  the  essential  characteristic  of  which  is  wearing  the 
emblem  on  some  part  of  the  dress  or  person.  The  type  is  of  a 
small  size,  made  of  copper  or  silver,  and  is  commonly  worn, 
suspended  in  a  case,  round  the  neck,  or  sometimes  tied  in  the 
turban.  In  common  with  the  Saivas  generally,  the  Jangamas 
smear  their  foreheads  with  Vihhxiti  (ashes),  wear  necklaces,  and 
carry  rosaries  made  of  the  Rudraksha  seed.  The  clerical  members 
of  the  sect  usually  stain  their  garments  with  red  ochre.  They  are 
not  numerous  in  upper  India,  and  are  rarely  encountered  except  as 
mendicants,  leading  about  a  bull,  the  living  type  of  Nandi,  the  bull 
of  Siva,  decorated  with  housings  of  various  colours  and  strings  of 
kauri  shells.  The  conductor  carries  a  bell  in  his  hand,  and,  thus 
accompanied,  goes  about  from  place  to  place,  subsisting  upon  alms. 
In  the  South  of  India  the  Lingayats  are  very  numerous,  and  the 
officiating  priests  of  the  Saiva  shrines  are  commonly  of  this  sect, 
when  they  bear  the  designations  of  Jrddki/a  and  Pajiddra?7i.  The 
sect  is  also  there  known  by  the  name  of  Vira  Saiva.  The  restorer 
if  not  the  founder  of  this  faith,  was  Basava  whose  history  is  given 
in  the  Basava  Puraua,  q.  v. — H.  H.  Wilson^  Vol.  I,  p.  224. 

Janma — A  birth  ;  a  state  of  existence  ;  nativity,  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  study  included  in  the  Brihat-Sanhita. 

JantU — The  eldest  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Somaka.  Also  the 
name  of  a  son  of  Sudanwau. 

Jara — An  allegorical  personage  signifying  '  old  age'  '  decay' — 
mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as  the  name  of  the  hunter  by 
whom  Krishna  was  slain.  He  mistook  the  foot  of  Krishna  for 
part  of  a  deer,  and  shooting  his  arrow  lodged  it  in  the  side.  He 
then  said,  *  Have  pity  on  me  ;  I  have  done  this  unwittingly, 
Krishna  forgave  him  and  sent  him  to  heaven  in  his  own  car.  Jara 
was  also  the  name  of  the  female  fiend  who  united  the  two  parts  of 
Jarasaudha. 


JAR-JAT  287 


Jaradgava — The  southern  portion  or  Avashthana  of  the 
planetary  sphere  or  path  of  the  sun  and  planets  amongst  the  lunar 
asterisms. 

Jaradgavi — A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions,  occurring  in  the 
Central  or  Vaiswanara  Avasthana. 

Jarasandha — The  sou  of  Vrihadratha,  who  was  born  in  two 
parts  and  put  together  by  the  female  fiend  Jara.  AVheu  he  grew 
up  he  became  king  of  Magadha,  and  hearing  that  Krishna  had 
killed  liis  son-in-law,  he  collected  a  large  force  and  beseiged 
Mathura  ;  he  was  defeated,  but  renewed  the  attack  eighteen  times 
without  success.  When  Yudhishthira  was  about  to  perform  the 
Rajasuya,  Krishna  informed  him  that  there  was  one  Raja  still  to  be 
conquered  before  he  began  the  great  sacrifice,  and  that  was 
Jarasandha  the  Raja  of  Magadha.  Krishna,  Aijuna  and  Bhima 
then  disguised  themselves  as  brahmans  and  journeyed  to  the  city 
of  Magadha,  and  Bhima  challenged  Jarasandha  to  single  combat  ; 
the  challenge  was  accepted  and  after  a  hard  contest  tlie  Raja  was 
slain.  The  story  is  related  at  great  length  in  the  Mahabharata, 
but  the  details  are  purely  mythical. 

Jaratkaru — The  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-seventh  Dwapara. 
Jarudhi— One  of  the  mountain  ridges  which  project  from  the 
base  of  Mount  Meru,  on  the  western  side. 

Jataka — A  birth  ;  a  state  of  existence  ;  the  title  of  one  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Buddhists,  containing  an  account  of  Gautama 
Buddha  in  550  diiferent  births. 

Jatas — One  of  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  Ilaihaya  tribe. 

Jatayu — A  son  of  Syeni  and  Aruna.  A  semi-divine  bird,  the 
friend  of  Rima,  who  fought  in  defence  of  Sita.  He  heard  her 
cries  in  the  chariot  of  Ravana,  stopped  the  chariot  and  fought 
desperately  with  the  formidable  giant,  but  was  mortally  wounded 
and  only  lived  to  make  known  to  Rama  the  fate  of  Sita.  The 
funeral  rites  of  the  chief  of  vultures  were  carefully  performed  by 
Rama  and  Lakshmana. 

Jathara — A  range  of  mountains  running  north  and  south,  and 
connectinsf  the  two  chains  of  Nishadha  and  Nfln. 


288  JAT— JAY 


Jatharagni — The  name  iu  a  previous  birth  of  the  Muni 
Agastya. 

Jatharas — A  tribe  of  aborigines  inhabiting  the  mountain  range 
termed  Jathara. 

Jaughira— An  interesting  and  picturesque  place  of  pilgrimage 
between  BhaguliDur  and  Monghir.  Iu  the  middle  of  the  river 
there  is  a  romantic  rock,  with  a  temple  surmounting  it  sacred  to 
Siva  ;  while  in  the  mainland,  and  close  to  the  small  town,  there  is 
another  hill  of  the  same  kind,  on  which  temples  have  been  built, 
some  of  them  of  great  antiquity.  The  place  has  long  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  being  the  residence  of  holy  devotees  ;  Mussalmau 
as  "well  as  Hindu. 

Javali — A  renowned  logician  who  at  Chitra  Kiita  endeavoured 
to  persuade  Rama  that  it  was  his  duty  to  accept  the  Raj  when 
Bharata  himself  offered  it.  Rama  regarded  his  arguments  as 
atheistical  and  wanting  iu  respect  for  his  deceased  father  the 
Maharaja.  Javali  ultimately  recants.  Mr.  Wheeler  regards  the 
incident  as  an  interpolation  to  bring  forward  Buddhism  and 
Atheism  for  the  sake  of  refuting  them. 

Jaya — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Gusruta. 
Jayadratha — A  descendant  of  Anu  and  son  of  Vrihanmanas. 
Also  the  name  of  a  son  of  Vrihatkarman,  a  descendant  of  Hastiu. 

Jayadhwaja — The  king  of  Avanti ;  one  of  chief  of  the 
hundred  sons  of  Karttavirya. 

Jayanta — A  name  applied  to  one  of  the  Rudras.  The  Puranic 
writers  apply  to  the  Rudras  different  appellations  of  the  common 
prototype,  or  synonyms  of  Rudra  and  Siva,  selected  at  random 
from  his  thousand  and  eight  names. 

Jayantpura — A  city  founded  by  Nimi,  near  the  Asrama  of 
Gautama. 

Jayas — In  the  beginning  of  the  Kalpa  twelve  gods,  named 
Jayas,  were  created  by  Bramha  as  his  deputies  and  assistants  in 
the  creation.  They,  lost  in  meditation,  neglected  his  commands  ; 
on   which    he    sentenced   them   to   be  repeatedly    born   iu    each 


JAY— JUM  289 


Manwaiitara  till  the  scvcuth.  They  were  accordiugly  in  the 
several  successive  Manwautaras,  Ajitas,  Treshitas,  Satyas,  Haris, 
Vaikunthas,  Sadyas,  and  Adityas. 

Jayati— The  metre  created  from  the  western  mouth  of  Bramha 
along  with  the  Sama  Veda,  the  collection  of  hymns  termed 
Saptadasa  and  the  Aitaratra  sacrifice. 

Jayasena — The  son  of  Adiua  ;  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Kuru,  Sarvabhauma  had  a  son  also  named  Jayasena. 

Jhajhara — A  daitya  of  great  prowess,  the  son  of  Hiranyaksha. 

Jillikas — one  of  the  aboriginal  or  Non-Aryan  tribes  mentioned 
in  the  V.  P. 

Jimuta — A  prince,  son  of  Vyomau,  a  descendant  of  Jyumagha, 

Jiva — The  soul  ;  "  Spirit  cannot  change  ;  intelligence  has  no 
knowledge  ;  the  soul  (jiva)  knowing  things  in  excess  is  subject  to 
illusion,  and  says,  '  I  act,  I  see.*  If  spirit  falls  into  the  error  of 
supposing  the  individual  soul,  jiva,  to  be  itself,  as  one  might 
suppose  a  rope  to  be  a  snake,  it  becomes  frightened  ;  but  so  soon 
as  it  perceives  I  am  not  jiva,  but  the  Supreme  spirit,  {pardtmaii) 
it  is  released  from  all  fear."  Atma  Bodha,  quoted  in  A.  and  M.  /., 
Vol.  I,  p.  212. 

Jivata — Man's  individual  spirit  ;  it  is  an  error  to  attribute  the 
spirit  of  life  (or  man's  individual  spirit,  jivata,)  to  the  Supreme 
Spirit,  just  as  it  is  an  error  to  take  a  post  for  a  man.  When  once 
the  true  nature  o? jivata  has  been  recoguised^imia  itself  disappears." 
Atma  Bodha,  quoted  in  A.  a?id  M.  I.  p.  214. 

Jogi— See  Vogi. 

Jumnotree — A  sacred  spot  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  near  a 
junction  of  three  streams.  From  the  bed  of  the  torrent  the 
mountain  rises  at  once  to  its  height,  apparently  without  any  very 
extensive  irregularities,  and  the  steepness  of  the  declivity  at  this 
point  may  in  some  degree  be  estimated,  when  it  is  understood  that 
here,  though  at  the  foot  of  this  upper  region  of  the  mountain,  the 
very  peaks  arc  seen  towering  above  as  ready  to  overwhelm  the 

37 


290  JNA—JYA 


gazer  with  the  snow  from  their  summit,  and,  in  fact,  the  avalanches 
from  above  fall  into  the  channel  of  the  river.  The  particular  spot 
which  obtains  the  name  of  Jumnotree  is  very  little  below  the  place 
where  the  various  small  streams  formed  on  the  mountain  brow,  by 
the  melting  of  many  masses  of  snow,  unite  in  one,  and  fall  into  a 
basin  below.     Balfour  s  CyclopcBdia  of  India. 

Jnana— "  Wisdom,"  the  various  epithets  applied  to  it  in  the 
Yoga  philosophy  are  that  it  "  requires  no  exercise,"  "  without  the 
practice  of  abstract  contemplation  ;"  "not  to  be  taught,"  "not 
capable  of  being  eijoined"  -'internally  diffused,"  etc.,  "of  all 
means  knowledge  alone  is  able  to  effect  emancipation  ;  as  without 
fire  there  can  be  no  cooking,  so  Vi^'iiYiont  j nana,  science,  there  can  be 
no  final  deliverance."     Atnia  Bodha,  A.  and  M.  /.,  Vol.  /,  p.  210. 

Jrimbhika — "  Yawning,"  a  form  or  manifestation  of  Brahma. 
V.  P.  40. 

Jyamagha — A  king,  celebrated  for  his  devotion  to  his  wife. 
"  Of  all  the  husbands  submissive  to  their  waves,  who  have  been  or 
who  will  be,  the  most  eminent  is  the  king  Jyamagha,  who  was  the 
husband  of  Saivya,  who  was  barren  :  but  Jyamagha  was  so  much 
afraid  of  her,  that  he  did  not  take  any  other  wife.  On  one  occasion 
the  king,  after  a  desperate  conflict  with  elephants  and  horse, 
defeated  a  powerful  foe,  who  abandoning  wife,  children,  kin,  army, 
treasure,  and  dominion,  fled.  When  the  enemy  was  put  to  flight, 
Jyamagha  beheld  a  lovely  princess  left  alone,  and  exclaiming, 
"  Save  me,  father  !  Save  me,  brother  !"  as  her  large  eyes  rolled 
wildly  with  affright.  The  king  was  struck  by  her  beauty,  and 
penetrated  with  affection  for  her,  and  said  to  himself,  "  This  is 
fortunate  ;  I  have  no  children,  and  am  the  husband  of  a  sterile 
bride  :  this  maiden  has  fallen  into  my  hands  to  rear  up  posterity  : 
I  will  espouse  her  ;  but  first  I  will  take  her  in  my  car,  and  convey 
her  to  my  palace,  where  I  must  request  the  concurrence  of  the 
queen  in  these  nuptials."  Accordingly  he  took  the  princess  into 
his  chariot,  and  returned  to  his  own  capital. 

When  Jyaraagha's  approach  was  announced,  Saivya  came  to  the 
palace  gate,   attended  by   the  ministers,    the  courtiers,  and  the 


JYE— JYO  291 


citizens,  to  welcome  the  victorious  monarch  :  but  when  she  beheld 
the  maiden  standing  on  the  left  hand  of  the  king,  her  lips  swelled 
and  slightly  quivered  with  resentment,  and  she  i?aid  to  Jyamagha^. 
"  Who  is  this  light-hearted  damsel  that  is  with  yoii  in  the  chariot  ?" 
The  king  unprepared  with  a  reply,  made  answer  precipitately, 
through  fear  of  his  queen  ;  This  is  my  daughter-in-law."  "  I  have 
never  had  a  son,"  rejoined  Saivya,  "  and  you  have  no  other  children. 
Of  what  son  of  yours  then  is  this  girl  the  wife  ?"  The  king 
disconcerted  by  the  jealousy  and  anger  which  the  words  of  Saivyi 
displayed,  made  this  reply  to  her  in  order  to  prevent  further 
contention  ;  *'  She  is  the  young  bride  of  the  future  son  whom  thou 
shalt  bring  forth,"  Hearing  this,  Saivya  smiled  gently,  and  said, 
"  So  be  it ;"  and  the  king  entered  into  his  great  palace.     V.  P. 

Jyeshta^A  lunar  month  corresponding  to  May. 

Jyeshta — The  goddess  of  misfortune  ;  produced  at  the  churning 
of  the  ocean  according  to  the  enumeration  in  the  Uttara  Khanda 
of  the  Padma-Purana. — Also  the  name  of  a  lunar  mansion  in 
JSradgavi  in  the  Central  Avashtana. 

Jyotiratha— The  name  of  a  river  mentioned  in  the  Purauns, 
but  not  identified . 

Jyotisha — "  Astronomy  ;"  an  anga  of  the  Vedas,  or  subsidiary 
portion  of  the  Vedas.  "New  moon  festivals,  and  full  moon 
festivals,  were  integral  elements  in  early  Hindu  worship,  and  each 
veda  appears  to  have  had  a  calendar,  called  jyotisha  ;  but  whether 
any  original  copies  of  these  calendars  still  exist,  seems  doubtful. 
They  are  interesting  as  being  first  steps  in  astronomy,  although 
constructed  solely  with  a  view  to  the  regulation  of  religious 
ceremonies. 

The  Surya  Siddhanta,  one  of  the  most  important  of  Sanscrit 
works  on  Astronomy,  has  been  attacked  and  defended  and  explained 
by  competent  European  scholars." 

"  M.  Biot  believed  that  the  Hindus  derived  their  system  of 
nakshatras,  or  moon  stations,  from  the  Chinese  ;  and  Professor 
Whitney  shows  that  the  Hindu  nakshatra  does  not  mean  the  same 
thing  as  the  Chinese.  5tV«'.     Siew  means  a  single  star,  whereas 


292  JYO 

nakshatra  generally  expresses  a  group  of  stars,  or  rather  a  certaiu 
portion  of  the  starry  heavens.  *  *  *  *  The  Arab  manazil, 
and  the  signs  of  the  lunar  zodiac,  bear  a  marked  resemblance  to 
the  Hindu  nakshatras,  being  groups  of  stars  marking  out  the 
ecliptic  into  twelve  nearly  equal  divisions.  Such  a  system, 
Professor  Whitney  observes,  is  as  well  suited  as  any  that  could  be 
devised  for  a  people  seeking  to  define  the  daily  stages  of  the  moon's 
revolution,  without  the  aid  of  instruments. 

"  The  path  of  the  moon  was  in  fact  marked  by  twenty-seven 
stations  believed  by  Hindu  observers  to  be  equi-distant.  But  when 
a  '  new  and  more  exact  astronomy  had  been  brought  in  from  the 
West,'  the  moon  was  reduced  in  significance  '  to  one  of  a  class  of 
planetary  bodies  all  whose  movements  were  capable  of  being 
predicted,  and  their  places  at  any  given  time  determined,  and  their 
conjunctions  calculated  by  an  elaborate  system  of  rules.  Then  first 
the  lesser  planets  were  mentioned  by  Hindu  astronomers,  and  then 
fii'st  was  an  observation  made  by  aid  of  the  junction  stars,  which 
yielded  a  trustworthy  date.  That  this  must  have  been  not  far 
from  A.  D.  500  is,  Professor  Whitney  considers,  proved. 

"  The  results  of  this  one  grand  effort,  never  repeated  and  never 
rivalled,  are  recorded  with  occasional  slight  and  unexplained 
modifications,  by  every  succeeding  author  from  century  to  century. 
The  date  coincides  with  that  of  the  Hindu  Astronomer  Aryabhala  ; 
and  Aryabhata  we  understand,  'availed  himself  largely  of  the 
progress  which  the  G-reeks,  (especially  Hipparchus)  had  made  in 
astronomy  ;  and  '  not  only  improved  upon  their  new  theories  and 
inventions,  but  added  also  the  results  of  his  own  independent 
investigations.' 

"  The  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  stands  out,  therefore,  as 
an  important  era  in  the  history  of  astronomy  in  India  ;  and  every 
fragment  of  intelligence  concerning  Aryabhata  and  his  works 
becomes  invested  with  peculiar  importance.  (See  Appendix,  Art. 
Aryabhata).  His  idea  of  the  roundness  of  the  earth  is  thus 
expressed  : — 

'  The  terrestrial  globe,  a  compound  of  earth,  water,  fire  and  air,  entirely 
Found,  encompassed  by  a  girdle  [the  equator)  stands  in  the  air,  in  the  centre 


JYO  293 

of  the  stellar  sphere.  Like  as  a  ball  formed  by  the  blossoms  of  the  nauclea 
kadamba  is  ow  every  side  beset  with  flowerets,  so  is  the  earth-globe  with  all 
ci:eatures,  terrestrial  and  aq\iatic.' 

*'  And  this  globe  he  believed  to  have  a  daily  revolution. 
*  Aryabhata'  says  Dr.  Kern,  '  for  aught  we  know  was  the  first,  and 
remained  almost  the  sole  astronomer  among  his  countrymen,  who 
affirmed  the  daily  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  own  axis.'  He 
gives  the  following  quotation  from  one  of  Aryabhata's  works  : — 

*  As  a  pei'son  in  a  vessel  while  moving  forward,  sees  an  immovable  object 
moving  backwards ;  in  the  same  manner  do  the  stars,  however  immovable, 
seem  to  move  daily.' 

Thus  showing  it  is  the  earth  not  the  stars  which  move  : — 

*'  On  another  occasion  Aryabhata  says,  '  the  sphere  of  the  stars 

is  stationary  ;  and  the  earth,  making  a  revolution,  produces  the 

daily  rising  and  setting  of  stars  and  planets.' 

*'  Mr.  Colebrooke  states  that  *  Aryabhata  affirmed  the  diurnal 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  ;'  that  he  accounted  for  it  by  a 
wind  or  current  of  aerial  fluid,  the  extent  of  which,  according  to 
the  orbit  assigned  to  it  by  him,  corresponds  to  an  elevation  of  little 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  that  he 
possessed  the  true  theory  of  lunar  and  solar  eclipses,  and  disregarded 
the  imaginary  dark  planets  of  the  mythologists  and  astrologers, — 
affirming  the  moon  and  primary  planets  (and  even  the  stars)  to  be 
essentially  dark,  and  only  illumined  by  the  sun, 

"  But  after  attaining  this  excellence,  astronomy  in  India  appears 
to  have  drifted  away  from  science,  for  no  second  correct  determi- 
nation of  polar  longitude  and  polar  latitude  is  recorded  ;  and  writers 
subsequent  to  Aryabhata  confuse  astronomy  with  astrology."*  See 
Bhaskaracharya,  Varahamihira,  &c. 

The  popular  notion  even  at  the  present  day  is  that  an  eclipse  is 
caused  by  Rihu,  the  demon,  attempting  to  devour  a  portion  of  the 
sun  or  moon.     See  Rahu. 

Jyotishtoma — One  of  the  great  sacrifices,  in  which  especially 
the  juice  of  the  soma  plant  is  ofiered  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
Swarga  or  heaven. 

*  Mrs.  Manning,    A.  and  M.  I.,  vol.  1,  p.  367. 


294  JYO 

Jyotishmat — The  youngest  of  the  ten  sous  of  Priyavrata, — 
installed  by  his  father  king  of  Kusa-dwipa.  Jyotishmat  had  seven 
sons,  after  whom  the  seven  portions  or  varshas  of  the  island  were 
named.  At  the  end  of  all  things  the  seven  solar  rays  dilate  to  seven 
suns,  one  of  which  is  termed  Jyotishmat. —  Vishnu  Fur  ana, 

Jyotsna — "  Dawn" — a  form  or  manifestation  of  Brahma. 


K 

Ka — 1,  A  name  of  Prajdpati,  the  creator  of  the  universe  ;  "  Ka 
is  Prajapati  ;  to  him  let  us  offer  our  oblations  ;"  2,  A  name  given 
to  Daksha  ;  3,  The  name  of  the  divinity  who  presides  over  the 
excretory  and  generative  organs, 

Kabandha— 1,  A  pupil  of  the  Muni  Sumanta  who  became  a 
teacher  of  the  Sanhitas  of  the  Atharva  Veda  ;  2,  A  mighty 
Rakshasa  who  attacked  Rdma  and  Lakshmana  iu  the  forest,  and  was 
slain  by  them.  When  mortally  wounded  the  Rakshasa  informed 
them  that  he  had  originally  been  a  Gandharva,  but  was  changed 
by  the  curse  of  a  sage  to  a  Rakshasa  until  set  free  by  Rama.  He 
then,  assuming  his  real  shape  as  a  Gandharva,  counselled  Rama 
to  ally  himself  to  Sugriva,  with  whose  aid  he  might  conquer 
Ravana.  The  story  is  thus  translated  by  Mr.  Griffiths. 
*'  A  hideous  giant  then  he  saw, 

Kabandha  named,  a  shape  of  awe. 

The  monstrous  fiend  he  smote  and  slew, 

And  in  the  flame  the  body  threw  ; 

When  straight  from  out  the  funeral  flame 

In  lovely  form  Kabandha  came, 

And  bade  him  seek  in  his  distress 

A  wise  and  holy  hermitess. 

By  counsel  of  this  saintly  dame 

To  Pampa's  pleasant  flood  he  came, 

And  there  the  steadfast  friendship  won 

Of  Hanuman  the  Wind-God's  son. 

Counselled  by  him  ho  told  his  grief 

To  great  Sugriva,  Vauar  chief. 

Who,  knowing  all  the  tale,  before 

The  sacred  flame  alliance  swore." 

Kabir — The  most  celebrated  of  the  twelve  disciples  of  the 
Hindu  reformer  Ramanand.     He  produced  a  great  effect  in  the 


296  KAC— KAI 


state  of  popular  belief ;  assailiug  the  whole  system  of  idolatrous 
worship,  and  ridiculing  the  learniug  of  the  Pandits  and  doctrines 
of  the  Sastras,  in  a  style  peculiarly  suited  to  the  genius  of  his 
countrymen.  Kabir  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century. 
The  Bhakta  Mala  gives  an  account  of  his  birth  and  life.  The 
doctrines  taught  by  Kabir  are  contained  in  the  Sukh  Niddn,  and 
do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  the  Vaishnavas.  The  moral  code 
is  short  but  favorable  to  morality. —  Wilson'  sWorks^  Vol.  I,  p.  153. 

Kachchas — An  aboriginal  tribe,  the  name  of  which  implies  that 
the  people  dwelt  in  districts  contiguous  to  water  and  in  marshy 
spots  :  such  as  the  province  still  called  Cutch. 

Kachhapa — One  of  the  sons  of  Visvamitra. 

Kadamba — The  name  of  the  tree  that  grows  on  Mount 
Mandara,  the  flowers  of  which  are  said  to  yield  a  spirit  on 
distillation,  whence  Kadambari  is  one  of  the  synonyms  of  wine  or 
spirituous  liquor. 

Kadru — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was  married  to 
Kasyapa  and  had  a  progeny  of  a  thousand  powerful  many-headed 
serpents. 

Kaikasi — One  of  the  daughters  of  Sumali  and  Ketumati  ; 
Sumili  with  his  family  lived  for  a  long  time  in  Patala  ;  and  once 
happening  to  visit  the  earth  he  desired  his  daughter  Kaikasi  to  go 
and  woo  Visravas,  who  received  her  graciously,  and  she  became  the 
mother  of  the  dreadful  Ravana,  the  huge  Kumbhakarna,  and  the 
two  younger  brothers,  who  all  grew  up  in  the  forest. 

Kaikeya'-One  of  the  four  sons  of  Sivi,  who  has  given  a  name 
to  a  province  and  people  in  the  northwest  of  India. 

Kaikeyi — One  of  the  queens  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha,  and 
mother  of  Bharata.  When  it  was  proposed  to  instal  Rama,  the 
son  of  Queen  Kausalya,  as  heir  apparent,  Kaikeyi  was  pleased, 
and  offered  a  reward  to  her  slave  woman  Manthara  who  brought 
her  the  news,  saying 

"  I  joy  that  Rama  gains  the  throne, 
Kausalya's  son  is  as  mine  own." 


KAT  297 

But  the  old  hag  Mauthara,  who  disliked  Rama,  excited  the 
jealousy  of  Kaikeyi  by  representing  the  degradation  and  ruin  that 
would  come  to  Bharata  and  herself. 

"  When  Rama's  hand  has  once  begun 
Ayodhya's  realm  to  sway." 

This   roused   her  to   action   and    she  ran   to   the  chamber    of 
displeasure,   sulky  and  angry.     Tlio  Maharaja  afterwards  sought 
her,  and  finding  her  in  this  state  of  affliction,  protested  his  love 
and  affection,  but  she  remained  silent  ;  at  last  in  a  critical  moment 
she  extorted  a  promise    from   him   and   then    with  "  a  woman's 
obstinacy  compelled  him  to  keep  his  word."     "  He  had  made  the 
promise  and  she  insisted  upon  its  fulfilment.     To  all  he  could  urge 
she  had  but  one  answer  '  Unless  Rama  is  exiled  and  Bharata  is 
installed,  you  will  be  stigmatized  as  a  liar  and  I  will  take  poison.'  " 
"  The  monarch  as  Kaikeyi  pressed 
With  cruel  words  her  due  request. 
Stood  for  a  time  absorbed  in  thought, 
While  anguish  in  his  bosom  wrought." 

The  result  was  the  exile  of  Ramu  ;  and  when  her  own  son 
Bharata  returned  from  Girivraja  he  strongly  reproached  his  mother 
for  what  she  had  done.  She  lived,  however,  to  rejoice  in  Rama's 
return  to  his  kingdom. 

Kaikeyas— -The  five  sons  of  Dhristaketu,  rajah  of  Kaikeya, 
are  termed  the  Kaikeyas. 

Kailakila  Yavanas — A  race  of  kings,  who  lived  when  the 
Greek  princes  or  their  Indo-Scythic  successors,  following  the 
course  of  the  Indus,  spread  to  the  upper  part  of  the  western  coast 
of  the  peninsula.  From  an  inscription  which  has  been  found 
dated  a.  d.  1058,  Kilakila,  or  Kilagila  as  it  is  there  termed,  is 
called  the  capital  of  Marasinha  Deva,  king  of  the  Konkan. 

Kailasa— A  mountain  situated  like  Meru,  in  the  lofty  regions 
to  the  north  of  the  Himalaya,  and  celebrated  in  the  traditions  and 
myths  of  India.  "  Meru  and  Kailasa  are  the  two  Indian  Olympi. 
Perhaps  they  were  held  in  such  veneration  because  the  Sanskrit- 
speaking  Indians  remembered  the  ancient  home  where  they  dwelt 

38 


298  KAI— KAK 


with  the  other  primitive  peoples  of  their  family  before  they 
descended  to  occupy  the  vast  plains  which  extend  between  the 
Indus  and  the  Gauges."— Gorre^io. 

In  the  Puranas  Kailasa  is  a  fabulous  mountain  several  yojanas 
in  breadth,  to  the  west  of  Meru.  Kailasa  is  described  as  a 
mountain  of  pure  silver,  brilliantly  white,  and  as  the  residence  of 
Siva.  In  former  ages  it  is  said  all  the  mountains  had  wings  ;  but 
their  flights  were  productive  of  so  much  mischief  and  danger,  that 
Indra  struck  off  their  wiugs  with  his  thunderbolts,  and  fixed  them 
in  their  present  position.  Kailasa  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
Ramayana,  as  in  the  region  of  the  sacred  lakes,  near  the  northern 
heights  of  the  Himalayas. 

Kaisika — One  of  the  sons  of  Vidarbha,  (q.  v.)  and  grandson  of 
Jyamagha. 

Kaitabha — A  formidable  demon,  who  with  his  companion 
Madhu,  sprung  from  the  ear  of  Vishnu,  when  he  was  sunk  in  his 
sleep  of  contemplation,  ( Yoganidi-i)  at  the  end  of  the  Kalpa  ;  the 
demons  were  about  to  kill  Brahma,  when  the  latter,  seeing  Vishnu 
asleep,  with  the  view  of  arousing  him  began  to  celebrate  the 
praises  of  Yoganidra.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  371. 

Kaivalya — The  fourth  chapter  of  the  Yoga  Sutras,  being  a 
treatise  on  the  extatic  abstraction  or  isolation  of  the  soul.  The 
state  of  emancipation  that  may  be  obtained  even  during  life  :  it  is 
termed  jivanmukti  ;  and  is  the  highest  state  of  Yoga  before  the 
soul  is  actually  re-absorbed  into  the  Supreme  Being.  The  body 
still  exists,  and  of  course  the  soul  exists  within  it  ;  but  its 
connection  with  it  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  broken,  and  the  soul 
can  consequently  quit  and  re-enter  the  body,  and  wander  about 
where  and  as  it  lists.     J.  C.  Thomson. 

Kajnghas — An  aboriginal  tribe  mentioned  in  the  Purana  lists, 
but  not  satisfactorily  identified, 

Kakamukhas — A  nickname  or  term  of  derision,  meaning  crow- 
faced,  applied  to  designate  some  of  the  aboriginal  tribes. 

Kakas — A  tribe  of  aborigines,  dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the 
Indus,  ay  it  leaves  the  mountains. 


KAK 299 

Kakavarna  -One  of  the  kiugs  of  Magadha,  who  reigued  for 
thirty-six  years  ;  he  avus  the  sou  of  Sisiinaga. 

Kakshas— The  same  as  Kachchas. 

Kaksheya— One  of  the  ter.  sons  of  Kaudraswa,  a  descendant 
of  Purii . 

Kakshivat— A  young  poet  and  sage,  to  whom  Raja  Swanaya 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Indus,  gave  his  ten  daughters  in 
marriage  ;  and  in  return  was  duly  praised  in  a  vedic  hymn 
composed  by  his  enthusiastic  son-in-law.  Wilson's  Rig  Veda. 
He  was  a  worshipper  of  the  Asvins,  who  bestowed  on  him  wisdom, 
and  caused  a  hundred  jars  of  w^ine  and  honied  liquor  to  flow  forth 
from  the  hoof  of  their  horse  as  from  a  sieve.  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V, 
p.  246. 

Kakubha — A  mountain  in  Orissa. 

Kakud — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Dharma. 

Kakudmin — A  name  of  Raivata,  the  prince  who  went  to  the 
heaven  of  Brahma  to  consult  the  god  where  a  bridegroom  fit  for 
his  lovely  daughter  should  be  found. 

Kakutstha — In  the  Treta  age  a  violent  war  broke  out  between 
the  gods  and  the  Asiiras,  in  which  the  former  were  vanquished. 
They  consequently  had  recourse  to  Vishnu  for  assistance  and 
propitiated  him  by  their  adorations.  Namyana  had  compassion 
on  them  and  said,  there  is  an  illustrious  prince  named  Puraujaya, 
the  son  of  a  royal  sage  ;  into  his  person  I  will  infuse  a  portion  of 
myself,  and  by  him  subdue  all  your  enemies.  Acknowledging 
with  reverence  the  kindness  of  the  deity,  the  immortals  quitted 
his  presence,  and  repaired  to  Puranjaya  to  solicit  his  alliance. 

The  prince  replied,  "  Let  this  your  ludra,  the  monarch  of  the 
spheres,  the  god  of  a  hundred  sacrifices,  consent  to  carry  me  upon 
his  shoulders,  and  I  will  wage  battle  with  your  adversaries  as  your 
ally."  The  gods  and  Indra  readily  answered,  *'  ^o  be  it  ;"  and 
the  latter  assuming  the  shape  of  a  bull,  the  prince  mounted  upon 
his  shoulder.  Being  then  filled  with  delight,  and  invigorated  by 
the  power  of  the   eternal   ruler    of  all  movable   and    immovable 


800  KAL 

things,  he  destroyetl  iu  the  battle  that  ensued  all  the  enemies  of 
the  gods  ;  and  because  he  annihilated  the  demon  host  whilst 
seated  upon  the  shoulder  (or  the  hump,  Kakud)  of  the  bull,  he 
thence  obtained  the  appellation  Kakutstha  (seated  on  the  hump). 
V.  P. 

Kala — In  the  Vishnu  Puraua  the  moon's  surface  is  said  to  be 
divided  into  sixteen  Kalas  or  phases  ;  the  moon  is  also  apportioned 
as  a  receptable  of  nectar,  into  fifteen  Kalas  or  digits,  corresponding 
to  the  fifteen  lunations  on  the  fourteen  of  which  during  the  wane, 
the  gods  drink  the  amrita,  and  in  the  fifteenth  of  which  the  Pitris, 
exhaust  the  remaining  portion.  Professor  Wilson  remarks  on  the 
indistinctness  of  this  account,  but  states  that  none  of  the  other 
Puranas  make  it  any  clearer.  Colonel  Warren  explains  K^la,  in 
one  of  its  acceptations,  '  the  phases  of  the  moon,  of  which  the 
Hindus  count  sixteen.' 

Kala--(Kald,)  A  gradation  or  manifestation  of  the  Mula 
Prakriti  ;  the  principal  Kahis  are  Swaha,  Swadha,  Dakshina, 
Swasti,  Pushti,  Tushti,  and  others,  most  of  which  are  allegorical 
personifications,  as  Dhriti,  fortitude,  Pratishta,  fame,  and  Adharma, 
wickedness,  the  bride  of  Mrityu,  or  death.  Aditi  the  mother  of 
the  gods,  and  Diti,  the  mother  of  the  demons,  are  also  Kalds  of 
Prakriti.  The  list  includes  all  the  secondary  goddesses. —  Wilson's 
Works,  Vol.  I,  p.  246. 

Kala— (Kala.)  Time.  A  form  of  Vishnu.  "  The  deity  as  Time 
is  without  beginning  and  his  end  is  not  known  :  and  from  him  the 
revolutions  of  creation,  continuance,  and  dissolution,  unintermit- 
tingly  succeed  ;  for  when,  in  the  latter  season,  the  equilibrium  of 
the  qualities  (Pradhana)  exists,  and  spirit  (Puman)  is  detached 
from  matter,  tlien  the  form  of  Vishnu,  which  is  Time,  abides." 
V.  P.,  p.  12. 

"  This  being  the  case  it  is  asked  what  should  sustain  matter 
and  spirit  whilst  separate,  or  renew  their  combination  so  as  to 
renovate  creation  ?  It  is  answered.  Time,  which  is  when  every 
thing  else  is  not  ;  and  which,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  interval, 
unites  Matter,  Pradhana,  and  Purusha,  and  produces  creation. 
Conceptions  of  this  kind  are   evi<lently  comprised   in  the   Orphic 


KAL  301 

triad,  or  tlie  ancient  notion  of  the  co-operation  of  three  such 
principles  in  creation,  as  Phanes  or  Eros,  which  is  the  Hindu  spirit 
or  Purusha  ;  Chaos,  matter  or  Pradhana  ;  and  Chronos,  or  Kala, 
Time."  (Professor  Wilson).  Kala  is  also  a  name  of  Yama,  the 
Hindu  Pluto.  "  In  two  remarkable  hymns  in  the  Rig  Veda  we 
find  an  altogether  new  doctrine  ;  Kala  or  Time  is  there  describe^l 
as  the  source  and  ruler  of  all  things."  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V.,  p.  407. 
Kala — (Kala)  Thirty  Kashtas  make  one  Kala  ;  fifteen  twinklings 
of  the  eye  make  a  Kashta.     Kala  or  Time,  is  thus  computed  : 

lo  Nimishas        =  1   Kashta 

30  Kashtas  =  1  Kala 

30  Kalas  ==  1  Kshana 

12  Kshanas  =  1   Muhurtta 

30  Muhurttas      ==   1  day  and  night. 
Kala — (Kala)    The  name  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras  accordiug 
to  the  Bhagavata  ;   the  son  of  Vasu  Dhruva  was  named  Kala. 
One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was  married  to  Kasyapa  was 
named  Kala. 

Kalajoshakas — One  of  the  aboriginal  races  mentioned  in  the 
Puranas. 

Kalaka — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Kasyapa. 

Kalakas,  Kalakanjas,  Kalakeyas— The  names  applied  to  a 

class  of  Danavas  who  were  powerful,  ferocious,  and  cruel. 

Kahlanabha — One  of  the  many  sous  of  Hiranyaksha  ;  also  tiie 
name  of  a  son  of  Viprachitti. 

Kalanara — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Sabhauara,  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Anu. 

Kalanjara — A  fabulous  mountain,  is  placed  in  the  Puranas  to 
the  north  of  Meru. 

Kala-nemi — The  uncle  of  Ravana ;  theUatter  promised  him  half 
his  kingdom  if  he  would  kill  Hanuman.  Kala-nemi  consequently 
assumed  the  form  of  a  devotee  and  created  a  magic  hermitage  J  on 
the  mountain  Gandha-madana.  When  Hanuman  reached  the 
mountain  and   perceived  Kala-nemi   seated  like  a  devotee  upon  u 


802  KAL 

deer  skin,  with  various  rosaries  round  his  neck,  and  apparently 
absorbed  in  meditation,  he  supposed  he  saw  a  devout  sa^^e 
Avorshipping  the  linga.  Presently  Kala-nemi  beheld  Hanuman, 
and  welcomed  him  as  his  guest  ;  but  Hanuman  refused  food  and 
drink,  and  would  only  bathe  in  the  pond  which  was  near.  When 
he  dipped  his  foot  in  the  water  it  was  seized  by  a  crocodile,  which 
however  he  soon  killed  ;  upon  this  a  beautiful  Apsara  arose  from 
the  dead  body,  and  told  Hanuman  how  she  had  offended  the  sage 
Daksha,  and  had  been  cursed  to  become  a  crocodile  until  she 
should  be  delivered  by  Hanuman.  She  then  thanked  him  for  her 
deliverance  and  bade  him  beware  of  Kala-nemi.  Meantime 
Kala-nemi  being  assured  of  the  death  of  Hanuman,  was  pending 
over  the  division  of  the  Raj  of  Lanka,  when  Hanuman  suddenly 
appeared  before  him  and  said  "  0  you  false  hermit  I  know  who 
you  are  ;"  and  seizing  him  by  the  feet  whirled  him  round  and 
suddenly  let  him  loose  ;  he  flew  through  the  air  to  Lanka  to  the 
utter  surprise  of  Ravana  and  his  councillors.  "  Kala-nemi,"  says 
Mr.  Wheeler,  "  is  a  Hindu  Aluaschar.  He  counts  upon  the 
pleasure  he  shall  enjoy  when  taking  half  the  Raj  without  consi- 
dering that  Hanuman  may  be  still  alive.  To  this  day  when  a 
Hindu  thinks  of  future  profit  without  being  sure  that  he  will  get 
it,  he  is  often  compared  with  Kala-nemi." 

Kalansa— A  sub-division  of  the  more  important  Kalds,  or 
manifestations  of  Prakriti ;  the  Kalansas  are  all  womankind,  who 
are  distinguished  as  good,  middling,  or  bad,  according  as  they 
derive  their  being  from  the  parts  of  their  great  original  in  which 
the  Satya,  Rajas,  and  Tamo  Guna,  or  property  of  goodness,  passion 
and  vice  predominate. 

Kalapa--The  name  of  the  fabulous  village  in  which  Maru,  a 
descendant  of  Kusa,  has  lived  for  a  long  period,  through  the 
power  of  devotion,  that  in  a  future  age  he  may  be  the  restorer  of 
the  Khshatriya  race  in  the  solar  dynasty.     V.  P. 

Kalasutra — One  of  the  Narakas,  or  hells,  enumerated  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana,  and  described  as  one  of  the  awful  provinces  in 
the  kingdom  of  Yama,  terrible  with  instruments  of  torture. 

Kalavas — One  of  the  aboriijinnl  races  mentioned  in  thePurana?. 


KAL  303 

Kalayavana — The  sou  of  Gargya,  as  black  as  a  bee,  and  hence 
called  Kalayavana.  He  was  king  of  the  Yavanas,  and  having 
assembled  a  large  array  of  Mlechchas  and  barbarians,  advanced 
impatiently  against  Mathura  and  the  Yadavas.  Through  the 
intervention  of  Krishna  Kalayavana  was  led  to  enter  the  cavern  in 
which  Muchukunda  was  sleeping,  and  was  there  destroyed. 
Professor  Wilson  thinks  the  story  may  have  originated  in  some 
knowledge  of  the  power  and  position  of  the  Greek  Bactrian 
princes,  or  their  Scythian  successors,  mixed  up  with  allusions  to 
the  first  Mahoraedan  aggressions. 

Kalayavi — A  disciple  of  Bashkali  and  teacher  of  the  Rig' Veda. 

Kali— A  male  personification  of  the  Kali  age,  or  the  fourth  and 
last  age  through  which  the  world  is  now  passing.  He  wished  to 
obtain  Damayauti  in  marriage,  and  Avhen  he  found  that  she  had 
chosen  Nala,  he  was  greatly  enraged  and  determined  to  be  revenged. 
One  evening  when  Nala  failed  in  some  ceremonial  observance  Kali 
seized  the  opportunity  and  straightway  entered  into  him  and 
possessed  his  inmost  soul.  Nala  had  a  brother  named  Pushkara, 
and  Kali  said  to  Pushkara,  go  you  and  play  at  dice  with  Nala,  and 
I  will  make  you  the  winner  of  his  Raj.  Pushkara  challenged  Nala 
to  a  game  at  dice,  and  they  sat  down  to  play  in  the  presence  of 
Damayauti.  They  played  for  gold  and  jewels  and  raiment,  for 
chariots  and  horses,  but  Nala  was  worsted  at  every  throw,  for 
Dwapara  embodied  the  dice,  and  Kali  had  mastered  him  body  and 
soul.  Then  the  faithful  friends  of  Nala  prayed  him  to  throw  no 
longer,  but  he  was  maddened  with  the  love  of  play,  and  shut  his 
ears  to  all  they  said.  He  staked  his  Raj,  and  the  vestments  which 
he  wore,  and  ho  lost  all  to  Pushkara.  Then  followed  his  exile, 
see  Nala.  Kali  after  this  induced  Nala  to  desert  Damayanti  in  the 
jungle,  and  this  completed  his  revenge. 

Kali — (Kili.)  The  Moloch  of  Indian  Mythology.  A  form  of 
Parvati,  called  Kali,  or  Maha-Kali,  the  consort  of  Siva,  in  his 
destroying  character  of  T=me.  As  such,  she  is  painted  of  a  black  or 
dark  blue  complexion.  In  Calcutta,  her  images  are  usually  seen  of 
the  last-mentioned  colour.  In  plates,  she  is  shown  as  trampling  (as 
the  personification  of  Eternity)  on  the  body  of  Siva  (Time),   In  one 


304  KAL 

hand  she  holds  the  exterminating  sword,  in  another  a  human  head  ; 
a  third  points  downward,  indicating,  according  to  some,  the 
destruction  which  surrounds  her,  and  the  other  is  raised  upwards, 
in  allusion  to  the  figure  of  regeneration  of  nature  by  a  new  creation. 
Mr.  Ward,  however,  is  of  an  opinion,  which  he  has  expressed 
respecting  others  of  the  deities,  but  which  appears  to  be  much  at 
variance  with  the  character  of  Kali,  who  is  here  annihilating  Time 
itself,  viz.,  that  of  the  two  last  mentioned  hands,  one  is  bestowing 
a  blessing,  the  other  forbidding  fear.  Whatever  her  gestures  may 
import,  the  image  of  this  goddess  is  truly  horrid,  as  are  the 
devotional  rites  performed  in  honor  of  her.  Her  wild  dishevelled 
hair  reaching  to  her  feet,  her  necklace  of  human  heads,  the 
wildness  of  her  countenance,  the  tongue  protruded  from  her 
distorted  mouth,  her  cincture  of  blood-stained  hands,  and  her 
position  on  the  body  of  Siva,  altogether  convey  in  blended  colours 
so  powerful  a  personification  of  that  dark  character  she  is 
intended  to  pourtray,  that  whatever  we  may  think  of  their  tastes, 
we  cannot  deny  to  the  Hindus  our  full  credit  for  the  possession  of 
most  extraordinary  and  fertile  powers  of  imagination.  A  model 
of  this  goddess  has  the  body  of  a  dark  blue,  the  insides  of  the 
hands  are  red,  as  is  also  the  circlet  of  hands  round  the  waist.  The 
heads  which  form  the  necklace  have  a  ghastly  appearance.  Her 
tongue  is  protruded  from  her  mouth,  the  sides  of  which  are  marked 
with  blood.  Her  head-dress  and  other  ornaments  are  splendidly 
adorned  with  gems  of  various  kinds.  The  body  of  Siva  is  white. 
Kali  is  also  called  the  goddess  of  cemeteries,  under  which  form  she 
is  described  dancing  with  the  infant  Siva  in  her  arms,  surrounded 
by  ghosts  and  goblins  (likewise  dancing)  in  a  cemetery  amongst 
the  dead.  A  paragraph  appeared  sometime  ago  in  a  Calcutta 
paper,  which  stated,  that  her  images,  under  this  form,  were  now 
worshipped  by  the  Hindus  as  a  propitiation  against  the  destructive 
ravages  of  the  cholera.  To  this  ferocious  goddess  sanguinary 
sacrifices  are  made.  The  Kalika  JBurdna  which  details,  in  due 
order  and  with  much  precision,  the  diiferent  descriptions  of  animals 
that  are  to  be  sacrificed,  and  the  length  of  time  by  which  this 
insatiate  lady  will  be  gratified  and  kept  in  good  humour  by  each, 
ordains  that  cue  man  (or  a  lion)  will  please  her  for  a  thousand 


KAL  305 

years,  but  that  by  the  immolation  of  thi-ee  men  she  will  graciously 
condescend  to  be  pleased  one  hundred  thousand  years.  The 
sacrificer  must  repeat  the  name  Kali  and  pay  her  the  compliment 
of  saying  "  Hrang,  bring,  Kali,  Kali  !  O  horrid-toothed  goddess  ! 
eat,  cut,  destroy  all  the  malignant,  cut  with  this  axe  ;  bind,  bind, 
seize,  seize,  drink  blood,  spring,  secure,  secure,  salutation  to  Kali  1" 
Immense  sums  of  money  are  annually  spent  in  the  worship  of  this 
terrific  deity.  There  is  a  celebrated  temple  dedicated  to  her  at 
Kali-ghat  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta,  or  the  city  of  Kali,  and 
impure  sacrifices  are  offered  to  it  ;  and  on  the  occasion  of  the 
festivals  of  Kali,  her  temples  are  literally  swimming  with  blood. 
An  adequate  delineation  of  the  scene,  and  of  the  horribly  disgusting 
appearance  of  the  executioners  and  other  attendants  of  the  place  is 
scarcely  possible. —  Colemaji,  Myth,  Hind,  p,  94. 

Kalidasa — The  greatest  dramatist,  and  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  poets  of  India.  He  is  known  to  the  literary  public  of 
Europe  especially  through  his  drama  Sakuntala  which,  first 
introduced  to  the  notice  of  the  western  world  by  Sir  William 
Jones  (1789,)  created  so  great  a  sensation  throughout  Europe,  that 
the  early  success  obtained  by  Sanskrit  studies  in  England  and 
Germany  may  be  considered  due  to  this  master-piece  of  Sanskrit 
literature.  Another  drama  of  the  same  poet,  and  next  in  renown 
to  Saku7itala,  is  the  Vikra?7W7'vasi,  or  the  Hero  and  the  Nymph. 
Besides  these  works,  Hindu  tradition  ascribes  to  his  authorship  a 
third  drama  and  several  poems,  which  no  European  critic  will 
believe  could  ever  have  sprung  from  a  mind  like  that  of  Kalidasa. 
Professor  Lassen,  in  the  hidische  Alter thumskunde,  passes  the 
following  judgment  on  this  poet :  'Kalidasa  may  be  considered  as 
the  brightest  star  in  the  firmament  of  Hindu  artificial  poetry.  He 
deserves  this  praise  on  account  of  the  mastery  with  which  he  wields 
the  language,  and  on  account  of  the  consummate  tact  with  which 
he  imparts  to  it  a  more  simple  or  more  artificial  form,  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  subject  treated  by  him,  vrithout  falling 
into  the  artificial  diction  of  later  poets,  or  over-stopping  the  limits 
of  good  taste  ;  on  account  of  the  variety  of  his  creations,  his 
ingenious  conceptions,  and  his  happy  choice  of  subjects  ;  and  not 
less  on  account  of  the  complete  manner  in  which  he  attains  his 

39 


306  KAL 

poetical  ends,  the  beauty  of  his  narrative,  the  delicacy  of  his 
sentiment,  and  the  fertility  of  his  imagination.'  But  although  we 
are  enabled  by  his  works  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  this  poet,  we 
know  little  of  his  personal  history.  That  he  lived  at  Ujjayini  or 
Oujeiu,  and  that  he  was  '  one  of  the  nine  gems  of  the  court  of 
Vikramaditya,'  is  all  that  is  related  in  regard  to  him.  But  as 
there  have  been  several  Vikramadityas  at  Ujjayini,  his  date  is  as 
uncertain  as  that  of  any  personage  of  the  ancient  history  of  India. 
Dr.  Bhao  Daji,  in  a  learned  and  ingenious  essay  '  On  the  Sanskrit 
Poet,  Kalidasa'  {Journal  of  the  Bombay  Branch  of  the  Royal 
As.  Soe.,  October  1860),  has  endeavoured  to  identify  Vikramadityi, 
the  contemporary  of  Kalidasa,  with  Harsha  Vikramaditya,  and  the 
great  poet  would,  therefore,  have  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  of  the  Christian  era. —  Goldstucker. 

Kalika — One  of  i\\Q  daughters  of  Vaiswanara,  the  wife  of 
Kasyapa  and  mother  of  the  ferocious  and  cruel  Danavas. 

Kalikamukha — A  distinguished  Rakshasa  chief,  the  son  of 
Sumali  and  Return ati ;  he  was  the  uncle  of  the  great  giant  Ravana, 
and  took  part  in  the  mythical  battles  with  the  gods. 

Kalika  Purana — This  work  contains  about  nine  thousand 
stanzas  in  ninety-eight  chapters,  and  is  the  only  work  of  the  series 
dedicated  to  recommend  the  worship  of  the  bride  of  Siva,  in  one 
or  other  of  her  manifold  forms  as  Girija,  Devi,  Bhadrak^li,  Kali, 
Mahamya.  It  belongs  therefore  to  the  Sakta  modification  of 
Hindu  belief,  or  the  worship  of  the  female  powers  of  the  deities. 
The  influence  of  this  worship  shows  itself  in  the  very  first  pages 
of  the  work,  which  relate  the  incestuous  passion  of  Brahma  for 
his  daughter  Sandhya,  in  a  strain  that  has  nothing  analogous  to  it 
in  the  Vayu,  Linga,  or  Siva  Puranas. 

The  marriage  of  Siva  and  Parvati  is  a  subject  early  described, 
with  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha,  and  the  death  of  Sati  ;  and  this  work 
is  authority  for  Siva's  carrying  the  dead  body  about  the  world,  and 
the  origin  of  the  Pithast'hanas,  or  places  where  the  different 
members  of  it  were  scattered,  and  where  Lingas  were  consequently 
erected.  A  legend  follows  of  the  births  of  Bhairava  and  Vetala, 
whose   devotion  to  different   forms  of  Devi  furnishes  occasion  to 


KAL  807 

describe  in  great  detail  the  rites  and  formulae  of  which  her  worshij) 
consists,  including  the  chapters  on  sanguinary  sacrifices,  translated 
in  the  Asiatic  Researches. —  Wilson. 

Kalinda — The  father  of  Kalindi,  the  goddess  of  the  Jumna. 

Kalindas — One  of  the  tribes  of  Kshati-iyas  who  from  seeing  no 
brahmans  became  outcasts.     0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  I,  p.  482. 

Kalindi — l,  One  of  the  wives  of  Ki-ishna,  the  daughter  of  the 
Sun,  whom  Krishna  met  on  one  of  his  visits  to  Indraprastha,  and 
who  claimed  him  as  the  reward  of  her  penance  ;  2,  The  goddess 
of  the  Jumna  ;  3,  One  of  the  widows  of  king  Asit,  and  mother  of 
Sagara  ; 

There  came  the  other  widowed  queen 

With  lotus  eyes  and  beauteous  mien 

Longing  a  noble  son  to  bear. 

And  wooed  the  saint  with  earnest  prayer. 

When  thus  Kalindi  fairest  dame, 

With  reverent  supplication  came, 

To  her  the  holy  sage  replied  : 

'  Born  with  the  poison  from  thy  side, 

O  happy  queen  shall  spring  ere  long 

An  infant  fortunate  and  strong 

Then  weep  no  more  and  check  thy  sighs 

Sweet  lady  of  the  lotus  eyes.' 

Griffiths^  Rdmdyaiia. 

4.  The  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  A  suras,  who  after  her 
father's  death  offered  her  kingdom  and  herself,  twin  wives,  to 
Matanga  (q.  v.)  who  readily  assented,  married  the  damsel,  and 
became  king  of  Putala. 

Kalinga — One  of  the  five  sons  of  Bali.  Kallnga  is  the  name 
of  the  sea  coast  west  of  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  Coromandel  Coast.  The  inhabitants  are  called 
Kalingas. 

Kaliya — A  serpent  king,  into  whose  lake  Krishna  when  a  boy 
once  leaped,  and  was  severely  bitten  ;  Krishna  was  then  exhorted 
to  put  forth  his  celestial  vigour,  and  soon  bruised  the  head  of  the 


308  KAL 

venomous  and  powerful  snake.  Kaliya  then  prayed  for  mercy 
saying,  beliold  I  am  now  without  strength,  without  poison, 
deprived  of  both  by  thee,  '  Spare  my  life.'  The  snake  king  was 
then  liberated  and  sent  into  the  sea. 

Kali  Yuga— The  last  age.  It  consists  of  1,200  years  of  the 
gods,  a  year  of  men  being  a  day  of  the  gods  ;  these  divine  years 
may,  therefore,  be  converted  into  years  of  mortals  by  multiplying 
them  by  360,  which  makes  the  duration  of  the  Kali  Yuga  432,000 
years.  The  date  of  its  commencement  is  fixed  in  the  thirteenth 
or  fourteenth  century  b.  c,  when  Vishnu  returned  to  heaven  after 
his  incai'nation  as  Krishna.  During  this  age  all  things  will 
decline,  and  the  deterioration  of  mankind  will  be  general.  The 
Vedas  will  be  disregarded.  The  minds  of  men  will  be  wholly 
occupied  in  acquiring  wealth  ;  and  wealth  will  be  spent  solely  on 
selfish  gratifications.  Women  will  follow  their  inclinations  and  be 
fond  of  pleasure.  Men  of  all  degrees  will  consider  themselves 
equal  to  Brahmans.  Cows  will  be  held  in  esteem  only  as  they 
supply  milk.  These  are  a  few  of  the  evils,  selected  from  the  long 
catalogue  of  them  contained  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua  which  are  to 
prevail  in  the  Kali  age.  A  few  redeeming  properties  of  the  age 
are,  however,  mentioned.  The  efficacy  of  devotion  to  Vishnu  is 
more  strikingly  manifested.  The  least  moral  merit  obtains  in 
this  age,  the  greatest  reward  ;  and  is  by  all  classes  most  easily 
displayed.     The  Kali  Yuga  is  to  be  followed  by  the  Krita  Yuga. 

Kalki — An  Avatara  of  Vishnu  to  be  born  near  the  close  of  the 
Kali  age,  when  all  whose  minds  are  devoted  to  iniquity  shall  be 
destroyed,  and  righteousness  be  established  on  earth  ;  and  the 
minds  of  those  who  live  at  the  end  of  the  Kali  age  shall  be 
awakened  and  be  as  pellucid  as  crystal. 

Kalmashapada — A  prince,  called  also  Saudasa.  Kalmashapada, 
whilst  hunting,  encountered  Saktri,  the  son  of  Vasisht'ha,  in  the 
woods  ;  and  on  his  refusing  to  make  way,  struck  the  sage  with  his 
whip.  Saktri  cursed  the  king  to  become  a  cannibal ;  and 
Viswamitra,  who  had  a  quarrel  with  Vasisht'ha,  seized  the 
opportunity  to  direct  a  Rakshasa  to  take  possession  of  the  king, 
that  he  might  become  the  instrument  of  destroying  the  family  of 


KAL  309 

the  rival  saint.  Whilst  thus  influenced,  Mitrasaha,  a  Brahman, 
applied  to  Kalmishapada  for  food,  and  the  king  commanded  his 
cook  to  dress  human  flesh,  and  give  it  to  the  Brahman,  who, 
knowing  what  it  was,  repeated  the  curse  of  Saktri,  that  the  king 
should  become  a  cannibal  ;  which  taking  effect  with  double  force, 
Kalmashapada  began  to  eat  men.  One  of  his  first  victims  was 
Saktri,  whom  he  slew  and  ate  ;  and  then  killed  and  devoured,  under 
the  secret  impulse  of  Viswamitra's  demon,  all  the  other  sons  of 
Vasist'ha.  Vasist'ha,  however,  liberated  him  from  the  Rakshasa 
who  possessed  him,  and  restored  him  to  his  natural  character. 
V.  P.  For  a  somewhat  different  version  of  the  legend,  see  O.  S.  T. 
Vol.  I,  p.  414. 

Kalpa — A  period  of  time  :  a  great  mundane  age  ;  a  day  of 
Brahma.  The  most  simple  calculation  of  a  Kalpa  is  its  being 
1,000  great  ages  or  ages  of  the  gods.  Thus  4,320,000  years  or  a 
divine  age,  multiplied  by  1,000  is  equal  to  4,320,000,000  years,  or 
a  day  or  night  of  Brahma. 

One  year  of  mortals  is  equal  to  one  day  of  the  gods.  12,000 
divine  years  are  equal  to  a  period  of  four  Yugas  which  is  thus 
made  up,  viz.  : — 

Krita  Yuga,  with  its  mornings  and  evenings,  4,800  divine  years. 
Treta  Yuga,  „  „  3,600  „ 

DvaparaYuga,  „  „  2,400 

Kali  Yuga,  „  „  1,200 


making  12,000  divine  years. 
As  a  day  of  the  gods  is  =  to  one  year  of  mortals,  the  12,000 
divine  years  must  be  multiplied  by  360,  the  assumed  number  of 
days  in  a  year,  to  give  the  number  of  the  years  of  mortals  in  this 
great  period  of  four  Yugas,  thus  :  12,000  divine  years  X  360  = 
4,320,000  years  of  mortals.  1,000  of  these  periods  of  12,000 
divine,  or  4,320,000  human  years— i  e.,  4,320,000,000  human 
years,  are  ==  1  day  of  Brahma,  and  his  night  is  of  the  same 
duration.  Within  that  period  of  a  day  of  Brahma,  14  Mauus  reign, 
and  a  Manwantara,  or  period  of  Manu,  is  consequently  =  the  14th 
part  of  a  day  of  Brahma.     In  the  preecut  Kalpa  (=  a  day  of 


SIO  KAL— KAM 


Brahma)  six  Mauiis,  of  wliom  Svayambhuva  was  the  first,  have 
already  passed  away,  the  present  Manu  beiug  Vaivasvata.  In  each 
Manwantara  seven  Rishis,  certain  deities,  an  ludra,  a  Manu,  and 
the  kings,  his  sons,  are  created  and  perish.  A  thousand  of  the 
systems  of  four  Yugas,  as  has  been  before  explained,  occur 
coincidently  with  these  14  Manwantaras  ;  and  consequently  about 
7i  systems  of  4  Yugas  elapse  during  each  Manwantara,  and 
measure  the  lives  of  the  Manu  and  the  deities  of  the  period.  At 
the  close  of  this  day  of  Brahma  a  collapse  of  the  universe  takes 
place,  which  lasts  through  a  night  of  Brahma,  equal  in  duration  to 
his  day,  during  which  period  the  three  worlds  are  converted  into 
one  great  ocean,  when  the  lotus  born  god,  expanded  by  his 
deglutition  of  the  universe,  and  contemplated  by  the  yogis  and  gods 
in  Janaloka,  sleeps  on  the  serpent  Sesha.  At  the  end  of  that 
night  he  awakes  and  creates  anew. —  Wilsott. 

Kalpa — The  name  of  a  son  of  Dhruva  ;  also  an  Anga  of  the 
Vedas,  containiug  the  Ritual :  the  ceremonials  of  the  Atharva- 
Vedas  are  called  the  five  Kalpas. 

Kalpa-SUtras— Aphorisms  regarding  the  performance  of 
sacrifices  enjoined  by  the  vedas  ;  written  by  human  authors,  and 
therefore  not  considered  as  Sruti  or  revelation,  are  yet  regarded  as 
of  very  high  authority. 

Kama-deva — The  Hindu  Cupid  or  Eros,  or  god  of  Love, 
considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  pleasing  creations  of  Hindu 
fiction,  is  the  son  of  Vishnu  or  Krishna  by  Lakshmi,  who  is  then 
called  Maya  or  Rukmini.  According  to  another  account  he  was 
first  produced  in  the  heart  of  Brahma,  and  coming  out  in  the  form 
of  a  beautiful  female,  was  looked  upon  by  Brahma  with  amorous 
emotions.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a  handsome  youth, 
sometime  conversing  with  his  mother  and  consort  in  the  midst  of 
his  gardens  and  temples  ;  sometimes  riding  by  moonlight  on  a 
parrot  or  lory,  and  attended  by  nymphs,  one  of  whom  bears  his 
banner,  which  consists  of  a  fish  on  red  ground.  Endeavouring  to 
influence  Siva  with  a  passion  of  love  for  his  wife  Parvati,  he 
discharged  an  arrow  at  him  ;  but  Siva,  enraged  at  the  attempt 
reduced  him  to  ashes,  or  as  some  say  to  a  mere  mental  essence,  by 


KAM  311 

a  beam  of  fire  darted  from  his  central  eye.  Afterwards  the 
relenting  god  declared  that  he  should  be  born  again  in  the  form  of 
Pradjumna,  sou  of  Krishna  by  M^ya  or  Rukmini.  The  bow  of 
Kdmadeva  is  made  of  flowers,  with  a  string  formed  of  bees,  and 
his  five  arrows  are  each  tipped  with  the  blossom  of  a  flower,  which 
is  devoted  to  aud  supposed  to  preside  over  a  sense.  He  is  lord  of 
the  Apsarasas.  Many  names  are  applied  to  Kama-deva.  He  is 
called  the  god  of  desire  ;  the  mind  agitator  ;  the  maddener  ;  the 
inflamer  ;   the  destroyer  of  devotional  tranquillity. 

It  is  well  known  that  Greek  mythology  connected  Eros,  the  god 
of  love,  with  the  creation  of  the  universe,  somewhat  in  the  same 
way  as  Kama  is  associated  with  it  in  the  Rig  Veda,  x.  129.  (See 
Eros  in  Dr.  Smith's  Dictionary.)  In  another  hymn  of  the 
Atharva  beda,  Kama,  like  the  Eros  of  the  Greeks  and  Cupid  of 
the  Latins,  is  described  as  the  god  of  sexual  love.  "  May  Kama, 
having  well-directed  the  arrow  which  is  winged  with  pain,  barbed 
with  longing,  and  has  desire  for  its  shaft,  pierce  thee  in  the  heart." 
&c.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  407. 

Kamagamas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  eleventh  Manwantara. 

Kamakhya,  Kamakshi— The  name  of  a  form  of  Durga  in 
the  north-east  of  Bengal.  There  are  some  celebrated  temples  in 
Assam  dedicated  to  the  goddess  under  this  form. 

Kamarupa — The  name  given  to  the  eastern  part  of  Bharata- 
varsha.  Also  the  name  of  a  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Assam,  where 
the  temples  referred  to  in  the  preceding  article  are  built. 

Kambala — One  of  the  many-headed  serpent  kings,  of  the 
progeny  of  Kadru. 

Kambalavarhish— One  of  the  four  sons  of  Andhaka. 

Kambojas — A  north-western  tribe  famous  for  their  horses,  of 
which  they  appear  to  have  possessed  a  remarkably  fine  breed. 
They  were  conquered  by  Sagara,  who  would  have  destroyed  them 
utterly,  but  at  the  request  of  VasiSht'ha  contented  himself  with 
imposing  on  all  the  vanquished  tribes  peculiar  distinguishing 
marks,  such  as  shaving  their  heads,  letting  their  beards  grow,  &c. 


312  K  AM— KAN 


Kameri — The  ladiau  cuckoo,  or  bird  of  Kama,  whose  emblems 
are  peculiarly  appropriate,  being  a  bow  aud  arrow  composed  of 
roses  and  jessamine,  and  other  flowers  in  which  no  thorns  ever 
lurk.  Colonel  Tod  says  "  the  Kameri  poured  forth  its  monotonous 
but  pleasing  notes,  from  an  umbrageous  peepul,  amidst  the  stillness 
of  a  lovely  scene,  where  the  last  tints  of  sunset  illummated  the 
dark  hues  of  the  surrounding  woods." 

Kampilya — One  of  the  five  sons  of  Haryaswa.  Their  father 
said  these  my  five  (paucha)  sons  are  able  (alam)  to  protect  the 
countries  ;  hence  they  were  called  the  Panchalas.  Panchala  was  at 
first  the  country  north  aud  west  of  Delhi,  between  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya  aud  the  Chambal.  It  was  afterwards  divided  iuto 
northern  and  southern  Panchala  separated  by  the  Ganges.  Kampilya 
was  the  name  also  given  to  part  of  the  country,  and  was  called 
Kampil  by  the  early  Mahommedan  invaders.  Kampilya  was  the 
city  of  Raja  Drupada. 

Kamya — Daughter  of  Kardanea  who  was  married  to  Priyavrata. 

Kamyaka — An  extensive  forest  on  the  banks  of  the  Saraswati, 
to  which  the  Pandavas  retired,  on  the  occasions  of  their  second 
exile. 

Kanakas — Inhabitants  of  Mushika,  or  the  country  of  thieves, 
a  name  applied  to  the  pirate  coast  of  Konkau.  Professor  Wilson 
thinks  it  may  also  designate  Malabar  where  polyandry  then  as  now 
prevailed. 

Kanakhala — The  name  of  the  village  according  to  the  Linga 
Parana,  where  the  great  sacrifice  of  Daksha  took  place.  Gangad- 
wara,  the  place  where  the  Ganges  descends  to  the  plains, — or 
Haridwar,  as  it  is  more  usually  termed,  is  commonly  specified  as 
the  scene  of  action. 

Kanchana — The  sou  of  "Bhima,  a  descendant  of  Pururavas. 

Kandarpa — A  name  of  Kama  the  Indian  Cupid. 

Kandu — An  eminent  sage,  who  practised  pious  austerities  on 
the  lovely  borders  of  the  Gomati  river.  Indra  sent  the  nymph 
Pramlocha  to  disturb  his  penance,  and  the  sweet-smiling  damsel 
diverted  the  sage  from  his  devotions.     They  lived  together  in  the 


KAN  313 

valley  of  Mandura  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  wholly  given  up 
to  enjoyment.  Then  the  nymph  requested  permission  to  return  to 
heaven  ;  but  the  sage  still  fondly  attached  to  her,  prevailed  upon 
her  to  remain  for  some  time  longer  ;  and  the  graceful  damsel 
continued  to  reside  for  another  hundred  years  and  delight  the 
great  sage  by  her  fascinations.  Then  she  again  wished  to  return 
to  the  abodes  of  the  gods,  and  again  the  Muni  desired  her  to 
remain.     Similar  scenes  occurred  several  times. 

"  On  one  occasion  the  sage  was  going  forth  from  their  cottage 
in  a  great  hurry.  The  nymph  asked  him  where  he  was  going, 
'  The  day,'  he  replied,  '  is  drawing  fast  to  a  close  :  I  must 
perform  the  Sandhya  worship,  or  a  duty  will  be  neglected.'  The 
nymph  smiled  mirthfully  as  she  rejoined,  '  Why  do  you  talk, 
grave  sir,  of  this  day  drawing  to  a  close  :  your  day  is  a  day  of 
many  years,  a  day  that  must  be  a  marvel  to  all  :  explain  what 
this  means.'  The  Muni  said,  '  Fair  damsel,  you  came  to  the  river- 
side at  dawn  ;  I  beheld  you  then,  and  you  then  entered  my 
hermitage.  It  is  now  the  revolution  of  evening,  and  the  day  is 
gone.  A^'hat  is  the  meaning  of  this  laughter  ?  Tell  me  the  truth.' 
Pramlocha  answered,  *  you  say  rightly,'  venerable  Brahman,  '  that 
I  came  hither  at  morning  dawn,  but  several  hundred  years  have 
passed  since  the  time  of  my  arrival.  This  is  the  truth.'  The 
Muni,  on  hearing  this,  was  seized  with  astonishment,  and  asked 
her  how  long  he  had  enjoyed  her  society  ;  to  which  the  nymph 
replied,  that  they  had  lived  together  nine  hundred  and  seven 
years,  six  months,  and  three  days.  The  Muni  asked  her  if  she 
spoke  the  truth,  or  if  she  was  in  jest  ;  for  it  appeared  to  him  that 
they  had  spent  but  one  day  together :  to  which  Pramlocha 
replied,  that  she  should  not  dare  at  any  time  to  tell  him  who  lived 
in  the  path  of  piety  an  untruth,  but  particularly  Avhen  she  had 
been  enjoined  by  him  to  inform  him  what  had  passed. 

"  When  the  Muni,  princes,  had  heard  these  words,  and  knew 
that  it  was  the  truth,  he  began  to  reproach  himself  bitterly, 
exclaiming,  *  Fie,  fie  upon  me  ;  my  penance  has  been  interrupted  ; 
the  treasure  of  the  learned  and  the  pious  has  been  stolen  from  me  ; 
my  judgment  has  been  blinded  :  this  woman  has  been  created  by 
some  one  to  beguile  me  :  Brahmii  is  beyond  the  reach  of  thop;e 

40 


314  KAN 

agitated  by  the  waves  of  infirmity.  I  had  subdued  my  passions, 
and  was  about  to  attain  divine  knowledge.  This  was  foreseen  by 
him  by  whom  this  girl  has  been  sent  hither.  Fie  on  the  passion 
that  has  obstructed  my  devotions.  All  the  austerities  that  would 
have  led  to  acquisition  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Vedas  have  been 
rendered  of  no  avail  by  passion  that  is  the  road  to  hell.'  The  pious 
sage,  having  thus  reviled  himself,  turned  to  the  nymph,  who  was 
sitting  nigh,  and  said  to  her,  *  Go,  deceitful  girl,  whither  thou 
wilt  :  thou  hast  performed  the  office  assigned  thee  by  the  monarch 
of  the  gods,  of  disturbing  my  penance  by  thy  fascinations.  I  will 
not  reduce  thee  to  ashes  by  the  fire  of  my  wrath.  Seven  paces 
together  is  sufficient  for  the  friendship  of  the  virtuous,  but  thou 
and  1  have  dwelt  together.  And  in  truth  what  fault  hast  thou 
committed  ?  why  should  I  be  wrath  with  thee  ?  The  sin  is  wholly 
mine,  in  that  I  could  not  subdue  my  passions  :  yet  fie  upon  thee, 
who,  to  gain  favour  w4th  Indra,  hast  disturbed  my  devotions  ;  vile 
bundle  of  delusion.' 

"  Thus  spoken  to  by  the  Muni,  Pramlocha  stood  trembling, 
whilst  big  drops  of  perspiration  started  from  every  pore  ;  till  he 
angrily  cried  to  her,  '  Depart,  begone.'  She  then,  reproached  by 
him,  Avent  forth  from  his  dwelling,  and,  passing  through  the  air, 
wiped  the  perspiration  from  her  person  with  the  leaves  of  the 
trees.  The  nymph  went  from  tree  to  tree,  and  as  with  the  dusky 
shoots  that  crowned  their  summits  she  dried  her  limbs,  which  were 
covered  with  moisture,  the  child  she  had  conceived  by  the  Rishi 
came  forth  from  the  pores  of  her  skin  in  drops  of  perspiration. 
The  trees  received  the  living  dews,  and  the  winds  collected  them 
into  one  mass.  "  This,"  said  Soma,  "  I  matured  by  my  rays,  and 
gradually  it  increased  in  size,  till  the  exhalation  that  had  rested  on 
the  tree  tops  became  the  lovely  girl  named  Marisha."     V.  P. 

Kanishtas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  fourteenth  Manwantara. 

Kanka — One  of  the  sous  of  Ugrasena. 

Kanouj — A  city  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Soue.  The 
Eamayana  contains  an  extraordinary  legend  of  its  foundation. 
The  Raja  Kusanabha  had  a  hundred  beautiful  daughters  to  whom 
V^yii  the  god  of  wind  made  some  amorous  proposals  which  they 


KAN— KAP  315 


rejected,  declaring  that  they  would  only  accept  such  husband  as 
their  father  might  give  them.  Vayu  then  rendered  them  hunch- 
backed. Subsequently  they  were  all  married  to  a  yonng  Raja, 
Brahmadatta,  who  cured  them  by  a  touch,  and  the  city  in  which 
they  dwelt  was  henceforth  called  Kanyakubja,  the  hunch-backed, 
and  still  goes  by  the  name  of  Kanouj.— ^See  Gritdchi,  Knsandhha. 

Kanyakagunas— x\  race  of  Aborigines. 

Kanyakubja — The  city  of  the  Bent  Virgins,  the  modern 
Kauouj . 

Kansa— Rajah  of  Mathura  ;  he  deposed  his  father  Ugrasena  ; 
and  threatened  to  slay  his  cousin  Devaki  on  her  wedding  day. 
Vasudeva  engaged  to  deliver  up  her  children  to  him.  He  was 
warned  before  the  birth  of  Krishna,  that  the  latter  would  take 
away  his  life.  He  accordingly  attempted  to  destroy  Krishna  as 
soon  as  he  was  born  ;  fiiiling  in  this  he  ordered  that  all  the 
worshippers  of  Vishnu,  young  and  old,  should  be  slain  ;  and  he 
commanded  his  warriors  to  make  search  for  all  young  children 
throughout  that  country,  and  to  slay  every  male  child.  He 
afterwards  employed  demons  to  find  and  kill  Krishna,  and  sent 
Akrura  to  bring  him  to  Mathura.  Public  games  were  celebrated 
with  great  splendour  ;  there  was  a  severe  contest  in  which  Krishna 
slew  the  powerful  demon  Chanura,  and  afterwards  killed  king 
Kansa  himself. 

Kansa,  Kansavati,  Kanki — Daughters  of  Ugrasena. 

Kanwa — l,  A  teacher  of  the  white  Yajusli,  and  founder  of 
several  schools  for  the  purpose  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  sou  of  Aprati- 
ratha  from  whom  the  Kanwayana  brahmans  descended  ;  3,  A  son 
of  Ajamidha,  a  descendant  of  Hastiu. 

Kapali,  Kaparddi — Two  of  the  eleven  Rudras  according  to 
the  Vishnu  Punina. 

Kapalika — The  following  description  of  the  Kdpalika  is  from 
the  Sankara  Vijaya  of  A?ia?idag{ri  : 

"  His  body  is  smeared  with  ashes  from  a  funeral  pile,  around 
his  neck  hangs  a  string  of  human  skulls,  his  forehead  is  streaked 
with  a  black  line,  his  hair  is  wove  into  the  matted  braid,   his  loins 


816  KAP 

are  clothed  with  a  tiger's  skin,  a  hollow  skull  is  in  his  left  hand 
(for  a  cup),  aud  in  his  right  he  carries  a  bell,  which  he  rings 
incessantly,  exclaiming  aloud,  ho,  Sambhu,  Bhairava — ho,  lord 
of  Kali." 

Kapi — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Urukshaya,  who  afterwards  became 
a  brahman.     V.  P.,  p.  451. 

Kapila — A  great  Rishi,  who  destroyed  the  sons  of  Sagara. 
When  the  latter  commenced  the  performance  of  the  solemn  sacrifice 
of  a  horse,  it  was  guarded  by  his  own  sons  ;  nevertheless  some  one 
stole  the  animal,  and  carried  it  off  into  a  chasm  in  the  earth. 
Sagara  commanded  his  sons  to  search  for  the  steed.  They  at  last 
found  it  freely  wandering  about  in  Patala,  and  at  no  great  distance 
saw  the  Rishi  Kapila  sitting,  absorbed  in  profound  meditation,  and 
illuminating  the  surrounding  space  with  radiance  as  bright  as  the 
splendour  of  the  autumnal  sun,  shining  in  an  unclouded  sky. 
Exclaiming  "  This  is  the  villain  who  has  interrupted  our  sacrifice 
and  stolen  the  horses,  kill  him  ;  kill  him  ;  they  ran  towards  him 
with  uplifted  weapons.  The  Muni  slowly  raised  his  eyes  and  for 
an  instant  looked  upon  them,  and  they  were  reduced  to  ashes  by 
the  sacred  flame  that  darted  from  his  person.  Kapila  was  the 
founder  of  the  Sankya  school  of  philosophy.  A  work  said  to  be 
written  by  him,  called  the  Sankya-Pravachana,  or  Preface  to  the 
Sankya  Philosophy,  is  still  extant,  and  was  printed  at  Serampore 
in  1821.  The  great  reverence  in  which  Kapila  was  held,  may  be 
presumed  from  the  fact  that  he  is  sometimes  considered  as  an 
incarnation  of  the  god  Agni ;  aud  sometimes  of  Vishnu  himself. 
He  seems  to  belong  only  to  the  Puranic  period.  See  Sankya.  2, 
A  renoAvned  Danava.  3,  One  of  the  serpent  kings  of  the  progeny 
of  Kadru.  4,  The  name  of  a  mountain  in  the  west  of  Meru.  5, 
One  of  the  Puranic  rivers.     6,   A  city  mentioned  in  the  Puranas. 

Kapilasrama — The  name  of  the  hermitage  of  Kapila,  on  the 
shore  of  the  island  of  Sagara,  which  is  still  the  scene  of  an  annual 
pilgrimage. 

Kapilaswa — One  of  the  three  sons  of  Kuvalayaswa,  who 
survived  the  great  conflict  with  the  demon  Dhunda. 

Kapotoroman — The  sou  of  Yrishta,  a  descendant  of  Sini. 


KAR  817 

Karabhanjikas — An  aboriginal  mountain  tribe  of  the  north. 

Karakas,  Karatas — Aboriginal  tribes  enumerated  in  the 
Puranas. 

Karali — The  terrific  one  ;  one  of  the  many  names  of  the 
consort  of  Siva.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  364. 

Karambhi — A  prince,  the  son  of  vSakuni  of  the  race  of 
tlyamagha . 

Karandhama — The  powerful,  wealthy,  and  valiant  son  of 
Khauinetra,  who  when  besieged  by  revolted  tributaries  is  said  to 
have  created  an  army  by  breathing  in  his  hands  ;  hence  his  name. 

Karari — Is  the  worshipper  of  Devi  in  her  terrific  forms,  the 
representative  of  the  AgJiora  Ghanta  and  Kapdlika^  who  as  lately 
as  only  seven  or  eight  centuries  ago,  there  is  reason  to  suppose, 
sacrificed  human  victims  to  Kalt,  Chamunda,  and  other  hideous 
personifications  of  the  Sakti  of  Siva. —  Wilson's  IVorks,  Vol.  /, 
p.  264. 

Kardama — A  Prajapati,  who  was  married  to  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Daksha  named  Devahiiti.  The  names  given  to  their 
daughters  show  that  they  are  allegorical  personifications  of 
intelligences  and  virtues  and  religious  rites.     2,    A  son  of  Pulaha. 

Karishakas,  Karitis— Aboriginal  tribes  enumerate!  in  the 
Puranas. 

Karkkotta — One  of  the  serpent  kings  of  the  progeny  of 
Kadru. 

Karli — Is  situated  about  half  Avay  between  Poena  and  Bombay, 
and  is  celebrated  for  the  numerous  inscriptions  in  its  caves  in  the 
Pali  language  ;  of  a  date  estimated  at  543  b.  c.  to  176  a.  d.  The 
religion,  or  divinities  or  sages  mentioned  are  Buddhist ;  the 
invocation  is  to  the  Triad  ;  no  doubt  meaning  Buddha,  Dharma, 
Sanga.  The  kings  or  princes  mentioned.  Dr.  Wilson  says,  are, 
Vijara,  but  Dr.  Stevenson,  Arodhana,  lord  of  India.  Garga,  ruler 
of  theSakas.  Of  the  numerous  Buddhist  inscriptions  in  the  cave 
temi)le  at  Karli,  Drs.  Wilson  and  Stevenson  are  not  quite  agreed 
about  the  readiug.  Garga,  the  "  ruler  of  the  Sakas"  (Sakya, 
Buddha's  tribe),  is  mentioned. 


318  KAR 

The  cave  temples,  in  the  southern  part  of  India,  are  classed  by- 
Mr.  Fergussou  into  («)  the  Vihara  or  monastery  caves,  which 
consist  of  (1)  natural  caverns  or  caves  slightly  improved  by  art. 
These  are  the  most  ancient,  and  are  found  appropriated  to  religious 
purposes  in  Behar  and  Cuttack  ;  next  (2)  a  verandah,  opening 
behind  into  cells  for  the  abode  of  priests,  as  in  Cuttack  and  in 
the  oldest  Vihara  at  Ajauta  ;  the  third  (3)  has  an  enlarged  hall 
supported  on  pillars  :  the  most  splendid  of  these  caves  are  those 
of  Ajanta  ;  though  the  Dherwarra  at  Ellora  is  also  fine,  and  there 
are  same  good  specimens  at  Salsette  and  Junir. 

(b)  Buddhist  Chetya  caves  form  the  seco?id  class.  These  are  the 
temples  or  churches  of  the  series  and  one  or  more  of  them  is 
attached  to  every  set  of  caves  in  western  India,  though  none  exist 
on  the  eastern  side.  Unlike  the  Viharas,  all  these  caves  have  the 
same  plan  and  arrangement,  and  the  Karli  cave  is  the  most  perfect 
in  India.  All  these  consist  of  an  external  porch  or  music  gallery, 
an  internal  gallery  over  the  entrance  ;  a  central  aisle,  which  may 
be  called  a  nave,  roofed  by  a  plain  waggon  vault,  and  a  semi-dome 
terminating  the  nave,  under  the  centre  of  which  always  stands  a 
Dagoba  or  Chaitya.  In  the  oldest  temples,  the  Dagoba  consists 
of  a  plain  central  drum  surmounted  by  a  hemispherical  dome 
crowned  by  a  Tee,  which  supported  the  umbrella  of  state,  of  wood 
or  stone. 

These  two  classes  comprehend  all  the  Buddhist  caves  in  India. 

The  thh'd  class  consists  of  brahmauical  caves,  properly  so  called. 
The  finest  specimens  are  at  Ellora  and  Elephanta  though  some 
good  ones  exist  also  on  the  island  of  Salsette  and  at  Mahabalipur. 

In  form,  many  of  them  are  copies  of,  and  a  good  deal  resemble 
the  Buddhist  Vihara.  But  they  have  not  been  appropriated  from 
the  Buddhists,  as  the  arrangement  of  the  pillars  and  position  of  the 
sanctuary  are  difi'erent. 

The  Fourth  class  consists  of  rock  cut  models  of  structural 
Brahmauical  temples.  To  this  class  belong  the  far  famed  Kylas 
at  Ellora,  the  Sivite  temple  at  Doomnar,  and  the  Ruths  at 
Mahabalipur.  This  last  is  cut  out  of  isolated  blocks  of  granite, 
but  the  rest  stand  in  pits. 

The  Fifth  or  true  Jaiua  caves  occur  at  Khandagiri  in  Cuttack 


KAR  319 

and  in  the  soutliero  parts  of  ludia,  but  are  few  and  insignificant. 
In  that  in  the  rock  of  Gwalior  fort,  there  are  cut  in  the  rock  a 
number  of  rude  colossal  figures,  from  30  to  40  feet  high,  of  one  of 
the  Thirtankaras,  some  sitting  and  some  standing. 

The  Ajanta,  are  the  most  complete  series  of  Buddhist  caves  iu 
India,  without  any  mixture  of  Brahmanism,  and  contain  types  of 
all  the  rest  ;  they  are  in  a  ravine  or  small  valley  in  the  ghat  south 
of  the  Taptee.  At  Baug  in  a  ravine  or  small  valley  iu  the  ghat,  ou 
the  north  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Taptee,  are  three  ancient 
Buddhistical  caves. 

The  Salsette  or  Kannari  caves  in  the  island  of  Salsette,  arc  also 
purely  Buddhist,  but  veiy  inferior  to  the  former.  The  Kannari 
caves  are  excavated  iu  a  hill  situated  iu  the  midst  of  an  immense 
tract  of  forest  country,  and  Mr.  Fergusson  supposes  their  date 
about  the  9th  or  1 0th  century  of  the  christian  era. 

Dhumnar,  about  40  miles  S.  E.  from  Neemuch  but  close  to 
Chundwassa,  contains  Buddhist  caves  with  a  Brahmanical  rock 
temple  behind. 

The  Ellora  caves  are  excavated  iu  a  porphyritic  green  stone  or 
amygdaloid. 

The  Elephauta  caves  are  cut  in  a  harder  rock  than  those  of  Ellora. 

Those  of  Dhumnar  and  Ellora  contain  a  strong  admixture  of 

Brahmanism,  and  those  of  Elephauta  are  entirely  Brahmanical, 

though  perhaps   of  the  same  age  as  those  of  Ellora. — Balfour's 

Cyclopcedia. 

Karma — According  to  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism  the  power 
that  controls  the  universe  is  Karma,  literally  Action  ;  consisting 
of  kursala  and  akusala,  or  merit  and  demerit.  There  is  no  such 
monad  as  an  immaterial  spirit,  but  at  the  death  of  any  being,  the 
aggregate  of  his  merit  and  demerit  is  transferred  to  some  other 
being,  which  new  being  is  caused  by  the  karma  of  the  previous 
being,  and  receives  from  that  karma  all  the  circumstances  of  its 
existence.  Thus,  if  the  karma  be  good,  the  circumstances  arc 
favourable,  producing  happiness,  but  if  it  be  bad,  they  are 
unfavourable,  producing  misery. 

The  manner  in  which  being  first   commenced  cannot  now  be 
ascertained,      The    cause    of    the    coiithiuanec    of    existence    is 


320  KAR 

if'norance,  from  which  merit  aud  demerit  are  produced,  whence 
comes  consciousness,  then  body  and  mind,  and  afterwards  the  six 
organs  of  sense.  Again,  from  the  organs  of  sense  comes  contact  ; 
from  contact,  desire  ;  from  desire,  sensation  ;  from  sensation,  the 
cleaving  to  existing  objects  ;  from  this  cleaving,  reproduction  ; 
and  from  reproduction,  disease,  decay,  and  death.  Thus,  like  the 
revolutions  of  a  wheel,  there  is  a  regular  succession  of  death  and 
birth,  the  moral  cause  of  which  is  the  cleaving  to  existing  objects, 
whilst  the  instrumental  cause  is  karma.  It  is,  therefore,  the  great 
object  of  all  beings  who  would  be  released  from  the  sorrows  of 
successive  birth  to  seek  the  destruction  of  the  moral  cause  of 
continued  existence,  that  is  to  say,  the  cleaving  to  existing  objects, 
or  evil  desire.  It  is  possible  to  accomplish  this  destruction,  by 
attending  to  a  prescribed  course  of  discipline,  which  results  in  an 
entrance  to  one  of  the  four  paths,  with  their  fruition,  that  lead,  by 
different  modes,  to  the  attainment  of  nirwiina.  They  in  whom  evil 
desire  is  entirely  destroyed  are  called  arhats.  The  freedom  from 
evil  desire  ensures  the  possession  of  a  miraculous  energy.  At  his 
death  the  arhat  invariably  attains  nirwana,  or  ceases  to  exist.— 
Spc?icc  Hardy. 

Karmosa — The  eldest  son  of  the  Patriarch  Pulaka.  In  the 
Bhi'h^avata  he  is  designated  Ivarmasreshta. 

Kama — The  son  of  Pritha,  or  Kuuti,  by  the  Phcebus  of  Hindu 
mythologv.  Pritha  was  the  child  of  a  Yadava  prince,  Sura,  who 
gave  her  to  his  childless  cousin  Kuntibhoja,  under  whose  care  she 
was  brought  up.  One  day  before  her  marriage  she  paid  such 
respect  and  attention  to  the  great  sage  Durvasas,  a  guest  in  her 
father's  house,  that  he  gave  her  a  charm  and  taught  her  an  incan- 
tation, by  virtue  of  which  she  was  to  have  a  child  by  any  god  she 
liked  to  invoke.  This  power  she  did  not  suffer  to  lie  idle,  but 
invoked  the  sun  by  whom  she  had  a  child,  born  like  ^Minerva 
ready  equipped  for  the  field  ;  armed  with  a  miraculous  cuirass  and 
lance.  Pritha,  afraid  of  the  censure  of  her  relatives,  deserted  the 
child,  and  exposed  it  in  the  Jumna.  It  was  found  by  Dhrita- 
rashtra's  charioteer  Adhiratha,  and  nurtured  by  his  wife  Radha, 
whence  the  child  was  afterwards  called  Radheya,  tliough  named 


KAR  321 

by  his  foster  parents  Vasushena.  When  he  was  grown  up  ludra 
tricked  him  out  of  his  armour,  by  appealing  to  his  generosity  in 
the  guise  of  a  brahman.  Indra  in  return  conterred  upon  him 
enormous  strengtli  and  changed  his  name  to  Kama. — Monier 
JVilliams,  I.  E.  P,  p.  94. 

Kama,  though  in  reality  the  half-brother  of  the  five  Pandava 
princes,  was  on  more  friendly  terms  with  their  cousins,  the  Kurus, 
and  joined  Duryodhana  and  Sakuni  in  various  schemes  for 
destroying  the  Pandus.  In  the  great  war  he  became  a  general  in 
the  Kuru  army  ;  for  five  days  he  had  the  command  of  the  whole 
army  ;  he  engaged  to  slay  Arjuna,  and  when  the  latter  went  forth 
to  a  final  battle  against  him,  the  armies  stopped  fighting  and  the 
gods  descended  from  heaven.  He  was  finally  slain  by  Arjuna 
with  a  crescent-shaped  arrow.  His  widows,  children  and 
dependants  were  treated  with  great  kindness  by  Arjuna  and 
Yudhisthira.  Kama's  relationship  to  the  Pandus  was  not  known 
by  Arjuna  at  that  time,  and  his  death  was  at'terwards  lamented  by 
all  the  brothers. 

"  The  birth  of  Kama  was  secret,  and  he  was  reputed  to  be  the 
sou  of  Xandana  tlie  charioteer  of  Dhritarashtra,  having  been  found 
floating  in  the  river  Yamuna,  although  the  son  of  Pritha  by  the 
Suu  ;  he  was  born  in  celestial  panoply,  and  with  splendid  ear-rings, 
whence  his  first  appellation  was  Vasushena,  or  abounding  in 
wealth.  Indra  disguised  as  a  brahman  begged  of  him  his  divine 
coat  of  mail,  in  order  to  obtain  it  for  his  own  son  Arjuna,  and  from 
the  act  of  cutting  it  or  detaching  it  from  his  body,  the  prince  was 
named  Kama  ;  he  is  also  entitled  Valkarttana  from  Vikarttana  the 
sun.  Indra  in  return  for  the  armour  presented  Kama  with  a 
javelin  freighted  with  the  certain  death  of  one  individual  whether 
god,  man,  or  demon.  Kama  launched  it  at  Ghotokaoha,  the 
Riikshasa  son  of  Bhima,  and  it  destroyed  him,  but  left  its 
possessor  helpless  against  the  charmed  weapons,  offensive  and 
defensive,  of  Arjuna,  by  whose  hand  Kama  ultimately  fell." — 
Jnisfl»s  JForks,  Vol.  III.  p.  333. 

Karnapravaranas — A  nickname  applied  in  the  Puranar^  to 
«ome  of  the  aborigjlnal  triV»e'=.  meaning  those  who  wrap  themselves 
'  T>  in  their  cars. 

41 


322  KAR 

Karnatakas — The  Canarese  people  ;  the  inhabitants  of  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula,  the  proper  Karuata,  or  Caruatic. 

Kartika — The  name  of  one  of  the  lunar  months,  corresponding 
to  October. 

Kartikeya — The  Hindu  Mars,  or  god  of  war,  generated  from 
the  vivifying  principle  of  Siva  cast  into  Agni,  or  Fire,  who  unable 
to  retain  it,  cast  it  into  Ganga,  or  the  Ganges.  On  the  banks  of 
this  river  was  born  the  beautiful  boy  who  was  destined  to  lead  the 
armies  of  the  gods,  and  to  be  the  destroyer  of  Taraka,  and  Sura, 
a  demon  who  by  his  austerities,  had  alarmed  both  gods  and  men, 
and  gained  the  dominion  of  the  universe.  When  born  Kartikeya 
was  nursed  by  six  nymphs  called  the  Krittikds,  or  Pleiades,  who 
each  called  him  her  son,  and  offering  her  breast,  the  child  assumed 
to  himself  six  mouths  and  received  nurture  from  each.  He  is 
considered  to  be  the  brother  of  Ganesa  who  was  the  reputed 
eldest  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati.  He  is  represented  riding  on  a 
peacock  ;  sometimes  with  one  face,  sometimes  with  six  faces  and 
twelve  arms.  One  account  of  his  birth  is  as  follows  :  Siva  emitted 
from  his  eyes  sparks  of  fire,  which  being  thrown  into  the  lake 
Saravana,  became  six  infants,  who  were  nursed  by  the  wives  of 
the  Kishis  who  are  to  be  seen  in  the  sky  as  the  Pleiades.  When 
Parvati  saw  the  children  she  was  so  transported  with  their  beauty, 
and  embraced  all  of  them  together  so  forcibly,  that  their  six  bodies 
became  one,  while  their  six  heads  and  twelve  arms  remained. 
Kartikeya  is  better  known  in  the  south  of  India  as  Subramanya, 
and  Tuesday  is  the  weekly  day  of  his  devotees.  The  Skanda  Purana 
gives  the  fullest  account  of  Subramanya,  containing  his  war  with 
Sura,  and  relates  how  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  frustrate  the 
sacrifice  of  Daksha,  and,  at  the  instigation  of  the  latter,  was  delayed 
in  his  way  by  beautiful  damsels,  who  entertained  him  with  song  and 
music.  Hence  it  is  the  practice  still  for  the  dancing  girls  who 
serve  in  the  pagodas,  to  be  betrothed  and  married  to  him,  and 
then  not  allowed  to  marry  men  though  they  may  prostitute 
themselves. 

Karttavirya — The  son  of  Kritavirya  and  sovereign  of  the 
Kaikaya   tribe.     He  is   said  to  have  invaded   Lanka  aud  taken 


KAR— KAS  328 

Ravana  prisoner.  The  Vishnu  Purana  says  that  by  propitiating 
the  sage  Dattatreya  ho  obtained  these  boons  ;  a  thousand  arms  ; 
never  acting  unjustly  ;  subjugation  of  the  world  by  justice,  and 
protecting  it  equitably  ;  victory  over  his  enemies  ;  and  death  by 
the  hands  of  a  person  renowned  in  the  three  regions  of  the 
universe.  With  these  means  he  ruled  over  the  earth  with  might 
and  justice  ;  and  offered  ten  thousand  sacrifices.  At  the  expiration 
of  his  long  reign  (eighty-five  thousand  years)  he  was  killed  by 
Parasuraraa,  as  related  under  Jamadagni. 

Karundhaka — One  of  the  Iqw  sons  of  Siira  and  brother  of 
Vasudeva,  in  whose  family  Krishna  was  born. 

Karusha — One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Vaiwaswata,  from 
Avhom  descended  the  celebrated  warriors  termed  Karushas,  who 
lived  in  the  Paripatra  or  Vindhya  mountains. 

Kasa — The  son  of  Suhotra  of  the  family  of  Ayus,  and  king  of 
Kasi. 

Kaseramat — One  of  the  nine  divisions  of  the  Varsha  of 
B ha rata. 

Kashtha — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Kasyapa  ;  she  was  the  mother  of  beasts  with  uucloveu  hoofs. 

Kashtha — Fifteen  twinklings  of  the  eye,  or  Nimishas  ;  five 
Kshanas. 

Kasi,  or  Varanasi — Benares,  q.  v.  the  sacred  city  of  the 
Hindus,  which  they  believe  to  have  descended  from  the  gods 
originally. 

Kasina — An  ascetic  rite  among  the  Buddhists,  by  which  it  is 
supposed  that  a  miraculous  energy  may  be  received.  There  are 
ten  descriptions  of  this  rite, 

1.  Prathawi earth. 

2.  Apo water. 

3.  Tejo fire. 

4.  Vayu   wind. 

5.  Nila  blue. 

6.  Pita golden. 

7.  Lohita , blood  red. 


324  KAS 

8.  Odata  white. 

9.  Alaka light. 

10.  Akasa space. 

There  are  various  ceremonies  prescribed  for  the  performance  of 
these  different  kinds  of  Kasiua,  and  from  its  practice  in  any  one  of 
its  forms,  a  Buddhist  priest  expects  to  derive  many  advantages. 
See  Hardy's  Manual  of  Buddhism. 

Kasiraja — One  of  the  kings  of  Kasi — the  sou  of  Kasa,  an  ally 
of  the  Panda vas. 

Kasis — The  people  of  the  Benares  district,  and  that  opposite, 

Kasmiras — The  people  of  Kashmir. 

Kasya — A  prince,  the  son  of  Senajit,  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Has  tin. 

Kasyapa — A  sage,  the  son  of  Marichi,  the  son  of  Brahma,  and 
one  of  the  Prajapatis  or  progenitors  of  created  things.  He  married 
thirteen  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  ;  from  whom  descended  the 
twelve  Adityas  ;  the  nymphs  of  the  lunar  constellations  ;  the 
Daityas  and  Danavas  ;  many  classes  of  animals,  etc.,  etc.  His 
share  in  creation  was  thus  no  unimportant  one,  as  he  w^as  the 
father  of  the  gods  and  demons,  man,  beasts,  and  reptiles.  Kasyapa 
w^as  the  father  of  Vivasvat,  and  he  again  of  Manu.  '•  Righteous 
w^as  this  wise  Manu  on  wiiom  a  race  w^as  founded.  Hence  this 
family  of  men  became  known  as  the  race  of  Manu.  Brahmans, 
Kshatriyas,  and  other  men  sprang  from  this  Manu."  (O.  S.  T., 
Vol.  I,  p.  125.)  "The  Chhindogya  Upanishad  agrees  wath  the 
above  passage  from  the  Mahabharata,  in  i-ecoguisiug  Manu  as  the 
progenitor  of  the  brahmans  as  well  as  the  other  castes."  (p.  196.) 
"  Having  assumed  the  form  of  a  tortoise  Prajapati  created  offspring. 
That  which  he  created,  he  made  ;  hence  the  w^ord  kurma.  Kasyapa 
means  tortoise  ;  hence  men  say  all  creatures  are  descendants  of 
Kasyapa.     This  tortoise  is  the  same  as  Aditya."    (Vol.  IV,  p.  23.) 

The  Mahabharata  states  :  "  From  Kasyapa,  who  was  the  son  of 
Marichi,  were  produced  the  deities  and  the  Asuras ;  and  he  was 
the  source  from  which  all  beings  sprang.  Aditi  had  twelve  sons, 
beginning  with  Sakra.     The  youngest  of  them   was  Vishnu,   on 


KAS  325 

whom  the  worlds  are  supported."  "  Ausa,  Bhaga,  Mitj-a,  Varuna, 
lord  of  the  waters,  Dhatri,  Aryaman,  Jayaiita,  Bhaskara,  Tvashtri, 
PushaD,  Iiidra,  and  Vishnu,  who  is  called  the  twelfth  ;  these  are 
the  twelve  Adityas,  the  sous  of  Kasyapa,  according  to  tradition  (or 
the  veda  s?'uti.y'  In  another  passage  Vivasvat  and  Savitri  occur 
instead  of  Jayanta  and  Bhaskara  ;  Tvashtri  is  placed  the  eleventh 
in  order,  and  it  adds  "  the  twelfth  is  called  Vishnu,  who  though 
the  latest  born,  surpasses  all  the  Adityas  in  his  attributes."  (Vol. 
IV,  p.  103,104.) 

In  the  Ramayana  the  following  passage  occurs  ;  Visvamitra 
speaks  : — "At  this  period  O  Rama,  the  divine  Kasyapa,  luminous 
as  fire,  glowing,  as  it  were,  with  splendour,  attended  by  the 
goddess  Aditi,  having  completed  an  act  of  austerity  which  had 
lasted  for  a  thousand  years  of  the  gods,  celebrated  thus  the  praises 
of  the  boou-bestowing  Madhusudaua.  '  Through  intense  austerity 
I  behold  thee  the  Supreme  Spirit,  whose  essence  is  austerity,  who 
art  a  congeries  of  austerity,  the  impersonation  of  austerity,  whose 
wealth  is  austerity.  In  thy  body,  lord,  I  behold  this  whole 
universe  ;  thou  art  unbeginning,  and  ineffable  ;  to  thee  I  have 
resorted  as  my  refuge.'  Then  Hari,  gratified,  whose  taint  of  sin 
liad  been  purged  away  ;  '  Ask  a  boon  ;  may  good  attend  thee  ; 
thou  art  regarded  by  me  as  deserviug  a  boon.'  Hearing  these 
words  of  his,  Kasyapa,  the  son  of  Marichi,  replied  ;  '  Sinless  lord, 
become  the  son  of  Aditi  and  myself.  Slayer  of  the  Asuras  become 
the  younger  brother  of  Sakra.  (Indra.)  Thou  oughtest  to  succour 
the  gods  who  are  oppressed  with  grief,  Vishnu,  of  mighty  energy, 
was  accordingly  born  of  Aditi,  shaded  by  an  umbrella,  in  the  form 
of  a  mendicant,  resplendent  with  a  drinking  gourd,  and  a  lock  of 
hair  on  his  crown."     (Ibidf  p.  116.) 

Kasyapa  is  supposed  by  some  modern  writers  to  be  a  personifi- 
cation of  the  remains  of  the  antediluvian  race,  who  took  refuge  in 
tho  central  Asiatic  chain,  in  which  traces  of  his  name  so  plentifully 
abound,  as  in  the  Koh-i-Kas  or  Caucasus,  the  Kaspiau,  and  Ivashmir. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  thirteen  Gotras  or  families  of  Brahmans  owe 
their  origin  to  as  many  divine  sages  called  after  their  names. 
Kasyapa  is  one  of  the  number.  The  Asvalayana  Sutra  of  the  Rig 
Veda  contains  the  enumeration  of  the  Gotras  and  their  sub-divisions. 


326  KAS— KAU 


but  iu  a  very  involved  aud  unintelligible  style.  The  popular 
enumeration  of  them,  however,  is  now  wholly  confined  to  the 
South  of  India,  where  several  of  the  reputed  representatives  of 
these  tribes  yet  exist  ;  especially  about  Gooty  and  Gondavir. 
Nandavaram,  it  is  said,  was  a  grant  to  the  thirteen  Gotras  by  the 
sovereign  of  India,  Nanda,  in  the  year  of  Kali  980  ;  but  if  there 
be  any  foundation  for  the  grant,  it  is  of  much  more  recent  date, 
Nanda  having  lived  in  the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era. — 
Hind.f  Theatre^  Vol,  II,  p.  11. 

Kasyata — A  son  of  Paurnamasa,  a  descendant  of  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to  one  of  the  Rishis. 

Katyayana — A  Sanskrit  author  who  lived  at  the  time  of  and 
after  Pauiui  and  published  criticisms  on  the  Sutra  of  the  great 
grammarian.  Max  Miiller  places  him  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  b.  g.  Katyayana  is  said  to  have  been  a  boy  of  great 
talent  and  extraordinary  powers  of  memory.  He  was  able  to  repeat 
to  his  mother  an  entire  play  after  heariug  it  once  at  the  theatre  ; 
and  before  he  was  even  initiated  he  was  able  to  repeat  the 
Pratisakhya  which  he  had  heard  from  byali.  He  completed  aud 
corrected  Panini's  Grammar  such  as  we  now  possess  it.  Katyayana 
has  been  identified  with  Vararuchi  (q.  v.)  the  compiler  of  the 
doctrines  of  Saunaka.     A.  S.  L. 

Kaukundakas,    Kaukattakas,    Kaunkanas— Aboriginal 

tribes  inhabiting  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  Konkan  and  its 
neighbourhood. 

Kaumara  Creation — The  creation  of  Rudra  or  Nilalohita,  a 
form  of  Siva,  by  Bramha,  and  of  certain  other  mind-born  sons 
of  Brahma,  termed  Sanatkumara,  &c.,  who  declining  to  create 
progeny,  remained,  as  the  name  implies,  ever  boys,  kumaras,  that 
is  ever  pure  and  innocent ;  whence  their  creation  is  called  the 
Kaumara.  Sanatkumara  aud  his  brethren  are  described  in  the 
Saiva  Puranas  as  Yogis.  The  Linga  Purana  has  "  Being  ever  as 
he  was  born  he  is  called  a  youth  ;  and  hence  his  name  is  well 
known  as  Sanatkumara." 

Kaumarabhritya— One    of  the   eight    branches   of   medical 


KAU  327 

science   embraciDg  midwifery  and   the  management  of  children. 
Vishnu  Purana,  p.  407. 

Kauravas — The  sons  of  the  Maharaja  Dhritarashtra  and  his 
wife  GandhAri.  At  an  early  period  they  became  jealous  of  their 
cousins,  the  Pandavas,  who  were  brought  up  with  them  in  their 
father's  court.  Duryodhana,  the  eldest  of  the  Kauravas,  attempted 
to  take  the  life  of  his  cousin  Bhima.  The  chief  incidents  of  their 
lives  arc  related  under  their  respective  names,  q.  v. 

Kausalya— One  of  the  queens  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha  and 
mother  of  Rama,  of  whom  she  was  extremely  fond.  She  was 
overjoyed  when  it  was  decided  that  Rama  should  be  installed  as 
heir-apparent,  and  when  Rama  himself  informed  her  that  he  was  to 
be  evicted  and  Bliarata  made  Yuva-raja,  "  she  fell  down  to  the 
earth  like  the  bough  of  a  saul  tree  lopped  by  the  axe  of  a 
forester."  She  urged  Rama  to  seize  the  government  and  slay  the 
Mahariija.  She  afterwards  acknowledged  her  fault.  Bharata 
declared  to  her  his  loyal  attachment  to  Rama. 

Kausambi — An  ancient  city  of  Hindustan,  which  appears  as  the 
capital  of  Vatsa.  According  to  the  Ramayana,  it  was  built  by 
Kusamba,  the  son  of  Kusa,  a  descendant  of  Rama.  Buchanan, 
upon  the  authority  of  the  Bhagavata,  ascribes  its  foundation  to 
Chakra,  a  descendant  of  Arjuna  ;  but  neither  the  Bhiigavata  nor 
Vishnu  Purana  state  that  Nimichakra  built  Kausambi.  They 
only  say  that  when  Hastinapura  shall  be  washed  away  by  the 
Ganges,  Nimichakra  will  reside  at  Kausambi.  From  which  it  is 
to  be  inferred,  that  Kausambi  existed  at  the  time  that  Hastinapura 
was  destroyed.  The  site  of  Kausambi,  Buchanan  supposes  to 
have  been  that  of  the  ruins  ascribed  to  Hastinapura,  but  it  was 
most  probably  lower  down  in  the  Doab,  bordering  upon  Magadha 
on  one  side,  and  Kosala  on  the  other.  In  the  Hindu  drama 
Ratuavali  the  scene  is  laid  in  the  palace  of  King  Vatsa  at  Kausambi. 
^-IVilson,  TI.  T. 

Kausharavi — A  name  of  Maitreya,  a  disciple  of  Parasara, 
who  related  the  V.  P.  to  him. 

Kausika — One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudcva  by  his  wife  Vaisali  : 
the  half-brother  of  Krishna. 


328  KAU 

Kausikas — The  descendants  of  Viswamitra.  The  Gotras,  the 
families  or  tribes  of  the  Kausika  brahmans  are  given  in  the  V.  P., 
(p.  405)  and  are  said  to  have  been  multiplied  by  intermarriages  with 
other  tribes,  who  were  originally  of  the  regal  cast,  like  Viswamitra  ; 
but  like  him,  obtained  Brahmanhood  through  devotion.  As  these 
Gotras  partook  more  of  the  character  of  schools  of  doctrine,  in  which 
teachers  and  scholars  became  one  family  by  intermarrying,  it  shows 
the  interference  of  the  Kshatriya  caste,  with  the  Brahmanical  mono- 
poly of  religious  instruction  and  composition. 

Kausiki — A  character  in  the  Hindu  Drama  Agnimitra  and 
Malavika  ;  the  sister  of  the  Raja's  minister  Sumati,  On  one 
occasion  when  her  brother  had  to  convey  the  princess  Malavika, 
she  accompanied  them,  and  on  their  way  through  the  Vindhya 
mountains  they  were  attacked  by  foresters,  and  in  the  affray 
Sumati  was  slain  and  Malavika  was  lost.  Kausiki  left  alone  com- 
mitted her  brother's  body  to  the  flames,  and  resumed  her  journey. 
Kausiki  soon  found  out  Malavika  but  forbore  to  discover  herself, 
confiding  in  the  prophecy  of  a  sage,  who  had  foretold  that  the 
jirincess,  after  passing  through  a  period  of  servitude  would  meet 
with  a  suitable  match. 

Kausiki — The  name  of  the  river  into  which  Satyavati  was 
transformed  for  following  her  husband  in  death.  It  is  now  called 
the  Kosi,  which  rising  in  Nepal,  flows  through  Puraniya  into  the 
Ganges,  nearly  opposite  to  Rajamahal. 

Kaustabha — The  jewel  worn  by  Vishnu,  and  which  was  one 
of  the  articles  produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean. 

"  And  Kaustabha  the  best 
Of  gems,  that  burns  with  living  light. 
Upon  Lord  Vishnu's  breast.'* 

"  And  Kaustabha  the  gem 
Whose  ever  beaming  lustre  glows 
In  Vishnu's  diadem." 

Kautilya — A  name  of  the  brahman  Chdnakya,  through  whose 
agency  the  Naudas  were  destroyed,  and  Chaudragupta  raised  to 
the  throne  of  Palibothra. 


KAY—KER  329 


Kavasha — The  son  of  Ilusha  by  a  Blave  girl.  The  Rishis, 
when  holding  a  sacrificial  session  on  the  banks  of  the  Saraswati 
expelled  Kavasha  from  their  Soma  sacrifice,  saying,  how  should 
the  son  of  a  slave  girl,  a  gamester,  who  is  no  brahman,  remain 
among  us  ?  So  they  drove  him  into  the  desert  that  he  might  not 
drink  the  water  of  the  Saraswati.  But  a  prayer  was  revealed  to 
him  by  which  he  obtained  the  favour  of  the  waters,  and  the 
Saraswati  surrounded  him  on  all  sides.  When  the  Rishis  saw 
this  they  said  the  gods  know  him  let  us  call  him  back — liaug. 
Ait.  Br. 

Kaveri — A  river  which  takes  its  rise  in  Coorg,  runs  through 
the  south  of  India,  and  empties  itself  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It 
seems  always  to  have  borne  the  same  appellation,  being  the  Chaberis 
of  Ptolemy. 

Kavi — 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Maun  Chakshusha  ;  2,  the 
name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Priyavrata  according  to  the  Bhagavata  ; 
3,  A  son  of  the  Kshatriya  Urukshaya,  who  afterwards  became  a 
Brahman. 

Kaviraja — The  author  of  the  curious  poem  entitled  Raghava- 
Pandaviya,  a  remarkable  specimen  of  "  studied  ambiguity,"  as  it 
may,  at  the  option  of  the  reader,  be  interpreted  as  relating  the 
history  of  Rama  and  the  other  descendants  of  Dasarafha, — or  that 
of  Yudhishthira  and  the  other  sons  of  Pandu. —  Colebrooke. 

Kavyas — l.  The  name  given  to  the  descendants  of  Kavi,  as  a 
race  of  brahmans  ;  2,  One  of  the  classes  of  Pitris,  or  progenitors, 
identified  with  the  cyclic  years. 

Kekaya — An  ancient  city  supposed  to  have  been  in  thePaujab. 
The  king  Asvapati,  (lord  of  horses)  was  the  father  of  Raja  Dasa- 
ratha's  wife  Kaikcyi. 

Kerala — An  ancient  name  of  Malabar  proper  ;  the  inhabitants 
are  called  Keralas. 

Kerari — A  sect  who  worshipped  Purvati  in  her  terrific  forms, 
and  used  to  offer  up  human  sacrifices.  They  used  to  inflict  upon 
themselves  bodily  tortures,  and  pierce  their  flesh  with  hooks,  &c. 
^uch  thing<=  arc  now  made  a  criminal  oflcucc. 


S30  KES 

Kesidhwaja — The  celebrated  son  of  Kritadhwaja.  He  had  a 
cousin  named  Ivhandikya,  who  was  renowned  for  religious  rites, 
and  the  importance  he  attached  to  them  ;  while  Kesidhwaja 
regarded  spiritual  knowledge  as  the  great  object  of  pursuit.  The 
quarrel  became  so  serious  that  Khandikya  w^as  expelled  from  his 
dominions  by  Kesidhwaja.  The  latter,  on  an  occasion  of  great 
perplexity,  w^as  informed  by  his  coHUsellors,  that  none  but  his 
enemy  Khandikya  could  give  him  the  information  he  wished  to 
obtain.  The  desired  interview  took  place,  and  Kesidhwaja's 
difficulties  were  all  removed.  He,  anxious  to  reward  his  preceptor, 
wished  him  to  name  the  remuneration  that  w^ould  be  most  pleasing 
to  himself.  His  friends  recommended  him  to  require  his  whole 
kingdom  to  be  restored  to  him.  But  Khandikya,  addressing 
Kesidhwaja  said  "  As  it  is  known  that  you  are  learned  in  the 
spiritual  learning  that  teaches  the  doctrine  of  the  soul,  if  you 
will  communicate  that  knowledge  to  me,  you  will  have  discharged 
your  debt.  Declare  to  me  what  acts  are  efficacious  for  the 
alleviation  of  human  affliction."  Then  Kesidhwaja  delivered  a 
discourse  on  the  nature  of  ignorance  and  the  benefits  of  the  Yoga 
or  contemplative  devotion.     See  Y.  P.,  pp.  649 — 659. 

Kesin — A  powerful  demon,  who  was  ordered  by  Kausa  to 
destroy  Krishna.  He  assumed  the  form  of  a  horse  "  spurning  the 
earth  with  his  hoofs,  scattering  the  clouds  with  his  mane,  and 
springiug  in  his  paces  beyond  the  orbits  of  the  sun  and  moon." 
The  formidable  demon,  however,  soon  had  "  his  mouth  rent  open 
by  the  arm  of  Krishna,  and  fell  down,  torn  asunder  like  a  tree 
struck  by  lightning  ;  thus  he  lay  separated  into  two  portions,  each 
having  two  legs,  half  a  back,  half  a  tail,  one  ear,  one  eye,  and  one 
nostril."  Krishna  was  afterwards  called  Kesava  in  honour  of 
this  exploit.     V.  P.,  p.  540. 

Kesini — l.  One  of  the  wives  of  Sagara,  who  beiug  childless, 
solicited  the  aid  of  the  sage  Aurva,  and  the  Muni  pronounced  this 
boon,  that  one  wife  should  bear  one  sou,  and  the  other  sixty- 
Ihousaud  ;  aud  he  left  it  to  them  to  make  their  election.  Kesiui 
chose  to  have  the  single  son  ;    2,  The  name  of  the  wife  of  Visravas. 

Kesini— 1,  The  fair-haired  maid  servant  of  Damayauti,  who 


KET— KHA  331 


was  seut  with  a  message  to  Nala,  and  in  the  interview   perceived 
Lis  divine  powers,   and   reported  accordiugly  to  Damayanti. 

KetU — One  of  the  nine  planets  ;  or  the  sons  of  Sinhika  ;  his 
chariot  is  drawn  by  eight  horses  of  the  dusky  red  colour  of  lac  or 
the  smoke  of  burning  straw. 

Ketumala — One  of  the  sous  of  king  Agnidhra,  and  sovereign 
of  Gandhamadaua.     Also  the  name  of  a  Varsha  or  country. 

Ketumta — l,  A  Lokapala,  the  son  of  Rajas,  regent  of  the 
west  ;  2,  The  name  of  the  son  of  Dhauwantari. 

Ketumati — The  wife  of  Suraali,  the  great  Rukshasa  chief. 

Kevala — l,  A  prince,  the  sou  of  Nara  ;  2,  The  name  of  one  of 
the  Puranic  countries. 

KhandaS — l,  The  name  applied  to  the  divisions  or  portions  of 
the  Skanda  and  Padma  Puniuas  ;  2,  The  divisions  of  the  Bharata 
Varsha. 

Khandapani — A  prince,  the  son  of  Ahinara,  of  the  race  of 
Puru. 

Khandava-prastha — A  country  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Jumna,  in  which  the  Pandavas  settled  and  reigned  when  the  Raj 
of  Bharata  was  divided  between  them  and  the  Kauravas  "  It  was 
not  so  much  a  division  of  the  kingdom  as  of  the  family  ;  one  branch 
remainiug  at  Hastinapur,  whilst  the  other  went  out  to  wrest  a 
new  country  from  the  Aborigines." 

Khandikya — A  sou  of  Amitadhwaja,  who  taught  his  cousin 
Kesidhwaja  the  expiation  of  a  sin,  and  was  by  him  instructed  iu 
the  Yoga  doctrine. 

Khakis — One  of  the  Vaishnava  sects  of  Hindus,  of  modern 
origin.  Many  of  them  go  nearly  naked,  smearing  their  bodies 
Avith  ashes  and  earth.  They  add  the  worship  of  Ilanumau  to  that 
of  Vishnu. 

Khandas — The  elements  of  sentient  existence  among  the 
Buddhisis,  of  which  there  are  five  constituents. 


332  KHA— KHO 


1.  The  organized  body,  or  the  whole  of  being  apart  from 

mental  processes. 

2.  Sensation. 

3.  Perception. 

4.  Discrimination. 

5.  Consciousness. 

The  four  last  Khandas  are  results  or  properties  of  the  first, 
which  must  be  understood  as  including  the  soul  as  well  as  the 
body.  At  death  the  Buddhists  believe  the  Khandas  entirely 
vanish.  Gautama  says  that  none  of  the  Khandas,  taken  separately, 
are  the  Ego  ;  and  that  taken  conjointly  they  are  not  the  Ego. 
Yet  there  is  no  such  thing  as  an  Ego  apart  from  the  five  Khandas. 

Khaninetra,  Khanitra — Two  princes  of  the  descendants  of 
Nedishtha  ;  the  priests  of  the  royal  family  conspired  against 
Khanitra,  and  were  put  to  death  by  his  ministers. 

Khara — The  brother  of  Havana,  who  after  several  unsuccessful 
contests  with  Rama  was  at  length  slain  by  him. 

Khasa — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Kasyapa. 

Khasikas,  Khasiras— Non-Aryan  or  Aboriginal  tribes  in  the 
north-east  of  Bengal  ;  or  it  has  been  thought  that  they  may  be 
referred  to  the  situation  of  Kashgar. 

Khasrima — A  chief  of  the  Danavas,  one  of  the  sons  of  Vipra- 
chitti. 

Khatwanga — A  prince,  the  son  of  Visivasaha,  called  also 
Dilipa.  He  rendered  important  aid  to  the  gods  in  one  occasion, 
and  being  asked  by  them  to  demand  a  boon,  he  enquired  '  what  is 
the  duration  of  my  life.'  '  The  length  of  your  life  is  but  an  hour,* 
the  gods  replied  ;  on  hearing  which  he  descended  to  the  world  of 
mortals,  and  prayed  for  final  emancipation.  Thus  he  obtained 
absorption,  according  to  this  stanza  '  Like  unto  Khatwdnga  will 
be  no  one  upon  earth,  who  having  come  from  heaven,  and  dwelt 
amongst  meu,  became  united  with  the  three  worlds  by  his 
liberality  and  knowledge  of  truth. 

Khonds — A  non-arvan   or  aboriginal   tribe  in   Orissa.     Their 


KHO  333 

couditiou  is  in  many  respects  peculiar.  They  have  come  less  into 
contact  with  civilization,  and  evince  greater  wildness  of  deport- 
ment, than  most  of  the  other  non-aryan  tribes.  "  Their  religion 
is  very  peculiar,  and  in  its  whole  features  entirely  distinct  from 
Hinduism.  Their  supreme  god  is  called  Bura-Pennou  the 
god  of  light,  who  created  for  himself  a  consort,  the  earth-goddess 
called  Tari-Fe7inoii,  the  source  of  evil  in  the  world.  The 
god  of  light  arrested  the  action  of  physical  evil,  while  he  left  mau 
at  perfect  liberty  to  reject  or  receive  moral  evil.  They  who 
rejected  it  were  deified,  while  the  great  mass  of  mankind  who 
received  it  were  condemned  to  all  kinds  of  physical  suffering,  with 
death,  besides  being  deprived  of  the  immediate  care  of  the  Creator, 
and  doomed  to  the  lowest  state  of  moral  degradation,  Bura-Pen- 
nou and  his  consort,  meanwhile,  contended  for  superiority,  and 
thus  the  elements  of  good  and  evil  came  to  be  in  constant  collision 
both  in  the  heart  of  man  and  in  the  world  around  him.  At  this 
point  the  Khonds  diverge  into  two  sects,  which  are  thus  described 
by  Major  Macpherson  in  an  interesting  memoir  read  before  the 
Asiatic  Society,  and  inserted  in  their  Journal  : — "  One  sect,"  says 
he,  holds  that  the  god  of  light  completely  conquered  the  earth- 
goddess,  and  employs  her,  still  the  active  principle  of  evil,  as  the 
instrument  of  his  moral  rule.  That  he  resolved  to  provide  a  par- 
tial remedy  for  the  consequences  of  the  introduction  of  evil,  by 
enabling  man  to  attain  to  a  state  of  moderate  enjoyment  upon 
earth,  and  to  partial  restoration  to  communion  with  the  Creator 
after  death.  And  that,  to  effect  this  purpose,  he  created  those 
classes  of  subordinate  deities,  and  assigned  to  them  the  office — 
first,  of  instructing  man  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  regulating  the 
powers  of  nature  for  his  use,  upon  the  condition  of  his  payiug 
to  them  due  worship  ;  secondly,  of  administering  a  system  of 
retributive  justice  through  subjection  to  which,  and  through  the 
practice  of  virtue  during  successive  lives  upon  earth,  the  soul  of 
man  might  attain  to  beatification.  The  other  sect  hold,  upon  the 
other  hand,  that  the  earth-goddess  remains  unconquered  ;  that  the 
god  of  light  could  not,  in  opposition  to  her  will,  carry  out  his 
purpose  with  respect  to  man's  temporal  lot  ;  and  that  mau,  there- 
fore, owes  his  elevation   from  the  state  of  pliysioal  suffering  into 


334  KHY 

■which  he  fell  through  the  reception  of  evil,  to  the  direct  exercise 
of  her  power  to  confer  blessings,  or  to  her  permitting  him  to 
receive  the  good  which  flows  from  the  god  of  light,  through  the 
inferior  gods,  to  all  who  worship  them.  With  respect  to  man's 
destiny  after  death,  they  believe  that  the  god  of  light  carried  out 
his  purpose.  And  they  believe  that  the  worship  of  the  earth- 
goddess  by  human  sacrifice,  is  the  indispensable  condition  on  wiiich 
these  blessings  have  been  granted,  and  their  continuance  may  be 
hoped  for  ;  the  virtue  of  the  rite  availing  not  only  for  those  who 
practice  it,  but  for  all  mankind. 

"  In  addition  to  these  human  sacrifices,  which  still  continue  to 
be  oflfered  annually,  in  order  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Tari,  and 
propitiate  her  in  favour  of  agriculture,  there  is  a  fearful  amount  of 
infanticide  among  the  Khond  people.  It  exists  in  some  of  the 
tribes  of  the  sect  of  Boora  to  such  an  extent,  that  no  female  infant 
is  spared,  except  when  a  woman's  first  child  is  female  ;  and  that 
villages  containing  a  hundred  houses  may  be  seen  without  a  female 
child." 

The  revoltiug  rites  of  human  sacrifice  and  female  infanticide 
have  prevailed  from  time  immemorial  among  these  barbarous 
people.  The  British  government,  however,  has  happily  succeeded 
in  almost  completely  abolishing  these  bloody  rites.  Many  children, 
who  had  been  stolen  from  their  parents,  and  sold  to  the  Khonds 
for  sacrifice,  have  been  rescued  from  a  cruel  death,  and  put  into 
asylums  for  Christian  education  and  training.  The  manner  in 
which  the  revolting  human  sacrifices  were  conducted  by  the 
Khonds  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Fry,  a  government  agent,  who 
has  rescued  numbers  from  the  sacrificial  knife  : — "  The  victim," 
he  inform  us,  "  is  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  half-intoxicated 
Khonds,  and  is  dragged  around  some  open  space,  when  the  savages, 
with  loud  shouts,  rush  on  the  victim,  cutting  the  living  flesh  piece- 
meal from  the  bones,  till  nothing  remains  but  the  head  and  bowels, 
which  are  left  untouched.  Death  has  by  this  time  released  the 
unhappy  victim  from  his  torture  ;  the  head  and  bowels  are  burnt, 
and  the  ashes  mixed  with  grain."  These  Meriah  sacrifices,as  they 
are  called,  are  almost  abolished. 

Khyati — '  Celebrity,'    a   young    and    bright-eyed   daughter    of 


KHU— KIR  335 


Daksha  married  to  the  Muui  Bhrigu.  Kliyuti  is  also  the  faculty 
of  discriminating  objects  by  appropriate  designations  ;  or  the 
means  of  individual  fruitiou. —  H  ilso7i's  Notes  to  Vishnu  Purcina. 

Khumbandas — Au  order  of  beings  among  the  Buddhists  who 
arc  believed  to  be  the  attendants  of  Virddha  who  is  one  of  the 
four  guardian  Devas.  They  arc  of  great  size  and  disgusting  form, 
have  blue  garments,  hold  a  sword  in  one  hand,  and  ride  on  blue 
horses.  They  form  one  of  the  thirteen  orders  of  intelligence, 
exclusive  of  the  supreme  Buddhas. 

Kichaka — The  brother  of  the  Rani  of  Raja  Virata.  Tic 
insulted  Draupadi,  and  on  her  complaining  to  the  Raja,  followed 
her  to  the  Council  hall,  where  his  influence  was  so  great  that  the 
Raja  refused  to  interfere.  DraujDadi  then  professed  to  receive  his 
ofl^ers  and  engaged  to  meet  him  at  midnight  in  the  dancing  room. 
On  his  arrival  lie  was  seized  by  Bhima,  who,  after  a  fight,  slew 
him  and  rolled  the  body  into  a  ball. 

Kikatas — A  tribe  of  aborigines  who  lived  to  the  east  of  Saras- 
w\ati,  "  they  drew  no  milk  to  mix  with  the  soma,  and  by  them  the 
sacrificial  kettle  was  never  heated." 

Kilakila— See  Kailakila. 

Kimpurusha — One  of  the  nine  sons  of  Agnidhra,  king  of 
«Jambu-dwipa,  to  whom  his  father  gave  the  country  of  llumakuta. 

Kimpurushas — Demigods,  attached  to  the  service  of  Kuvcra, 
the  god  of  wealth,  celestial  musicians,  represented  like  centaurs 
reversed,  with  human  figures  and  horses'  heads. 

Kinnaru--A  i)rincc,  the  sou  of  Sunakshatra,  of  the  family  of 
Ikslnvaku. 

Kinnaras — A  race  of  beings  of  human  shape  but  with  the  heads 
of  horses  ;  different  to  Naras,  which  are  centaurs,  or  beings  with 
the  limbs  of  horses  and  human  bodies  ;  created  from  the  limbs  of 
Brahma.     Called  also  Kimpurushas. 

Kiratarjuniya — A  poem  written  by  Bharavi  on  the  subject  of 
Arjuna's  obtaining  celestial  arms  from  Siva,  Indra,  and  other  gods. 


S36  KIR— KOD 


"  by  a  rigid  observauce  of  severe  austerities,  and  afterwards  by 
his  prowess  in  a  conflict  with  Siva,  in  which  Arjuna  prevails  : 
this  is  the  whole  subject  of  the  poem,  which  is  ranked  among 
the  six  excellent  compositions  in  Sanscrit. 

Kiratas— Aboriginal  tribes  dwelling  in  the  East  of  Bharata  ; 
foresters  and  mountaineers  are  intended,  the  inhabitants  to  the 
present  day  of  the  mountains  east  of  Hindustan. 

Kirtaratha — The  son  of  Raja  Pratiudhak,  and  thirteenth  in 
descent  from  Maharaja  Jauaka. 

Kirtirat — The  great  grandson  of  the  above  ; 

"  Mahandhrak's  son  of  boundless  might, 
Was  Kirtirat  who  loved  the  right." 

Kirtti — "  Fame."     A  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to  Dharma. 

Kirttimat — l,  A  son  of  the  patriarch  Angiras.  2,  A  son  of 
the  Manu  Uttauapada.  3,  A  son  of  Vasudeva  aud  Devaki,  who 
was  killed  by  Kansa. 

Kishkindhya—The  monkey  city  of  Bali,  the  elder  brother 
and  enemy  of  Sugriva.  Kishkindhya  is  supposed  to  have  been 
situated  north  of  Mysore  :  "  somewhere  in  that  strip  of  British 
territory  which  separates  the  kingdom  of  Mysore  from  the  Nizam's 
territory." — Cal.  Rev. 

Klesa — In  the  Patanjala  philosophy  Klesa  is  the  term  employed 
to  designate  the  five  afflictions  of  the  soul,  viz..  Ignorance, 
Selfishness,  Love,  Hatred,  Dread  of  temporal  suffering. 

KodagU — Steep  mountains  ;  the  name  of  the  country  which  has 
been  anglicised  into  Coorg  :  a  country  formed  by  the  summits  and 
eastern  declivities  of  the  Western  Ghauts  ;  about  60  miles  in 
length  and  40  in  breadth.  It  comprises  1,585  square  miles: 
covered  by  forest,  save  here  and  there  where  the  clearing  of  a 
coffee  plantation,  or  ragi  patch,  or  the  park  like  open  glades  with 
their  beautiful  green  sward  and  varied  foliage,  afford  a  charming 
variety  to  the  landscape.  The  Kodagus  or  Coorgs  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  Dravidian  family  ;  and  not  to  have  descended  from 
the  Paudavas  as  some  have  argued,  but  for  which  no  evidence  has 
been  adduced.     The   Coorg;^  were  probably  connected   with  the 


KOK— KOS  337 


Paiulya  kingdom  which  flourished  iu  the  South  of  India  perhaps 
in  the  fifth  century  before  Christ ;  but  the  Mahabliarata  Pdndavas 
have  nothing  to  do  with  this  Pdndyau  kingdom,  whose  rulers  were 
not  Kshatriyas  but  belonged  to  the  agricultural- class. — Richter's 
Manual  of  Coorg,  1870. 

Kokanakas,  Kokarakas — The  names  of  aboriginal  tribes 
enumerated  in  the  Vishnu  Purina. 

Kolaria — The  ancient  name  for  India.  In  the  modern  map  of 
India  we  find  indications  of  the  same  name  in  every  province  from 
Burmah  to  Malabar,  viz.,  the  Kols  of  Central  India  ;  the  Kolas  of 
Katwar  ;  See  Dr.  Keith  Johnston's  Index  to  his  Map  of  India  from 
the  Royal  Atlas,  for  a  full  confirmation  of  this  view,  as  stated  in 
Mr.  W.  Hunter's  Dissertation  in  his  Dictionary  of  Non-Aryan 
Languages. 

Kolikod — The  ancient  and  present  native  name  of  Calicut. 

Kosala — The  Rum%aua  contains  the  following  description  of 
Kosala  :  "  In  ancient  times  there  was  a  great  country  named 
Kosala  ;  and  that  country  was  happy  and  joyous,  and  abounded  in 
cattle,  and  grain,  and  riches.  And  in  that  country  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Sarayu,  was  a  famous  city  named  Ayodhya. ;  and  there 
all  the  houses  were  large  and  beautifully  arranged,  and  the  streets 
weie  ahvays  watered,  and  there  were  very  many  temples  richly 
decorated,  and  stately  palaces  with  domes  like  the  tops  of 
mountains,  with  pleasant  gardens  full  of  birds  and  flowers,  and 
shady  groves  of  trees  loaded  with  delicious  fruits,  and  above  all 
there  were  the  sacred  and  resplendent  chariots  of  the  gods.  And 
the  tanks  in  that  city  were  magnificent  beyond  all  description,  and 
covcicd  with  the  white  lotus  ;  and  the  bees  thirsted  for  the  honey, 
and  the  wind  drove  the  white  lotuses  from  the  bees  as  modesty 
drives  away  the  coy  bride  from  her  husband.  And  the  ducks  and 
the  geese  swam  upon  the  surface  of  the  tanks,  or  dived  under  the 
clear  waters  ;  and  the  brilliant  kingfishers,  wroth  as  they  beheld 
their  own  reflection  in  the  bright  wave,  and  under  pretence  of 
catching  the  fish,  they  beat  the  water  with  their  wings.  And  the 
plantain  trees  round  the  tanks  were  bending  with  the  weight  of  the 
fruit,  like  reverential  pupils  bowing  at  the  feet  of  their  preceptors, 

13 


838  KOS 

The  whole  city  was  adorned  with  gems,  so  that  it  resembled  a 
mine  of  jewels,  and  it  was  like  unto  Amaravati,  the  city  of  ludra. 
It  was  perfumed  with  flow<ers  and  incense,  and  decked  out  with 
gorgeous  banner^  ;  and  it  was  ever  filled  with  the  sweet  sound  of 
music,  the  sharp  twanging  of  bows,  and  the  holy  chaunting  of 
Vedic  hymns.  The  city  was  encompassed  round  about  with  very 
lofty  walls,  which  were  set  in  with  variously-coloured  jewels  ;  and 
all  round  the  walls  was  a  moat  filled  with  water,  deep  and 
impassable  ;  and  the  city  gates  were  strongly  barred,  and  "the 
porticoes  of  the  gates  and  the  towers  on  the  walls  were  filled  with 
archers,  and  stored  with  weapons  of  every  description.  Every 
quarter  of  the  city  was  guarded  by  mighty  heroes,  who  were  as 
strong  as  the  eight  gods  who  rule  the  eight  points  of  the  universe, 
and  as  vigilant  as. the  many-headed  serpents  who  watch  at  the 
entrance  of  the  regions  below." 

*'  On  Sarju's  bank  of  ample  size. 
The  happy  realm  of  Kosal  lies. 
With  fertile  length  of  fair  champaign 
And  flocks  and  herds  and  wealth  of  grain, 
There,  famous  in  her  old  renown 
Ayodhya*  stands,  the  royal  town 
In  bygone  ages  built  and  planned 
By  sainted  Manu's  princely  hand. 
Imperial  seat  !  her  walls  extend 
Twelve  measured  leagues  from  end  to  end. 
And  three  in  width  from  side  to  side, 
With  square  and  palace  beautified. 
Her  gates  at  even  distance  stand  ; 
Her  ample  roads  are  wisely  planned. 
Right  glorious  is  her  royal  street. 
Where  streams  allay  the  dust  and  heat. 
On  level  ground  in  even  row. 
Her  houses  rise  in  goodly  show  : 

*  "  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Eama  and  the  children  of  the  Sixn, 
may  still  be  traced  in  the  present  Ajudhya  near  Fyzabad.  Ajudhya  is  the 
Jerusiilem  or  Mec<;a  of  the  Uindus." "OrWths. 


KOT— KRA  339 


Terrace  and  palace,  arch  and  gate, 
The  queenly  city  decorate. 
High  are  her  ramparts,  strong  and  vast, 
By  ways  at  even  distance  passed. 
With  circling  moat  both  deep  and  wide. 
And  store  of  weapons  fortified." — Griffiths. 
The  name  Kosala  is  variously  applied.     Its  earliest   and  most 
celebrated  application  is  that  given  above,  to  the  country  on   the 
banks  of  the  Sarayii,  the  kingdom  of  Rama,  of  which  Ayodha  was 
the  capital.     lu  the  Mahabh^rata  we  have  one  Kosala  in  the  east, 
and  another  in  the  south  ;  besides  the   Prak-kosalas  and  Uttara- 
kosalas  in  the  east  and  north.     The  Purunas  place  the  Kosalas  in 
the  back  of  Viudhya  ;  and  it  would  appear  from  the  Vayu,  that 
Kusa,  the  sou  of  Rama,  transferred  his  kingdom  to  a  more  central 
position  ;  he  ruled  over  Kosala  at  his  capital   of  Kusasthali,  or 
Kusavati,  built  upon  the  Vindhyan  precipices.     In  later  times  the 
country  of  Kosala  lay  south  of  Oude,   for  in  the  Ratnavali  the 
general  of  Vatsa  surrounds  the  king  of  Kosala  in  the  Vindhyan 
mountains  :  Ptolemy  has  a  Kouta  Kosala  in  the  south,  probably 
one  of  the  Kosalas  of  the  Hindus.     Wilson's  Notes  to  Vishnu 
Purana  and  Hindu  Theatre,  Vol.  II. 

Kotavi — An  eighth  portion  of  Rudrani,  and  the  tutelary  goddess 
of  the  Daityas,  composed  of  incantations.  The  Vishnu  Purana 
states  that  as  Krishna  was  in  the  act  of  casting  his  discus,  to  kill 
Bana,  the  mystical  goddess  Kotavi,  the  magic  lore  of  the  demons, 
stood  naked  before  him,  in  order  to  prevent  him. 

Koutsya — A  mythical  sage,  the  disciple  of  Maharishi  Varatanta, 
who  rewarded  his  tutor  with  fourteen  crores  of  rupees  for  the 
fourteen  branches  of  study  completed  under  him.  For  the  way  in 
which  the  money  was  obtained,  see  Raghu. 

Kratha — The  son  of  Vidarbha  ;  and  grandson  of  Jyamagha,  q.  v. 
KratU — 1,  A  Prnjapati,  or  one  of  the  mind-born  sous  of 
Brahm^  and  one  of  the  seven  glorious  spirits  who  abide  in  the  orb 
of  the  sun,  scattering  light  throughout  the  universe,  married  to 
Sannati,  daughter  of  Daksha  ;  2,  A  son  of  Uru,  of  the  race  of 
Dhruva. 


340  KRA— KRI 


KratUSthala — The  celestial  nymph  who  resides  in  the  car  of 
the  suD  during  the  month  Chaitra,  as  one  its  seven  guardians. 

Krauncha — l,  Tlie  fifth  of  the  seven  great  insular  continents, 
or  dwipas  ;  the  king  of  this  Dvvipa  was  Dyutirnan  :  it  had  seven 
boundary  mountains,  each  in  succession  twice  as  lofty  as  the  one 
preceding  it ;  the  inhabitants  resided  there  without  apprehension, 
associatiug  with  the  bands  of  divinities  ;  the  Brahmans  were  called 
Pushkaras  ;  the  Kshatriyas,  Pushkalas  ;  the  Vaisyas  were  termed 
Dhanyas  ;  and  the  Sudras,  Trishyas. 

Kriaswa —  l,  A  sage,  Avho  was  married  to  two  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha  ;  aud  the  deified  weapons  of  the  gods  were  the  progeny 
of  Kriaswa.  These  are  also  called  the  Sastra  devatas,  gods  of  the 
divine  Aveapons  ;  a  hundred  are  enumerated  in  the  Ramayana,  and 
they  are  there  termed  the  sons  of  Kriaswa  by  Jayd  and  Vijaya, 
daughters  of  the  Prajapati,  that  is  of  Daksha  ;  2,  A  son  of  Saha- 
deva  ;  3,  A  son  of  Sautrataswa. 

Krikana,  or  Krimi— The  son  of  Bhajamaua  Krimi  ;  also  the 
name  of  a  son  of  Usinara,  a  descendant  of  Anu. 

Krimibhojana,  Krimisa— The  names  of  the  two  of  the  hells 
or  divisions  of  Naraka  below  Patala.  The  specific  punishments 
of  each  are  described  in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  p.  207-9. 

Kripa  and  Kripi— The  sou  and  daughter  of  Satyadhriti,  who 
was  a  proficient  in  Military  science.  Being  enamoured  of  the 
nymph  Urvasi  he  became  the  parent  of  two  children,  a  boy  and  a  girl. 
The  Raja  Sautaua  whilst  hunting,  found  these  children  exposed 
iu  a  clump  of  long  Sara  grass  ;  and  compassionating  their  condition 
took  them  and  brought  them  up.  As  they  were  nurtured  through 
pity  (Kripa)  they  were  called  Kripa  and  Kripi.  The  legend  of 
their  birth  is  thought  to  be  a  Puranic  invention  to  explain  the 
origin  of  their  names.  The  latter  became  the  wife  of  Drona  and 
mother  of  Aswatthaman.  Kripa  was  one  of  the  Kuru  generals. 
He  rebuked  Kama  for  wishing  to  measure  weapons  with  Arjuna, 
and  advised  Duryodhana  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  Pandavas. 
When  Duryodhana  was  mortally  wounded  Kripa  hastened  to  him, 
fetched  him  water,  and  inaugurated  Aswatthaman  general.  Kripa 
is  also  called  Saradvata. 


KRI  341 

Krisanu — Au  archer  meutioned  iu  the  Rig  Veda. 

Krishna — The  Indian  Hercules  and  Apollo  combined.  The  most 
renowned  demigod  of  Indian  mythology,  and  most  celebrated  hero 
of  Indian  history,  is  the  eighth  Avatara  or  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
"  Vishnu  was  born  as  Krishna  for  the  destruction  of  Kansa,  an 
oppressive  monarch,  and,  in  fact,  an  incarnate  Daitya  or  Titan,  the 
natural  enemy  of  the  gods.  Kansa  being  forewarned  of  his  fate 
seeks  to  anticijiate  his  destroyer  ;  but  Krishna  is  conveyed  secretly 
away  from  Mathura,  the  capital  of  Kansa,  and  is  brought  up  as  the 
child  of  a  cowherd  at  Vriudavan,  a  pastoral  district  near  Mathura. 
It  is  whilst  thus  circumstanced  that  he  has  been  exalted  into  au 
object  of  adoration,  and  the  mischievous  follies  of  the  child,  the 
boy,  and  the  lad,  are  the  subject  of  popular  delight  and  wonder. 
His  male  companions  are  not  very  prominent  in  the  tale  of  his 
youth  ;  but  the  females,  the  deified  dairy  maids,  play  a  more 
important  part  in  the  drama.  Amongst  the  most  conspicuous  is 
R^dha,  and  she  receives  scarcely  less  universal  homage  than 
Krishna  himself."* 

Krishna  cannot  be  said  to  belong  really  to  the  Epic  age,  but 
almost  exclusively  to  the  Puranic.  When  the  story  of  his  life 
is  divested  of  the  marvellous,  he  will  be  found  to  be  an  historical 
personage,  belonging  to  that  epoch  when  the  Aryan  race,  leaving 
the  north-western  corner  of  the  peninsula,  began  to  make  their 
way  by  gradual  conquests  towards  the  interior  and  the  east.  The 
enemies  whom  he  attacks  and  subdues  are  the  aborigines  of  the 
interior,  who,  to  heighten  the  glory  of  the  hero,  are  called  giants 
and  demons,  Daityas  and  Danavas.  The  Aryans  were  still  a 
nomad  people,  pasturing  their  herds  of  cattle  at  the  foot  of  tlie 
Himalaya  range  and  in  the  plains  of  the  Panjab  ;  and  the  legend 
would  farther  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  primitive  elementary 
worship  now  yielded  to  the  more  systematic  religion  of  Brahmanism 
and  the  institutions  of  caste.  His  identification  with  Vishnu 
would  follow  as  a  natural  apotheosis  of  a  monarch  and  warrior  of 
such  fame  ;  but  the  very  legend  itself,  even  as  it  is  given  in  the 
Puranas,  seems  to  show  that  he  existed  long   before  the  my- 

*  Wilson's  "Works,  Vol.  II,  pp.  66,67. 


342  KRI 

thological  triad  of  Brahma,  Visliriu,  and  Siva  had  ever  been 
dreamed  of.  The  following  is  a  curtailed  account  of  his  birth  and 
actions,  borrowed  partly  from  the  Puranas,  and  partly  from  Monier 
Williams'  Eug.- Sanskrit  Dictionary. 

The  king  of  the  Daltyas  or  aborignes,  Ahuka,  had  two  sons, 
Devaka  and  Ugrasena.  The  former  had  a  daughter  named  Devaki, 
the  latter  a  son  called  Kausa.  Devaki  was  married  to  a  nobleman 
of  the  Aryan  race  named  Vasudeva  (or  Anakaduudubhi),  the  sou 
of  Sura,  a  descendant  of  Yadu,  and  by  him  had  eight  sons. 
Vasudeva  had  also  another  wife  named  Rohini.  Kansa,  the  cousin 
of  Devaki,  was  informed  by  the  saint  and  prophet  Narada,  that 
his  cousin  would  bear  a  son,  who  would  kill  him  and  overthrow 
his  kingdom.  Kansa  was  king  of  Mathura,  and  he  captured 
Vasudeva  and  his  wife  Devaki,  imprisoned  them  in  his  own  palace, 
set  guards  over  them,  and  slew  the  six  children  whom  Devaki  had 
akeady  borne.  She  was  now  about  to  give  birth  to  the  seventh, 
who  was  Bala  Rama,  the  play  fellow  of  Krishna,  and,  like  him, 
supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu  (see  Rama)  ;  but  by 
divine  agency,  the  child  was  transferred  before  birth  to  the  womb 
of  Vasudeva's  other  wife,  Rohini,  who  was  still  at  liberty,  and 
was  thus  saved.  Her  eighth  child  was  Krishna,  who  was  born 
at  midnight,  with  a  very  black  skin  (the  name  Krishna,  as  an 
adjective,  means  '  black,')  and  a  peculiar  curl  of  hair  called  the 
Shrivatsa,  resembling  a  Saint  Andrew's  cross,  on  his  breast.  The 
gods  now  interposed  to  preserve  the  life  of  this  favoured  baby 
from  Kansa's  vigilance,  and  accordingly  lulled  the  guards  of  the 
palace  to  sleep  with  the  Yoga-nidra,  or  mysterious  slumber. 
Taking  the  infant,  its  father  Vasudeva  stole  out  undiscovered  as  far 
as  Yamuna,  or  Jumna  river,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  boundary 
between  the  Aryans  and  the  aborigines.  This  he  crossed,  and 
on  the  other  side  found  the  cart  and  team  of  a  nomad  Aryan 
cowherd,  called  Nanda,  whose  wife,  Yasoda,  had  by  strange 
coincidence  just  been  delivered  of  a  female  child.  Vasudeva, 
warned  of  this  by  divine  admonition,  stole  to  her  bedside,  and 
placing  Krishna  by  her,  re-crossed  the  river,  and  re-entered  the 
palace,  with    the  female  baby  of  Yasoda  in  his  arms,  and  thus 


KRI  843 

substituted  it  for  his  own  son.  When  Kansa  discovered  the  clieat, 
he  for  a  while  gave  up  the  affair,  and  set  the  prisoners  at  liljerty, 
but  ordered  all  male  children  to  be  put  to  death.  Vasudeva  then 
entrusted  Krishna  to  the  care  of  Nan  da,  the  cowherd,  who  took 
him  to  the  village  of  Gokula,  or  Vrnja,  and  there  brought  him  up. 

Here  Krishna,  and  his  elder  brother  Bala  Rama,  who  joined 
him,  wandered  about  together  as  children,  and  evinced  their  divine 
character  by  many  unruly  pranks  of  surprising  strength,  such  as 
kicking  over  the  cart,  which  served  as  conveyance  and  domicile  to 
Nanda  and  his  family.  The  female  Daitya  Piitand  was  sent  to 
suckle  him,  but  the  refractory  baby  discovering  the  trick,  showed 
his  gratitude  by  slaying  her.  Later  in  life  he  vanquished  the 
serpent  Kaliya  in  the  middle  of  the  Yamuna  (Jumna)  river.  A 
demon,  Arishta,  assuming  the  form  of  a  bull ;  another,  Keshin 
that  of  a  horse  ;  and  a  third,  Kalanemi,  all  undertook  to  destroy 
the  boy,  but  each  fell  victims  to  his  superhuman  strength. 
Krishna  now  incited  Nanda  and  the  cowherds  to  abandon  the 
worship  of  Indra,  and  to  adopt  that  of  the  cows,  which  sup- 
ported them,  and  the  mountains,  which  afforded  them  pasturage. 
Indra,  incensed  at  the  loss  of  his  offerings,  opened  the  gates 
of  heaven  upon  the  whole  race,  and  would  have  deluged  them, 
had  not  our  hero  plucked  up  the  mountain  Govarddhana, 
and  held  it  as  a  substantial  umbrella  above  the  land.  He  soon 
took  to  repose  from  his  labours,  and  amused  himself  with  the 
Gopis,  or  shepherdesses,  of  whom  he  married  seven  or  eight, 
among  whom  Rcidha  was  the  favourite,  and  to  whom  he  taught 
the  round  dance  called  Rhsa,  or  Mandala-nrityam,  Meanwhile 
Kansa  had  not  forgotten  the  prophecies  of  Narada.  He  invited 
the  two  boys,  Krishna  and  Balarama,  to  stay  Avith  him  at 
Mathura  ;  they  accepted,  and  went.  At  the  gates,  Kansa's  washer- 
man insulted  Krishna,  who  slew  him,  and  dressed  himself  in  his 
yellow  clothes.  He  afterwards  slew  Kansa  himself,  and  placed 
his  father  Ugraseua  on  the  throne.  A  foreign  kiug  of  the  Kala- 
yavana  (Indo-Scythian)  race  soon  invaded  the  Yadu,  or  Aryan, 
territory,  Avhereupou  Krishna  built  and  fortified  the  town  of 
Dvvaraka,  in  Guzerat,  and  thither  transferred  the  inhabitants  of 


344  KRI 

Mathura.  He  afterwards  married  Satyabhdma,  daughter  of 
Satrajit,  and  carried  off  Rukmini,  daughter  of  Bhishmaka.  His 
harem  numbered  sixty  thousand  wives,  but  his  progeny  was 
limited  to  eighteen  thousand  sons.  When  afterwards  on  a  visit  to 
Indra's  heaven,  he  behaved,  at  the  persuasion  of  his  wife,  Satya- 
bhama,  in  a  manner  very  unbecoming  a  guest,  by  stealing  the 
famous  parijata  tree,  which  had  been  produced  at  the  churning  of 
the  ocean,  and  was  then  thriving  in  Indra's  garden.  A  contest 
ensued,  in  which  Krishna  defeated  the  gods,  and  carried  off  the 
sacred  tree.  At  another  time,  a  female  Daitya,  Usha,  daughter  of 
Bana,  carried  off  Krishna's  grandson,  Aniruddha.  His  grandfather, 
accompanied  by  Riima,  went  to  the  rescue,  and  though  Bana  was 
defended  by  Siva  and  Skanda,  proved  victorious.  Paundraka, 
one  of  Vasudeva's  family,  afterwards  assumed  his  title  and  insignia, 
supported  by  the  king  of  Benares.  Krishna  hurled  his  flaming 
discus  (chakra)  at  this  city,  and  thus  destroyed  it.  He  afterwards 
exterminated  his  own  tribe,  the  Yddavas.  He  himself  was  killed 
by  a  chance  shot  from  a  hunter.  He  is  described  as  having  curly 
black' hair,  as  wearing  a  club  or  mace,  a  sword,  a  flaming  discus, 
a  jewel,  a  conch,  and  a  garland.  His  charioteer  is  Sdtyaki  ;  his 
city,  Dwaraka  ',  his  heaven,  Goloka."     (Thomson). 

Krishna  is  the  principal  speaker  in  the  Bhagavat  Gita  ;  where 
he  expounds  the  Sankya  system  of  philosophy  to  Arjuna.  In  the 
great  war  he  took  part  with  the  Pandavas,  and  it  was  mainly 
owing  to  his  powerful  assistance  that  the  opposite  party  were 
vanquished. 

Krishna  is  known  in  the  Mahabhcirata  by  the  following  names  :— 
Vasudeva,  Kesava,  Govinda,  Janardana,  Damodara,  Ddsara, 
Narayana,  Hrishikesa,  Purushottama,  Madhava,  Madhusrudana 
and  Achyuta. 

Krishna — An  Asura  or  Dasyu  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda, 
who  was  slain  together  with  his  wives  that  none  of  his  posterity 
might  survive.  "  Krishna  means  black,  and  the  name  may,  on 
this  occasion.  Professor  Wilson  thinks,  allude  to  the  dark  com- 
plexioued  aborigines.  But  there  is  another  Krishna,  even  in  the 
Rig  Veda,  and  he  and  his  son   Viswaka  are    members    of  the 


KRI  345 

Angirasa  family,  who  may  be  called  Rig  Veda  aristocrats  of  good 
old  family  descent  ;  and  both  father  and  son  appear  among  the 
Rishis  of  the  hymns." — Mrs.  Manimig,  A.  Sf  M.I.^  Vol.  /,  jj.  65. 

Krishna — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Havirdhana,  a  descendant  of 
Prithu  J  2,  One  of  the  Andhra  kings  who  reigned  10  years. 

Krishna — l,  The  name  of  one  of  the  Narakas,  in  which  those 
who  live  by  fraud,  &c.,  are  punished  ;  2,  The  name  of  the  Krish- 
navena  river  of  the  Dakhin,  meaning  the  dark  river. 

Krishna  Misra — The  author  of  Prabodha-Chaudrodaya  ;  or 
Rising  of  the  Moon  of  Awakened  Intellect.  This  is  a  theological 
and  philosophical  drama,  supposed  to  have  been  written  about  the 
twelfth  century,  with  the  object  of  establishing  the  Veddnta 
doctrine.  What  others  have  assailed  by  reason  and  argument 
Krishna  Misra  combats  by  ridicule.  His  work  is  praised  by 
Professor  Lassen,  who  calls  it  peculiarly  Indian,  and  unlike  anything 
in  the  literature  of  other  countries. — Mrs.  Manning. 

Krishnaveni—The  river  now  called  the  Krishna  or  Kistna. 

Krita — The  first  Yuga  or  age  ;  consisting  of  four  thousand 
eight  hundred  divine  years,  thus  : 

Krita  Yuga 4000 

Sandhya 400 

Saudhyasana 400 

4800 

If  these  divine  years  be  converted  into  years  of  mortals,  by  multi- 
plying them  by  360,  a  year  of  men  being  a  day  of  the  gods,  we 
obtain  one  million  seven  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand, 
(1,728,000)  ordinary  years,  the  duration  of  the  Krj 
according  to  the  Hindu  books. 

Krita — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Kritaratha,  king  of 
2,  A  son  of  Sannatimat,  to  whom  Hiranyanibha  taught  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  Yoga,  and  who  compiled  twenty-four  Snuhitas  for  the 
use  of  the  Eastern  Brahmans  who  study  the  Sama  Veda. 

Kritadhwaja— The  son  of  Dharmadhwaja  ;  the  Vishiiu  Pur£na 
says  of  him  that  he  was  a  king  ever  intent  upon  existent  supreme 
spirit, 

44 


'r^|a||uga, 

m.. 


346  KRI 

Kritagni,  Kritavarman,  Kritavirya — Three  princes,  the 
sons  of  Dhanaka,  of  the  Yadava  race. 

Kritaka — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Madira  ; 
2,  One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha. 

Kritamala — A  river  that  takes  its  rise  in  the  Malaya  hills. 

Kritanjaya — l,  Tlie  Vyasa  of  the  seventeenth  Dwapara  ;  2,  A 
prince,  the  son  of  Dharman,  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku. 

Kritanta — The  destroyer  ;  a  name  of  Yama,  the  Hindu  Pluto. 

Kritanta-dutaru — Yama's  officers  ;  frequently  represented  as 
hovering,  in  a  frightful  shape,  over  the  beds  of  the  dying,  to  carry 
oflf  the  departing  spirit  to  Pat^la. 

Kritaratha — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Prati- 
bh an dak a. 

Kritavarman — One  of  the  three  warriors  on  the  Kaurava  side 
who  survived  at  the  end  of  the  great  war  ;  the  three  visited  the 
wounded  Duryodhana  on  the  plain  of  Kurukshetra.  He  was 
ultimately  slain  by  Satyaki  at  Prabhasa. 

Kriti — 1,  The  son  of  Bahulaswa,  and  the  last  of  the  kings  of 
Mithila,  in  whom  terminated  the  family  of  Janaka. 

Kritirata~One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Mahadriti. 

Krittika — A  lunar  mansion  in  Nigavithi  in  the  Northern 
Avashtana  ;  when  the  sun  is  in  the  first  degree  of  the  lunar 
mansion,  Krittika,  and  the  moon  is  in  the  fourth  of  Visakha,  it 
is  the  great  equinox,  or  holy  equinoctial  season. 

Kritwi — The  wife  of  Anaha,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Hastin. 

Kriya — '  Devotion',  a  daughter  of  Daksha  married  to  Dharma  : 
an  allegorical  personification  of  religious  rite  married  to  the  equally 
allegorical  representation  of  the  Hindu  Code,  viz.,  Dharma,  moral 
and  religious  duty.  Wilson's  notes  to  V.  P.,  p.  55  ;  2,  A  magical 
creation,  represented'in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as  a  vast  and  formidable 
female  springing  from  the  southern  fire,  blazing  with  ruddy  light, 
and  M'ith  fiery  radiance  streaming  amidst  her  hair. 


KRO— KSH  347 


Krodha — l,  '  Passion,'  represented  as  a  son  of  Brahma :  one  of 
the  allegorical  personages  occurring  in  the  list  of  Brahma's  progeny 
amongst  the  series  of  '  virtues  and  vices  ;'  2,  '  Wrath',  a  son  of 
Mritha  ;  called  in  the  Vishnu  Parana  an  iuflictor  of  misery,  and 
one  of  the  progeny  of  vice  ;  also,  as  a  terrific  form  of  Vishnu, 
operating  as  a  cau«e  of  the  destruction  of  this  World. 

Krodhaghara — The  chamber  of  displeasure  ;  an  institution 
still  in  vogue  in  Hindu  families,  wives  resorting  to  it  when 
discontented  or  angry  with  their  husbands. 

Krodhavasa — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to  Kasyapa. 

Kroshtu — A  son  of  Yadu,  the  family  in  which  Krishna  was  born. 

Kshana — A  measure  of  time,  said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  be 
equal  to  thirty  kalas  ;  it  is  often  used  to  express  a  very  minute 
portion  of  time,  a  moment,  an  instant. 

Kshama — 'Patience.'  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who 
was  married  to  the  Muni  Pulaka. 

Kshatradharman — A  prince,  the  son  of  Sankriti,  a  descendant 
of  Eaji. 

Kshatranjas — A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Kshemadarman. 

Kshatravriddha — One  of  the  five  sons  of  Ayus,  from  whose 
family  many  names  of  celebrity  proceeded. 

KshatriyaS — The  second  of  the  four  castes,  said  to  have  been 
produced  from  the  breast,  some  authorities  say  the  arms,  of  Brahm^ ; 
their  duty  being  to  protect  the  earth,  the  cattle,  and  brahmans. 
Kings,  governors,  and  all  intrusted  with  civil  and  military  affairs, 
in  general  belong  to  the  Kshatriya  caste.  Parasurama  vowed  that 
he  would  extirpate  the  whole  Kshatriya  race,  and  thrice  seven 
times,  says  the  Vishnu  Purana,  he  cleared  the  earth  of  them :  a 
legend,  says  Professor  Wilson,  which  intimates  a  violent  and 
protracted  struggle  between  the  Brahmans  and  Kshatriyas  for 
domination  in  India. 

Kshema — *  Prosperity.'     A  son  of  Dharma  by  his  wife  Santi. 

Kshemadhanwan — A  prince,  the  son  of  Pundarlka,  a  descend- 
ant of  Kusa. 


348  KSH— KUK 


Kshemaka — The  last  prince  of  the  race  of  Puru  :  "  the  race 
which  gave  origin  to  Brahmans  and  Kshatriyas,  and  which  was 
purified  by  regal  sages,  terminated  with  Kshemaka  in  the  Kali 
age." 

Kshemya — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Ugrayudhaj  descendant  of 
Dwimidha  ;  2,  A  son  of  Suchi,  king  of  Magadha. 

Kshetrajna—"  Embodied  spirit,"  or  that  which  knows  the 
Kshetra,  '  body'  ;  a  form  of  Vishnu,  implying  the  combination  of 
spirit  with  form  or  matter,  for  the  purpose  of  creating . 

Kshudraka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prasenajit,  of  the  line  of 
Ikshvaku. 

Kubja — A  deformed  young  female  servant  of  Kansa.  Meeting 
her  in  the  high  road  carrying  a  pot  of  unguent,  Krishna  addressed 
her  sportively,  and  said  '  For  whom  are  you  carrying  that  unguent, 
tell  me  lovely  maiden,  tell  me  truly.'  Kubja,  smitten  by  his 
appearance,  and  well  disposed  towards  Hari,  replied  mirthfully, 
*Know  you  not  beloved,  that  I  am  the  servant  of  Kansa,  and 
appointed,  crooked  as  I  am,  to  prepare  his  perfumes.'  Krishna 
asked  her  for  some  of  it,  and  she  gave  him  and  Balarama  as  much 
of  the  unguent  as  was  sufficient  for  their  persons  ;  and  they 
smeared  their  bodies  with  it,  till  they  looked  like  two  clouds,  one 
white  and  one  black,  decorated  by  the  many-tinted  bow  of  Indra. 
Then  Krishna  made  her  perfectly  straight  ;  and  when  she  was 
thus  relieved  from  her  deformity,  she  was  a  most  beautiful  woman  ; 
and  from  gratitude  invited  Govinda  to  her  house.  He  promised 
to  go  some  other  time.     V.  P. 

Kuhu — 1,  A  daughter  of  Angiras.  The  name  means  the  last 
day  of  the  moon's  wane.  The  four  daughters  of  Angiras  designated 
phases  of  the  moon  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  river  in  the  Himalaya. 

Kukkura — A  prince,  the  son  of  Andhaka.  Kukuras,  and 
Kukkuras,  are  given  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as  names  of  tribes  of 
Bharata. 

Kukshi — The  son  and  successor  of  Ikshvaku,  king  of  Ayodhya  ; 
the  second  of  the  solar  line  of  kings. 


KUK— KUM  349 


"  Mauu  who  life  to  mortals  gave, 
Begot  Ikslivaku  good  aud  brave, 
First  of  Ayodhya's  kings  was  he, 
Pride  of  her  famous  dynasty. 
From  him  the  glorious  Kukshi  sprang 
Whose  fame  through  all  the  regions  rang." —  Griffiths. 

Kukshi — One  of  the  daughters  of  Priyavrata,  the  grea 
progenitor. 

Kuladevata — The  deity  who  is  the  object  of  hereditary  and 
family  worship,  and  is  always  one  of  the  leading  personages  of 
Hindu  mythology,  as  Siva,  Vishnu,  or  Durga.  No  house,  is 
supposed  to  be  without  its  tutelary  divinity,  but  the  notion^attached 
to  this  character  is  now  very  far  from  precise. 

KulapavatUS — Mountain-ranges  in  Central  India  :  sometimes 
termed  family  mountains  or  systems  ;  embracing  the  various 
chains  described  under  Mahendra,  Malaya,  Riksha,  Vindhya,  &c. 

Kulatthas — Aboriginal  mountain  tribes,  described  in  the  Vishnu 
Purdna  as  '  ferocious  and  uncivilized  races.' 

Kulindas,  Kulindapalyakas,  Kulutas— Tribes  enumerated 
in  the  V.  P.  but  not  identified. 

Kumara — l,  A  Prajapati,  of  whom  there  appear  to  have  been 
twenty-one  ;  the  Vayu  Purana  states  that  they  are  numerous. 

Kumara-sambhava— -The  Birth  of  the  War  God  ;  a  poem  by 
Kalidasa,  that  has  been  translated  into  English  verse  by  Mr. 
Griffiths. 

Kumari — A  river  that  rises  in  the  Saktimat  mountains. 

Kumbhaka — A  suspension  of  breath  by  the  closing  of  both 
nostrils  :  being  part  of  the  brahmauical  ritual  for  obtaining  control 
of  the  external  senses. 

Kumbhakarna — A  Rakshasa,  the  son  of  Visravas,  and  brother 
of  Ravana.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  forest  with  his  brothers, 
and  went  about  eating  Rishis.  When  Brahm^  had  granted  boons 
to  Rdvana  and  Vibhishana,  and  was  about  to  confer  one  on 
Kumbhakarna,  the  gods  interposed,  saying  he  had  eaten  seven 
Apsarases  aud  ten  followers  of  ludra,  besides  Rishis  and  men  :  and 


350  KUM— KUN 


begged  that  under  the  guise  of  a  boon  stupefaction  might  be 
inflicted  on  him.  Brahma  thought  on  Saras vati,  who  arrived,  and 
by  Brahma's  command  entered  into  Kumbhakarna's  mouth,  to 
speak  for  him.  Under  this  influence  he  asked  that  he  might 
receive  the  boon  of  sleeping  for  many  years,  which  was  granted  to 
him.     0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  416. 

The  description  given  of  Kumbhakarna  in  the  Ramayana  is 
ridiculously  extravagant  and  exaggerated.  At  the  siege  of  Lanka 
when  Havana  decided  to  avail  himself  of  the  services  of  his  gigantic 
brother,  the  difficulty  was  to  know  how  to  awake  him,  as  he  was 
buried  in  sleep  for  six  months  together,  and  then  only  awoke  for  a 
short  time  to  gorge  himself  with  enormous  quantities  of  food.  The 
messengers  tried  to  enter  his  room  but  were  blown  away  from  the 
door  by  the  wind  caused  by  the  deep  breathing  of  the  sleeping 
monster.  At  last,  after  violent  efforts,  they  forced  an  entrance  ; 
and  ten  thousand  Rakshasas  made  every  sort  of  din  in  his  ears  by 
beating  drums,  &c.  Then  they  hammered  his  limbs  with  mallets, 
danced  upon  him,  caused  a  thousand  elephants  to  walk  over  his 
body,  piled  heaps  of  food  under  his  very  nose,  all  without  effect. 
Nothing  availed  but  the  touch  of  some  beautiful  women  who 
eventually  succeeded  in  rousing  him.  Kumbhakarna  consented  to 
go  out  to  battle,  and  displayed  extraordinary  valour,  routing, 
wounding,  and  even  devouring  thousands  of  the  monkey  army, 
but  was  ultimately  conquered  and  killed  by  Rama.  The  figure  of 
Kumbhakarna  is  a  favourite  one  in  village  representations  of  the 
siege  of  Lanka,  and  he  is  generally  exhibited  asleep.     I.  E.  P. 

Kumuda — l,  One  of  the  six  minor  Dwipas,  situated  beyond  the 
sea  ;  2,  A  mountain  forming  the  northern  buttress  of  Mount  Meru. 

Kumudali — A  pupil  of  Pathya  and  teacher  of  the  Atharva 
Veda. 

Kumadvati — A  river  that  rises  in  the  Vindhya  mountains. 

Kundaka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Kshudraka,  and  grandfather 
of  Sumitra,  who  was  the  last  of  the  kings  of  the  family  of 
Ikshvaku. 

Kundinapur — The  capital  of  Vidarbha,  a  country  of  consi- 
derable extent  and  power  at  various  periods.     The  name  remains 


KUN— KUR  351 


in  Betler,  which  may  have  beeu  the  aucieut  capital  ;  but  the 
kiugtlom  seems  to  have  correspouded  with  the  great  part  of  Berar 
aud  Kandesh.  It  is  raeutioued  in  the  Ramayaua  amongst  the 
countries  of  the  south. 

Kuntala,  Kunthakas — Kuntala  is  in  one  place  one  of  the 
central  countries  ;  in  another  one  of  the  southern  ;  the  name  is 
applied  in  inscriptions  to  the  province  in  which  Kurgode  is  situated  ; 
part  of  the  Adoni  district :  and  consistently  with  this  position  it  is 
placed  amongst  the  dependant  or  allied  states  of  Vidarbha,  in  the 
Dasa  Kumara. 

Kunti  or  Pritha — The  eldest  of  the  five  daughters  of  Siira 
aud  Marisha.  Siira  had  a  friend  named  Kuntibhoja,  to  whom  as  he 
had  no  children,  he  presented  in  due  form,  his  daughter  Kunti. 
She  was  married  to  Pandu,  to  whom  she  bore  three  sons, 
Yudhishthira,  Bhima,  and  Arjuna,  Pandu,  however,  had  by  the 
curse  of  a  deer,  been  prevented  from  having  progeny,  aud  she 
therefore  conceived  these  children  by  connection  with  the  deities 
Dharma,  Vayu,  aud  ludra  respectively.  Yudhishthira,  as  the  son 
of  Dharma,  is  considered  justest  ,•  Bhima,  Yayu's  son,  the  strongest ; 
and  Arjuna,  Indra's  son,  the  best  bowshot.  See  Karna,  for  an 
account  of  Kunti's  sou  before  her  marriage  ;  2,  Kunti  was  also  the 
name  of  a  son  of  Dharmauetra  of  the  Vddava  race  ;  and  of  a  sou 
of  Kratha,  of  the  family  of  Jyamagha. 

Kuntibhoja — A  friend  of  Sura's  who  adopted  his  daughter 
Kunti  ;  he  was  an  ally  of  the  Pandus  in  the  great  war. 

Kurma  Purana — The  Purana  in  which  Janarddana,  in  the 
form  of  a  tortoise,  in  the  regions  under  the  earth,  explained  the 
objects  of  life — duty,  wealth,  pleasure  and  liberation — in  commu- 
nication with  Indradyumna,  and  the  Rishis  in  the  proximity  of 
Sakra  ;  which  refers  to  the  Lakshmi  Kalpa,  and  contains  seventeen 
thousand  stanzas.     V.  P. 

Kurma   or   Tortoise   Avatara — The  second  of  the   iQw 

Avataras  of  Vishnu.  The  legend  is  that  at  a  very  remote  period 
when  the  gods  felt  their  powers  weakened,  and  were  desirous  of 
obtaining  Amrita  (q.  v.)  the  beverage  of  immortality,  Vishnu 
directed  them  to  churn,   tojjether  with  the  demon?,   the  milk-sea. 


352  KUR 

by  taking  the  mountain  Mandara  for  their  staff,  and  his  serpent 
Vasuki  for  their  cord,  the  gods  to  stand  at  the  tail,  and  the  demons 
at  the  head  of  the  serpent  ;  while  he  himself  consented  to  support 
the  mountain  on  his  back,  after  having  assumed  the  shape  of  a 
gigantic  tortoise.  The  result  of  this  churning  of  the  sea  of  milkj 
was,  besides  the  ultimate  recovery  of  the  Amrita,  the  appearance 
of  a  variety  of  miraculous  things  and  beings  ;  but  it  also  led  to  a 
violent  contest  between  the  gods  and  demons,  in  which  the  latter 
were  defeated.  The  idea  of  the  lord  of  creation  assuming  the 
shape  of  a  tortoise,  and  that  of  sacrificial  liquids,  especially  clari- 
fied butter,  becoming  tortoise-shaped  (Kar7ia,  the  word  for 
tortoise,  meaning  literally,  '  badly  or  slowly  going'),  occurs  also 
in  the  Yajurveda  ;  but  the  legend  on  which  the  tortoise- Avat^ra  of 
Vishnu  is  based  seems  to  belong  entirely  to  the  post-Yedic  period 
of  Hinduism. 

Kurmis — Semi-aboriginal  cultivators  to  the  south  of  the  Raj- 
puts and  Jats. 

Kuru — 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  Agnid'hra,  to  whom  his  father 
gave  the  country  north  of  the  Sweta  mountains,  bounded  by  the 
Srinagavau  range  ;  2,  An  ancient  king,  the  son  of  Samvarna,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  district  Kurukshetra.  He  was  the  ancestor 
of  Vichitravirya,  the  grandfather  of  the  Kurus  and  Pandavas. 
Kuru,  it  is  usually  supposed,  is  the  prince  who  gives  the  designa- 
tion to  Duryodhana  and  his  brothers,  thence  called  Kauravas,  in 
opposition  to  their  cousins  the  sons  of  Pdndu,  termed  Pandavas, 
Kuru  being  a  remote  ancestor  of  both.  The  Mahabhdrata  however 
gives  a  different  account,  and  derives  the  term  Kaurava  from  the 
country,  Kuru-jangala,  or  Kurukshetra  (Lassen,  Ind.  Alt.  I,  p. 
593,)  which  was  subject  to  the  family  of  Duryodhana,  the  upper 
part  of  the  Panjab  beyond  Delhi,  or  Panniput,  which  is  still 
commonly  called  by  the  Hindus  Kurukhetr.  Kuru,  the  prince, 
was  descended  from  Nahusha,  the  great  grandson  of  Soma,  or  the 
moon,  by  his  grandson  Puru.  The  thirteenth  descendant  of  Kuru 
was  Sautanu,  who  had  four  sons,  Bhishma,  Chitrangada,  Vichitra- 
virya, and  Vyasa.  Of  these  Bhishma  and  Vyasa  lived  unmarried, 
and  the  other  two  died  without  offspring  ;  on  which,  to  prevent 


KUR  .353 

the  extinction  of  the  family,  and  conformably  to  the  ancient  Hindu 
law,  Vyasa  had  children  by  his  brother's  widows.  The  sons 
were  Dhritaraslitra  and  Pandu,  wlio  became  the  founders  of  the 
two  families  of  the  Kauravas  and  Pandavas.  Wilso7i's  JVorks, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  290. 

Kurus — A  very  ancient  people,  who  seem  to  have  been  origi- 
nally situated  in  Central  and  Northern  Asia,  as  the  Vishnu  Purana 
says  they  inhabited  the  middle  districts  of  Eharata.  They  probably 
entered  India  with  the  Aryans  or  were  a  tribe  of  that  great  race, 
and  settled  in  Kurukshetra.  With  this  meaning  the  name  applies 
to  both  Kurus  and  Pandavas — hence  Arjuna  is  called  the  best 
of  the  Kurus.  In  its  particular  and  exclusive  sense  the  name  is 
given  only  to  that  party  which  adhered  to  Dur3'odhana,  and  opposed 
the  Pdndavas,     Both  names  belong  to  the  Epic  period. 

Kurukshetra — The  plain  of  the  Kurus.  A  tract  of  land  to 
the  east  of  the  Yamuna  or  Jumna  river,  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
Doab,  near  the  city  of  Delhi,  and  the  river  Saraswati.  Hastina- 
pura  was  its  capital. 

"  The  Sarasvati  (Sursooty)  is  an  insignificant  stream  flowing 
through  Sirhind,  between  the  Yamuna  and  the  Shatadru.  It  even- 
tually loses  itself  in  the  sand  of  the  desert,  and  is,  on  that  account, 
fabled  by  the  Hindus  io  flow  underground  into  the  ocean.  It  is 
held,  however,  as  one  of  the  most  sacred  streams  of  India.  Lassen 
calls  the  Doab  the  Belgium  of  India.  It  is  the  gateway  of  the 
peninsula,  where  the  eastern  and  western  races  have  always  met 
in  battle.  Here  in  later  days  was  fought  the  battle  of  Panuipiit  ; 
and  here  was  laid  the  scene  of  that  war  which  transferred  the 
sovereignty  of  middle  India  from  the  Kurus  to  the  Pandavas.  As 
it  was  the  gate  of  India  so  does  it  in  all  probability  derive  its 
sacred  name  from  being  the  first  seat  of  the  Aryan  race,  whence 
it  worked  its  way  from  the  Indus  to  the  Ganges,  and  from  being 
retained  in  their  memory  with  all  the  respect  due  to  a  fatherland." 
— J,  C  Thomson. 

Kurumbas — The  aboriginal  cultivators  of  South  Kanara. 

Kuruvarnakas — The  ab()rij,M'nal  people  of  the  forests  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  Doab. 

45 


354  KUR— KUS 


Kuruvatsa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Auavaratha,  a  descendant  of 
Jyaraagha. 

j^-(13a, — 1,  Sacrificial  grass  ;  Avhich,  on  occasioQ  of  offerings  made 
to  the  gods,  is  placed  upon  the  ground  as  a  seat  for  them,  having 
its  tips  towards  the  east  ;  2,  the  name  of  the  fourth  of  the  great 
insular  continents,  or  Dwipas  ;  so  named  from  a  clump  of  Kusa 
grass  (Poa)  growing  there.  There  reside  mankind  along  with 
Daityas  and  Danavas,  as  well  as  with  spirits  of  heaven  and  gods. 

Kusa — 1,  A  son  of  Rama  "  Kusa  and  Lava  were  the  twin  sons 
of  Rama  and  Sita,  born  after  Rama  had  repudiated  Sita,  and  brought 
up  in  the  hermitage  of  Valmiki.  As  they  were  the  first  rhapso- 
dists  the  combined  name  Kusilava  signifies  a  reciter  of  poems, 
or  an  improvisatorc,  even  to  the  present  day."  {Griffiths.)  Kusa 
built  Kusasthali,  on  the  brow  of  the  Vindhya,  the  capital  of 
Kosali  ;  the  Ragha  Vansa  describes  Kusa  as  returning  from 
Kusavati  to  Ayodhya,  after  his  father's  death  ;  but  it  seems  not 
unlikely  that  the  extending  power  of  the  princes  of  the  Doab,  of 
the  lunar  family,  compelled  Rama's  posterity  to  retire  more  to  the 
west  and  south  ;  2,  A  son  of  Valakaswa,  a  descendant  of  Purtiravas. 

Kusadhwaj — The  younger  brother  of  Janaka,  king  of  Videha. 

Kusadhwaja — The  king  of  Kasi  in  the  Epic  period.  According 
to  the  Vishnu  Purana  he  was  the  brother,  and  according  to  the 
Bhagavata,  the  son,  of  Siradhwaja. 

Kusagra — The  son  of  Vrihadratha,  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of 
Kurukshetra. 

Kusamba — l,  The  brother  of  Vrihadratha,  and  uncle  of 
Kusagra  ;  2,  The  eldest  son  of  Kusa,  and  founder  of  Kausambi, 
afterwards  Kanouj. 

Kusanabha— The  second  son  of  Kusa,  who  also  took  part  in 
building  Kausdmbi. 

Kusasthali— 1,  The  capital  of  Anartta,  which  was  part  of 
Kutch  of  Guzerat ;  it  appears  to  have  been  the  same,  or  in  the  same 
spot,  as  Dwaraka.  The  Vishnu  Purana  says,  "  that  city 
Kusasthali  which  was  formerly  your  capital,  and  rivalled  the  city 


KUS— KUV  3.5o 


of  the  immortals,  is  now  known  as  Dwaraka  ;  and  there  reigns  a 
portion  of  Vishnu  in  the  person  of  Balodeva,"  &c.  ;  2,  The  city 
built  by  Kusa  on  the  brow  of  the  Vindliya.     (See  Kusa.) 

Kushidi— A  pupil  of  Paushyinji,  and  teacher  of  the  Saraaveda. 

Kushmandas — A  class  of  deities  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu 
Purina  and  other  Puranas.  They  are  described  as  taking  counsel 
with  Indra  how  best  to  interrupt  the  devout  exercises  of  Dhruva, 
when,  as  a  child,  he  commenced  the  rigorous  penance  that  caused 
alarm  in  the  celestial  regions. 

Kusika — According  to  the  Brahma  and  Hari  Vansa,  the  father 
of  Gadhi,  the  incarnation  of  Indra. 

Kusumayudha— A  name  of  Kamadeva,  the  Hindu  Cupid.  The 
word  means.  "  He  whose  weapons  are  flowers."  O.  S.  T.,  Vol. 
I,  p.  112. 

Kuthumi — A  pupil  of  Paushyinji  and  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda. 

Kuvalayaswa — The  son  of  Vrihadaswa.  This  prince,  inspired 
with  the  spirit  of  Vishnu,  destroyed  the  Asura  Dhundu,  who  had 
harassed  the  pious  sage  Uttanka  ;  and  he  was  thence  entitled 
Dhundumara.  In  his  conflict  w4th  the  demon  he  was  attended  by 
his  sons  to  the  number  of  twenty-one  thousand  ;  and  all  these,  with 
the  exception  of  only  three,  perished  in  the  engagement,  consumed 
by  the  fiery  breath  of  Dhundu  ;  a  legend  originating  probably  in 
some  earthquake  or  volcano.     V.  P. 

Kuvera— The  Hindu  Plutus  ;  he  is  the  son  of  Visravas  by 
Ilavila,  and  is  the  god  of  riches  and  regent  of  the  north  ;  the 
keeper  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  pearls,  and  all  the  treasures 
in  the  earth,  which  he  gives  to  those  for  whom  they  are  destined 
by  Isvara.  He  is  the  chief  of  the  Yakshas,  and  Guhyakas,  into 
whose  forms  transmigrate  the  souls  of  those  men  who  in  this  life 
are  absorbed  in  the  pursuit  of  riches.  He  is  represented  in 
external  appearance  as  a  mere  man,  but  with  a  deformed  body,  of 
white  colour,  having  three  legs  and  but  eight  teeth,  with  a  crown 
on  his  head,  and  a  club  in  one  of  his  hands.  His  whole  body  is 
adorned  with  various  ornaments,  and  his  vehicle  is  a  self-moving 
chariot.     The  poets  have  written  many  stories  concerning  him,  and 


356  KUS 

when  they  praise  a  man  on  account  of  his  riches  they  compare  him 
to  Kuvera.  His  attendants  are  Kiuneras,  who  are  shaped  like  men 
with  heads  of  horses. 

Kuvera  is  said  to  have  performed  austerity  for  thousands  of 
years,  in  consequence  of  which  he  obtained  from  Brahma  as  a  boon 
that  he  should  be  one  of  the  guardians  of  the  world  and  the  god  of 
riches.  He  afterwards  consulted  his  father,  Visravas,  about  an 
abode,  and  at  his  suggestion  took  possession  of  the  city  of  Lanka, 
which  had  formerly  been  built  by  Visvakarman  for  the  Rakshasas, 
but  had  been  abandoned  by  them  through  fear  of  Vishnu,  and  was 
at  that  time  unoccupied.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  414. 

In  the  Ramayana  Kailasa  is  spoken  of  as  the  residence  of  Kuvera. 

"Having  quickly  passed  over  that  dreadful  desert,  you  shall 
then  see  the  white  mountain,  called  Kailasa,  and  there  the  celestial 
palace  of  Kuvera,  formed  by  Visvakarman,  in  colour  like  a  brilliant 
cloud,  and  decorated  with  gold."  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  308.  And 
in  one  passage  Siva  is  represented  as  paying  a  visit  to  Kuvera  on 
mount  Kailasa,  and  as  acknowledging  the  divine  character  of 
Bama.  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  310.  But  in  general  Kuvera  is 
represented  as  residing  in  Alaka,  (also  in  the  Himalaya)  which  is 
termed  in  the  Cloud  Messenger  the  city  of  the  blessed,  and  is 
always  described  as  abounding  in  wealth  and  magnificence,  and 
being  surrounded  with  a  garden  of  surpassing  loveliness,  in  which 
was  a  lake  covered  with  lotuses. 


Laghu — A  measure  of  time  equal  to  fifteen  Kashtas. 

Lajja — Modesty — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was 
married  to  Dharma. 

Lakshmana — One  of  the  sons  of  Dasaratha,  and  brother  of 
Rama,  to  whom  he  was  faithfully  attached  throughout  all  his 
vicissitudes. 

Then  Laksh man's  truth  was  nobly  shown, 
Then  were  his  love  and  courage  known. 
When  for  his  brother's  sake  he  dared 
All  perils,  and  his  exile  shared. 

He  followed  Rama  to  the  wilderness  and  was  with  him  when 
crowned.  The  latest  incident  recorded  of  him  is  that  he  was 
entrusted  with  the  care  of  Sita,  when  she  was  taken  to  the  hermit- 
age of  Valmiki  and  delivered  of  twins,  Kusa  and  Lava.  In  Dr. 
Muir's  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  107,  the  following  legend  of  laksh- 
mana's  death  occurs  :  Time,  in  the  form  of  an  ascetic  came  to  the 
palace  gate  of  Rama  ;  and  asked  as  the  messenger  of  Brahmi,  to 
see  Rama.  He  was  admitted  and  received  with  honour,  but  stated 
that  his  message  must  be  delivered  in  private,  and  that  any  one 
who  witnessed  the  interview  would  lose  his  life.  Rama  informed 
Lakshmana  of  this  and  desired  him  to  stand  outside.  *  *  *  * 
Soon  after  the  irritable  Rishi  Durvasas  came,  and  insisted  on 
seeing  Rama  immediately,  under  a  threat,  if  refused,  of  cursing 
Rama  and  all  his  family.  Lakshmana,  preferring  to  save  his 
kinsmen,  though  knowing  that  his  own  death  must  be  the  conse- 
quence of  interrupting  the  interview  of  Rama  with  Time,  entered 
the  palace  and  reported  the  Rishi's  message  to  Rama.  Rama  came 
out,  and  when  Durvasas  had  got  the  food  he  wished  and  departed, 
Rama  reflected  Avith  great  distress  on  the  words  of  Time,  which 
required    that  Lakshmana    should   die.      Lakshmana,    however, 


358  LAK 

exhorted  Rtiraa  uot  to  grieve  but  to  abandon  him,  and  not  break 
his  own  promise.     The  counsellors  concurring  in  this  advice  Rama 
abandoned  Lakshmana,  who  went  to  the  river  Sarayu,  suppressed 
all  his  senses,  and  was  conveyed  bodily  by  Indra  to  heaven. 
Lakshmana— One  of  the  wives  of  Krishna. 

Lakshmi— "  Prosperity."  The  daughter  of  Brighu,  and  bride 
or  Sakti  of  Vishnu.  The  goddess  of  fortune,  wealth  and  prosperity. 
She  is  also  represented  as  the  counterpart  of  Vishnu.  Vishpu  is 
meaning  ;  she  is  speech.  Vishnu  is  understanding  ;  she  is  intellect. 
He  is  righteousness  ;  she  is  devotion.     He  is  the  Creator  ;  she  is 

creation,  &c.  &c in  a  word  Vishnu  is  all  that  is  called  male  ; 

Lakshrai  is  all  that  is  termed  female  ;  there  is  nothing  else  than 
they.  V.  P.,  p.  61.  She  is  represented  as  having  been  born  from 
the  churning  of  the  ocean,  '  rising  from  the  waves,  radiant  with 
beauty.'  Indra  recited  a  hymn  to  her  praise,  calling  her  the  mother 
of  all  beings. 

Mr.  Griffiths  thus  translates  the  story  of  her  birth  from  the 
Ramayana  and  adds  a  note  from  Schlegel. 

At  length  when  many  a  year  had  fled, 

Up  floated,  on  her  lotus  bed, 

A  maiden  fair  and  tender-eyed, 

In  the  young  flush  of  beauty's  pride. 

She  shone  w4th  pearl  and  golden  sheen, 

And  seals  of  glory  stamped  her  queen. 

On  each  round  arm  glowed  many  a  gem. 

On  her  smooth  brows,  a  diadem. 

Rolling  in  waves  beneath  her  crown 

The  glory  of  her  hair  flowed  down. 

Pearls  on  her  neck  of  price  untold, 

The  lady  shone  like  burnisht  gold. 

Queen  of  the  Gods,  she  leapt  to  land, 

A  lotus  in  her  perfect  hand, 

And  fondly,  of  the  lotus  sprung. 

To  lotus-bearing  Vishnu  clung. 

Her,  Gods  above  and  men  below 

As  beauty's  Queen  and  Fortune  know. 


LAL— LAM  359 


*  That  this  story  of  the  birth  of  Lakshmi  is  of  considerable 
antiquity  is  evident  from  one  of  her  names  Kshndhdhi-tanayd^ 
daughter  of  the  Milky  Sea,  which  is  found  in  Amarasinha,  the  most 
ancient  of  Indian  lexicographers.  The  similarity  to  the  Greek 
myth  of  Venus  being  born  from  the  foam  of  the  sea  is  remarkable.' 

'In  this  description  of  Lakshmi  one  thing  only  offends  me,  that 
she  is  said  to  have  four  arms.  Each  of  Vishnu's  arms,  single  as 
far  as  the  elbow,  there  branches  into  two  ;  but  Lakshmi  in  all  the 
brass  seals  that  I  possess  or  remember  to  have  seen  has  two  arms 
only.  Nor  does  this  deformity  of  redundant  limbs  suit  the  pattern 
of  perfect  beauty.'     (Schlegel.) 

Mr.  Griffith  has  omitted  the  offensive  epithet  four-armed.  In  a 
passage  quoted  by  Dr.  Muir  it  is  said  that  when  Vishnu  was 
incarnate  as  Rama  then  Lakshmi  became  Sita  ;  and  that  when  he 
was  born  as  Krishna  she  became  Rukmini.  0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  392.» 

"  Lakshmi  is  not  found  in  the  Rig  Veda  in  the  sense  which  the 
word  bears  in  the  later  mythology,  of  a  goddess  personifying  good 
fortune,  though  the  word  itself  occurs  in  a  kindred  signification." 
O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  348. 

The  beautiful  goddess  is  also  said  to  have  been  produced  at  the 
churning  of  the  ocean.  In  the  Brahma  Vaivartta  Puraua,  Lakshmi 
is  said  to  be  a  portion  of  Prakriti  ;  and  in  another  place  is  made  to 
issue  from  the  mind  of  Krishna  ;  in  a  different  part  of  the  work 
she  is  described  as  one  of  two  goddesses  into  which  the  first 
Sarasvati  was  divided,  the  two  being  Sarasvati  proper,  and  Karaala 
or  Lakshmi. —  Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  102. 

2,  The  name  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  who  was  married 
to  Dharma. 

Lalabaksha — One  of  the  Narakas,  that  in  which  those  are 
punished  who  eat  their  meals  without  offering  food  to  the  gods,  to 
the  manes,  or  to  guests.     V.  P.,  p.  208. 

Lalita — A  distinguished  name  of  the  personified  female  energy. 
See  Sakti. 

Lamba — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  and  wife  of  Dharma. 

Lambodara — One  of  the  Andhra  kings  who  reigned  eighteen 
years  ;  he  was  the  son  of  Salakarni  the  2ud. 


360  LAN— LIG 


Langalas — One  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  who  dwelt  iu  juugles 
aud  forests. 

Langali — A  pupil  of  Paushyinji  and  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda. 

Langalini— A  river  that  has  its  source  in  Mahendra. 

Lanka — The  island  of  Ceylon,  the  ancient  capital  of  Ravaua, 
described  in  the  Ramayana  as  the  capital  town  of  the  kings  of  the 
race  of  Pulastya,  known  as  Yakshas.  Some  pandits  in  the  north 
of  India  deny  the  identity  of  Lanka  and  Ceylon. 

Laukika — "  Worldly,"  the  opposite  to  Daivika  or  "  Divine'' 
— e.  g.,  The  Apsarasas  are  thus  distinguished,  thirty-four  of  them 
being  specified  as  Laukika,  and  ten  as  Daivika. 

Lauhitya — An  ancient  river  mentioned  in  the  Puranas,  now 
part  of  the  Brahmaputra. 

Lava — The  younger  of  the  twin  sons  of  Rama  by  Sita,  and 
king  of  Srawasti,  in  northern  Kosala,  by  which  a  part  of  Oude  is 
commonly  understood.  He  was  trained  up  by  his  mother  in  the 
hermitage  of  Valmiki,  and  appears  to  have  become  a  strong 
muscular  man  ;  having  also  acquired  great  skill  in  archery.  When 
Rama  sent  off  a  horse,  previous  to  its  sacrifice,  Kusa  and  Lava 
seized  it,  and  maintained  their  hold  till  Rama  himself  came  and 
recognised  his  two  sons. 

Lavana — l,  A  Rakshasa  Chief,  the  son  of  Madhu,  who  reigned 
at  Mathura  ;  he  was  killed  by  Satrughna,  who  took  possession  of 
his  capital  ;  2,  One  of  the  Narakas,  (the  salt)  in  which  those  are 
punished  who  associate  with  women  in  a  prohibited  degree. 

Lekhas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  sixth  Manwantara. 

Lesa — A  son  of  Suhotra,  of  the  line  of  the  kings  of  Kasi. 

Libations — To  be  offered  to  the  gods,  sages,  and  progenitors, 
with  the  parts  of  the  hand  severally  sacred  to  each.  The  offerer 
is  first  to  bathe,  dress  in  clean  clothes,  and  scatter  -water  thrice  to 
gratify  the  gods  ;  as  many  times  to  please  the  Rishis  ;  and  once  to 
propitiate  Prajapati  ;  he  must  also  make  three  libations  to  satisfy 
the  progenitors.     For  full  details  sec  V.  P.,  pp.  302,  303. 

Light,  or  fire— See  Tejas, 


LIL— LOH  3G1 


Lila — A  pastime  ;  but  mythologically  used  of  certain  libidinous 
amusements  of  gods  among  mortals  on  earth.  Kri.-hna's  adventures 
with  the  Gopis  and  Siva's  pastimes  at  Madura,  are  termed  Lilas  in 
Sanskrit  books. 

Linga  Purana — The  Parana  in  which  Siva  explained  the 
objects  of  life,  viz.,  virtue,  wealth,  pleasure,  and  final  liberation  at 
the  end  of  the  Agui  Kalpa.  Professor  Wilson  says  there  is 
nothing  in  it  like  the  phallic  orgies  of  antiquity  :  it  is  all  mystical 

and  spiritual.     The  Linga  is  twofold,  external  and  internal 

whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  this  form  of  worship  in 
India,  the  notions  upon  which  it  was  founded,  according  to  the 
impure  fancies  of  European  writers,  are  not  to  be  traced  in  even 
Saiva  Puranas. 

Lingam — In  grammar  means  Gender.  Mythologically  it 
designates  a  phallic  emblem,  and  is  represented  by  a  cylindrical 
stone  rounded  off  at  the  top  ;  and  at  the  other  end  inserted  in 
masonry  or  in  the  ground,  but  transfixing  another  horizontal  and 
flat  stone  named  Yoni.  This  emblem  is  placed  in  the  open  field, 
on  the  way  side,  and  in  temples,  and  svorshipped  from  the  Hima- 
layas to  Cape  Comorin  ;  and  from  the  mouths  of  the  Gauges  to 
those  of  the  Indus.  The  worship  of  the  Lingam  and  Yoni  marks 
the  Saivas  ;  the  worship  of  the  Lingam  alone  denotes  the  Vira 
Saivas.  The  latter  attach  a  further  meaning  to  the  word,  indicating 
various  heavens  or  Lokas  in  the  invisible  world.  The  uppermost 
is  the  Brahma,  or  sometimes  Siva  lingam  ;  concerning  which 
metaphor  is  exhausted. 

Lingadhari — One  who  wears  a  small  lingam  on  his  person, 
usually  in  a  little  silver  box,  hanging  on  his  breast  from  a  string 
round  the  neck  ;  or  sometimes  fastened  to  his  right  arm. 

Lobha— "  Covetousness,"  a  son  of  Brahma — being  one  of  his 
progeny  of  virtues  and  vices  as  enumerated  in  the  Vishnu  Purana. 
In  another  part  of  the  same  Purina,  Lobha  is  described  as  the  son 
of  Dharma  by  one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  ;  also  as  the  sou  of 
Adharma  (vice)  and  it  states  that  he  was  married  to  Nikriti,  and 
their  progeny  was  Krodha,  Hiusa,  &c. 

Lohitas — A  class  of  deities  in  the  twelfth  Manwantara. 

46 


362  LOK 

Lokakshi — One  of  the  pupils  of  Paushyinji,  and  a  teacher  of 
the  Sama  Veda. 

Lokaloka — The  mountain  belt  beyond  the  sea  of  fresh  water  ; 
the  circular  boundary  between  the  world  and  void  space.  The 
mountain  range  encircling  the  world  is  termed  Lokdloka,  because 
the  world  is  separated  by  it  from  that  which  is  not  world.  The 
Mahommedan  legends  of  Koh  Kaf,  -  the  stony  girdle  that  surrounds 
the  world,'  are  evidently  connected  with  the  Lokaloka  of  the 
Hindus.  According  to  the  Siva  Tantra,  the  El  dorado,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Lokaloka  mountains,  is  the  play-ground  of  the  gods.  V. 
P.,  p.  202. 

Loka  Palaka — World-protector,  an  epithet  constantly  given  by 
Hindu  writers  to  a  rajah. 

Loka-palas— The  rulers  stationed  by  Brahmd  for  the  protection 
of  the  different  quarters  of  the  world  :  they  are  termed  the  regents 
of  the  east,  south,  west  and  north.  In  another  part  of  the  Vishnu 
Purina  eight  are  mentioned  as  regents  of  the  spheres  ;  or  eight 
deities  in  that  character  ;  Indra,  Yama,  Varuna,  Kuvera,  Vivaswat, 
Soma,  Agni,  and  Vayu. 

Lokas — The  seven  spheres  above  the  earth. 

1.  Prajapatya  or  Pitri  loka. 

2.  Indra  loka,  or  Swerga. 

3.  Marutloka,  or  Diva  loka,  heaven. 

4.  Gandarbha  loka,  the  region  of  celestial  spirits,  called  also 

Maharloka. 

5.  Janaloka,  or  the  sphere  of  saints. 

6.  Tapaloka,  or  the  world  of  the  seven  sages. 

7.  Brahma  loka,  or  Satya  loka,  the  world  of  infinite  wisdom 

and  truth. 

For  a  full  account  of  these  lokas,  see  the  Vishnu  Purana,  pp. 
212—215.  In  the  Brahma  Vaivartta  Purana  another  Loka  is 
mentioned  as  the  residence  of  Krishna  denominated  Goloka  ;  it  is 
far  above  the   three  worlds,  and  has,  at  five  hundred  millions  of 


LOM  363 

yojanas  below  it,  the  separate  Lokas  of  Vishnu  and  Siva,  Vaikunta 
and  Kailas.  This  region  is  indestructible,  while  all  else  is  subject 
to  annihilation,  and  in  the  centre  of  it  abides  Krishna,  of  the  colour 
of  a  dark  cloud,  in  the  bloom  of  youth,  clad  in  yellow  raiment, 
splendidly  adorned  with  celestial  gems,  and  holding  a  flute.  He  is 
exempt  from  Maya  and  all  qualities,  eternal,  alone,  and  the  Para- 
radtma,  or  supreme  soul  of  the  world, 

Lomaharshana— A  name  of  Suta. 


M 

Mabali— A  name  of  Bali,  q.  v. 

Mabalipuram — A  sacred  place  34  miles  north  of  Madras  called 
the  Seven  Pagodas. 

Mada— Insanity.  One  of  the  progeny  of  Brahma,  Vishnu 
Parana,  p.  50. 

Madayanti—The  wife  of  the  Raja  Sauddsa,  q.  \. 

Madhava-Madhu — The  names  of  two  of  the  months  as  they 
occur  in  the  Vedas,  and  belonging  to  a  system  now  obsolete  ; 
corresponding  to  the  lunar  montlis  Magha  and  Palguna,  or  December 
and  January. 

Madhava — A  name  of  Krishna,  which  may  be  either  derived 
as  a  patronymic  from  Matha,  who  is  mentioned  among  his  ancestors, 
or  be  considered  equivalent  to  Madhusudana.     *  Slayer  of  Madhu.' 

Madhavacharya — The  founder  of  a  school  of  philosophy, 
opposed  to  the  system  of  Vyasa  in  the  Brahma  Sutras  ;  and  that 
contained  in  the  last  portion  of  the  Bhagavat  Gita  ;  maintaining 
that  the  Divine  being  and  the  soul  of  man  (Paramdtma  and  Jivatma) 
are  two,  separate  and  distinct.  Hence  his  system  is  spoken  of  as 
the  Dvaita.  It  closely  resembles  that  termed  the  Satwata  which 
was  revived  by  Rdmanuja  charya  and  is  now  found  to  prevail  to 
some  extent  in  all  large  communities.     See  Satwata. 

Madhavas — The  name  of  a  tribe,  descendants  of  Madhu  the  son 
of  Vrisha, 

Madhu — 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  Kdrttavirya  ;  2,  A  son  of 
Vrisha  ;  3,  A  sou  of  Devakshatra.  All  the  above  are  of  the  race 
of  Yidu  to  whose  family,  the  Yadavas,  Krishna  belonged  ;  4,  The 
name  of  a  formidable  Eakshasa  chief,  termed  a  great  demon,  pro- 
bably one  of  the  aborigines,  who  was  killed  by  Krishna. 

Madhuvana— The  grove  of  Madhu,  the  demon  referred  to 
above.    After  his  death  Satrughna  founded  a  city  on  the  spot, 


MAD— MAH  36i 


which  was  called  Mathura  :  this  became  celebrated  as  a  holy  shrine, 
and  it  was  here  that  Dhruva  performed  penance. 

Madhwacharya — A  celebrated  Vaishnava  teacher,  who  is 
placed  by  Professor  Wilson  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Madhyandina — A  teacher  of  the  white  Yajush. 
Madira  —One  of  the  wives  of  Vasudeva. 

Madra — l,  One  of  the  four  sons  of  Sivi  ;  who  has  given  a 
name  to  a  province  and  tribe  in  the  north  of  India  ;  2,  The  name 
of  a  river  that  rises  in  the  Vindhya  mountains. 

Madrabhujingas,  Madras,  Madreyas— Tribes  of  people 
mentioned  in  the  Pui-auas  but  not  yet  satisfactorily  identified. 

Madri — One  of  the  wives  of  Pandu,  and  mother  of  Nakula  and 
Sahadeva,  by  the  celestial  twin-sons,  the  Aswini. 

Magadha — The  modern  Behar.  A  celebrated  country  in  the 
Purauas,  which  furnish  lists  of  the  kings  who  reigned  over  it. 

Magadha — The  bard  and  herald  of  the  Hindus,  being  attached 
to  the  state  of  all  men  of  rank  to  chauut  their  praises,  celebrate 
their  actions,  and  commemorate  their  ancestry.  Wilsoii.  The 
name  of  a  herald,  a  bard  who  was  produced  at  the  sacrifice  per- 
formed by  Brahma  at  the  birth  of  Prithu. 

Magha  —A lunar  mansion  in  Asharbhi,  in  the  Central  Avasthana. 

Magha— The  name  of  one  of  the  lunar  months  corresponding 
to  December. 

Mahabali— A  name  of  Bali,  q.  v. 

Mahabhadra — One  of  the  four  great  lakes,  the  waters  of  which 
are  partaken  of  by  the  gods.  The  Bhagavata  calls  it  a  lake  of  honey. 

Mahabharata— This  huge  epic,  which  is  in  all  probability  later 
in  date  than  the  Ramayana,  and  consists  of  about  220,000  long 
lines,  is  rather  a  cyclopaedia  of  Hindu  mythology,  legendary  history, 
and  philosophy,  than  a  poem  with  a  single  subject.  It  is  divided 
into  eighteen  books,  nearly  every  one  of  which  would  form  a  large 
volume  ;  and  the  whole  is  a  vast  thesaurus  of  national  legends,  said 
to  have  been  collected  and  arranged  by  Vydsa  (the  supposed  compiler 


366  MAH 

of  the  Vedas  and  Puranas),  a  name  derived  from  a  Sanskrit  verb, 
meaning  "  to  fit  together,"  or  "  arrange." 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  leading  story,  though  this 
occupies  little  more  than  a  fifth  of  the  whole  work,  numerous 
episodes  and  digressions  on  all  varieties  of  subjects  being 
interspersed  throughout  the  poem  : — 

According  to  the  legendary  history  of  India,  two  dynasties  were 
originally  dominant  in  the  north — called  Solar  and  Lunar,  under 
whom  numerous  petty  princes  held  authority,  and  to  whom  they 
acknowledged  fealty.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  Solar  line,  which 
commenced  in  Ikshvdku,  and  reigned  in  Oude,  was  the  Rama  of 
the  Ramayana.  Under  this  dynasty  the  BrAhmanical  system 
gained  ascendancy  more  rapidly  and  completely*  than  under  the 
Lunar  kings  in  the  more  northern  districts,  where  fresh  arrivals  of 
martial  tribes  preserved  an  independent  spirit  among  the  population 
already  settled  in  those  parts. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Lunar  race,  who  reigned  in  Hastinapura, 
or  ancient  Delhi,  was  Bharata,  whose  authority  is  said  to  have 
extended  over  a  great  part  of  India,  and  from  whom  India  is  to 
this  day  called  by  the  natives  Bharat-varsha  (the  country  or  domain 
of  Bharata.)  This  Bharata  was  an  ancestor  of  Kuru,  the  twenty- 
third  in  descent  from  whom  was  the  Brahman  KrUJma  Dwaipdyana 
Vydsa  (the  supposed  author  of  the  Mahabharata),  who  had  two 
sons,  Dhritardshtra  and  Pdndu.  The  former,  though  blind, 
consented  to  assume  the  government  when  resigned  by  his  younger 
brother  Pandu,  and  undertook  to  educate,  with  his  own  hundred 
sons,  the  five  reputed  sons  of  his  brother.  These  five  sons  were, — 
1st,  Yudhishthira  {i.e.,  "firm  in  battle");  2nd,  Bhima  {i.e., 
"  terrible") ;  3rd,  Arjuna  {i.  e.,  "  upright")  ;  4<th,  Nakula  {i.  e., 
*'a  mungoose")  ;  5th,  Sahadeva  {i.  e.,  "a  twining  plant.") 

The  three  first  were  born  from  Pandu's  wife,  Prithd,  or  Kunti, 
but  were  really  her  children  by  three  gods,  viz.,  Dharma,  Vayu  and 
Indra'respectively.  The  two  last  were  children  of  his  wife  Madri, 
by  the  Asvini-Kumaras,  or  "twin-sons,"  i.  e.,  of  the  Sun.  As, 
however,  Pandu  had  acknowledged  these  princes  as  his  sons,  the 
objection  to  their  birth  was  overruled  by  his  example.  Pdndu  (i.  e., 
"  the  pale")  was  probably  a  leper,  and  so  incapable  of  succession. 


MAH 


367 


7o  make  the  genealogy  more  clear  it  may  be  shown  in  a  tabular 
form  as  draivn  up  by  Professor  M.  Williams. 

Atri,  the  muni,  generally  reckoued  among  the  seven  Rishis  or  sages. 

Soma,  (or  Chandra)  the  moon. 

I 
Budha  (or  Mercury)  mamed  Ila,  daughter  of  Ikshwaku. 

Pururuvas  (or  Aila)  married  the  nymph  Urvasi. 

Ayus. 

Nahusha. 

I   . 
Yayati  (husband  of  Sarmishtha  and  Devayani.) 


Line  of  Puru. 

I 
Puru  (king  in  Prakshthana.) 

Dushyanta  (h.  of  Sakuntala). 

I 
Bharata, 

Hastin  (built  Hastinapur). 

Kuru. 

Santanu, 


Line  of  Yadu. 

I 
Yadu. 

Viishni. 

Devarata. 

Andhaka. 

Sura. 

I 
Vasudeva,  brother  of  Kunti  or  Pritha, 

I 
Krishna  and  Balarama,  with  whom  the 
line   becomes   extinct.     They   were 
contemporary  with  the  sons  of  Pandu 
and  Dhritarashtra. 


Dhritarashtra- 
Gandhari.    ^ 


Line  of  Puru  and  Kuru — conti7iued. 

Santanu-i-Satyavati. 

-T T" 


Chitrangada.  Vichitra-virya  Vyiisa 

son  of  both            son  of  Satyavati 
died  childless.          married  the  two 
widows  of  Vichi- 
tra-virya. 
_J 

Kunti  or  Pritha-r  Pandu  -|-Madri. 


1 

Bhishma 
called  Santanava 

and  Gangeya 

as  son  of  Santanu 

by  Ganga. 


T" 


T" 


1 

Vidura 
called  Kshattri. 


Kama,  Yudhishthira.  Bhima  Arjuna  Nakula  Sahadeva. 


Duryodhana 
and  99 

other  sons. 


368  MAH 

The  characters  of  the  five  Pindavas  are  drawn  with  much 
artistic  delicacy,  aud  maintained  consistently  throughout  the  poem. 
The  eldest,  Yudhishthira,  is  a  pattern  of  justice,  integrity,  and 
chivalrous  honour  and  firmness,  Bhima  is  a  type  of  brute  courage 
and  strength,  of  gigantic  stature,  impetuous  and  irascible  ;  he  is 
capable,  however,  of  warm,  unselfish  love,  and  shows  devoted 
affection  for  his  mother  and  brothers.  Arjuna,  who  is  the  chief 
hero  of  the  poem,  is  represented  as  a  man  of  undaunted  courage, 
and,  at'the  same  time,  generous,  modest,  and  tender-hearted  ;  of 
super-human  strength,  withal,  and  matchless  in  arms  and  athletic 
exercises.  Kakula  aud  Sahadeva  are  amiable,  noble-minded,  and 
spirited.  All  five  are  as  unlike  as  possible  to  the  hundred  sons  of 
Dhritarashtra,  commonly  called  the  Kuru  princes,  or  Kauravas, 
who  are  represented  as  mean,  spiteful,  dishonourable,  and  vicious. 
The  cousins,  though  so  uncongenial  in  character,  were  educated 
too-ether  at  Hastinapur  by  a  Brahman  named  Drona,  who  found  in 
the  Pandu  princes  apt  scholars.  Their  education  finished,  a  grand 
tournament  is  held,  at  which  the  cousins  disj^lay  their  skill  in 
archery,  the  management  of  chariots,  horses,  &c.  Arjuna 
especially  distinguishes  himself  by  prodigies  of  strength  and  skill ; 
but  suddenly  a  stranger  enters  the  lists,  named  Karna,  who,  after 
performing  the  same  feats,  challenges  Arjuna  to  single  combat. 
But  each  champion  is  obliged  to  tell  his  name  and  pedigree,  and 
Karna's  parentage  being  doubtful  (he  was  really  the  illegitimate 
son  of  Pritha,  by  Surya  (the  sun),  and,  therefore,  half-brother  of 
Arjuna),  he  is  obliged  to  retire  ignominiously  from  the  arena. 
Thus  publicly  humiliated,  Karna  joins  the  party  of  their  enemies, 
the  Kurus,  to  whom  he  renders  important  service.  Enraged  at 
the  result  of  this  contest,  the  Kurus  endeavour  to  destroy  the 
Pandavas  by  setting  fire  to  their  house  ;  but  they,  warned  of  their 
intention,  escape  by  an  under-ground  passage  to  the  woods.  Soon 
after,  in  the  disguise  of  mendicant  Brahmans,  they  repair  to  the 
Swayamvara  of  Draupadi,  daughter  of  Drupada,  king  of  Panchala. 
Arjuna,  by  the  exhibition  of  his  gymnastic  skill,  wins  the  favour 
of  the  lovely  princess,  who  becomes  his  bride.  Strengthened  by 
Drupada's  alliance,  the  Pindu  princes  throw  off  their  disguise, 
and  the  king,  Dhritarashtra,  is  induced  to  settle  all  differences  by 


MAif.  369 

dividing  his  kiugdom  between  them  iiud  his  owu  bons,  the  Kuiiis. 
Yudhishthira,  however,  afterwards  stakes  and  loses  his  whole 
territory  at  dice.  His  brothers  then  pass  twelve  years  in  the  wood^^, 
in  disguise,  after  which  the  war  is  again  renewed.  Krislmn,  king 
of  Dwaraka,  in  Guzerat  (an  incarnation  of  Vishnu),  joins  the 
Pandavas,  as  charioteer  to  Arjuua.  Tiie  rival  armies  meet  near 
Delhi.  The  battle,  which  lasts  for  eighteen  days,  terminates  in 
favour  of  the  Pandavas,  who  recover  their  possessions,  and  the 
elder  brother  is  elevated  to  the  throne  ;  Duryodhana  and  all  the 
Kurus  being  slain  in  the  conflict. 

Thus  the  undivided  kingdom  of  Hastinapur  became  the  posses- 
sion of  the  sons  of  Pandu  ;  but  they  were  so  grieved  by  the 
dreadful  slaughter  which  their  ambition  had  occasioned,  that  they 
resigned  their  power.  Their  famous  ally,  Krishna — who  previous 
to  his  founding  the  city  of  Dwaraka,  had  been  expelled  from 
Mathura  (Muttra),  the  seat  of  his  family — was  accidentally  killed 
in  a  thicket,  and  his  sons,  driven  from  their  paternal  possessions, 
sought  refuge  beyond  the  Indus.*  See  Bhagavat  Gita,  Pandavas, 
Arjuna,  &c. 

Mahabhoja — A  pious  prince,  the  son  of  Stitwatu.  The  name 
is  sometimes  read  Mahabhaga. 

Mahadeva — A  Rudra — the  name  of  the  eighth  manifestation 
of  the  Rudra — an  account  which  Wilson  says  is  grounded  apparently 
on  Saiva  or  Yogi  mysticism  ;  2,  A  name  of  Siva. 

Mahajwala — The  name  of  one  of  tlie  Narakas,  in  which  the 
crime  of  incest  is  punished. 

Mahamaya — The  king  of  Atala,  the  first  of  the  seven  regions 
of  Patala. 

Mahamoha — "  Extreme  illusion,"  causing  addiction  to  the 
enjoyments  of  sense  ;  one  of  the  five  kinds  of  obstruction  to  the 
soul's  liberation  ;  or  as  they  arc  called  in  the  Patanjala  philosophy, 
one  of  the  five  afflictions— the  '  five-fold  Ignorance'  of  the  Vishnu 
Purana. 

Mahan — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 


WilUams.     Indian  Epic  Poetry. 

47 


370  MAH 

Mahanabha — A  daitya  of  great  prowess,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Hiranyaksha. 

Mahanada~A  river  in  Orissa. 

Mahanandi — One  of  the  ten  Saisuuaga  kings  of  Magadha,  the 
son  of  Nandivarddhana. 

Mahanila — A  powerful  many-headed  serpent.  One  of  the 
progeny  of  Kadru. 

MahantU — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Dhimat  ;  he  lived  during  the 
Swayambhuva  Manwantara. 

Mahapadma — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Mahanauda  ;  his  name 
was  Nauda,  but  he  was  remarkably  avaricious.  He  was  born  of  a 
Sudra  woman,  and  after  him  the  kings  of  the  earth  were  to  be  all 
Sudras.  Like  Parasurama  he  endeavoured  to  annihilate  the 
Kshatriya  race,  and  brought  the  whole  earth  under  one  umbrella. 
He  and  his  descendants,  termed  the  nine  Nandas,  reigned  a 
hundred  years  ;  when  the  dynasty  was  overturned  by  the  Brahman 
Kautilya  (also  called  Chanakya  and  Chanaki)  who  placed  Chan- 
dragupta  on  the  throne.  (See  the  Mudra  Rakshasa,  Hindu 
Theatre,  Vol.  2.) 

2.  The  name  of  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru,  a  powerful  many- 
headed  serpent. 

Mahapurusha— Great  or  supreme  spirit  ;  purusha  meaning 
that  which  abides  or  is  quiesceut  in  body  ;  incorporated  spirit.  It 
is  a  uame  applied  to  Vishnu  ;  who  is  any  form  of  spiritual  being 
acknowledged  by  different  philosophical  systems  :  he  is  the 
Brahma  of  the  Vedanta,  the  Iswara  of  the  Pataujala,  and  the 
Purusha  of  the  Saukhya  school. 

Maharashtra — The  name  in  the  Puranas  of  the  Mahratta 
country. 

Mahar-loka — The  heaven  of  celestial  spirits,  the  sphere  of 
saints,  situated  at  the  distance  of  ten  million  leagues  above  Dhruva  : 
the  inhabitants  dwell  in  it  throughout  a  Kalpa  or  day  of  Brahma. 
Those  who  are  distinguished  for  piety,  abide,  at  the  time  of  disso- 
lution, in  Mahar-loka,  with  the  Pitris,  the  Manus,  the  seven  Rishis, 
the  various  orders  of  celestial  spirits,  and  the  gods.     Then  at  the 


MAH  371 

end  of  a  Kalpa,  when  the  heat  of  the  flames  that  destroy  the  worKl 
reaches  to  Mahar-loka,  the  inhabitants  repair  to  Janaloka,  within 
subtile  forms,  destined  to  become  re-embodied,  in  similar  capacities 
as  their  former,  when  the  world  is  renewed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  succeeding  Kalpa.  This  continues  throughout  the  life  of 
Brahma  ;  at  the  expiration  of  his  life  all  are  destroyed  ;  but  thoso 
who  have  thus  attained  a  residence  in  the  Brahma-loka  by  having 
identified  themselves  in  spirit  with  the  Supreme,  are  finally  resolved 
into  the  sole  existing  Brahma.  See  Wilson's  Notes  to  V.  P.,  p. 
633. 

Mahamagha — The  occurrence  of  the  full  moon  in  or  about  the 
asterism  Magha,  with  other  astronomical  incidents,  which  occur 
once  in  twelve  years,  and  which  time  is  auspicious  for  bathing. 
At  Khumbakhonam  there  is  a  large  tank,  the  water  of  which  is 
supposed  to  rise  ouce  in  twelve  years,  on  the  above  occasion,  and 
when  people  in  great  numbers  assemble  from  distant  places  to 
bathe  and  obtain  remission  of  sins. 

Maharoman — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Kritarata. 

Mahaswat — A  prince,  the  son  of  Araarsha,  a  descendant  of 
Rama. 

Mahat — Intellect  ;  the  first  product  of  Pradhaua,  sensible  to 
divine,  though  not  to  merely  human  organs,  is,  both  according  to 
the  Sankhya  and  Purana  doctrines,  the  principle  called  Mahaf, 
literally  the  Great,  explained  as  *  the  production  of  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  qualities  :'  Mahat,  the  Great  principle,  is  so  termed 
from  being  the  first  of  the  created  principles,  and  from  its  extension 
being  greater  than  that  of  the  rest.  Mahat  is  also  called  Iswara, 
from  its  exercising  supremacy  over  all  things.  The  Purauas 
generally  attribute  to  Mahat,  or  Intelligence,  the  act  of  creating. 
Mahat  is  therefore  the  divine  mind  in  creative  operation,  the 
vovs  6  SiaKocTficou  Tc  irauTuv  uItios  of  Auaxagoras  ;  an  ordering  and 
disposing  mind,  which  was  the  cause  of  all  things.  See  Wilson's 
Notes  to  V.  P.,  p.  15. 

Mahatala — 'l  he  fifth  of  the  seven  divisions  of  Patala,  with  a 
sandy  soil,  embellished  with  magnificent  palaces,  in  which  dwell 
numerous  Dauavas,  Daifyas  Yakshas,  and  the  great  snake-gods. 


S72  MAH 


Mahavichi — The  name  of  one  of  the  Narakas  beneath  the  earth. 

Mahavira — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Priyavrata,  according  to  the 
Bhagavata  ;  the  one  who  had  Krauucha-dwipa  assigned  to  him  ; 
2.  A  son  of  Savaua,  king  of  the  seventh  dwipa  ;  3,  The  name  of 
a  division  of  Pushkara  dwipa. 

Mahavira — The  twenty-fourth  Tirthankaraof  the  Jains.  His 
first  birth,  Avhich  occurred  at  a  period  indefinitely  remote,  was  as 
Nayasara,  headman  of  a  village  in  the  country  of  Vijaya.  His 
piety  and  humanity  elevated  him  next  to  the  heaven  called 
Saudharma,  where  he  enjoyed  happiness  for  some  oceans  of  years. 
He  was  next  born  as  Marichi,  the  grandson  of  the  first  Tirthankara 
Rishaba,  thence  transferred  to  the  Bralmialoka,  whence  he  returned 
to  earth  as  a  worldly-minded  and  sensual  brahman,  the  consequence 
of  which  was  his  repeated  births  in  the  same  caste,  each  birth  being 
separated  by  an  interval  passed  in  one  of  the  Jain  heavens,  and 
each  period  of  life  extending  to  many  lakhs  of  years.  He  then 
became  Visvabhuta,  prince  of  Rajagriha,  and  next  a  Vd-sudeva 
named  Triprishta  (q.  v.)  then  a  chakravartti  Priyamitra  (q.  v.) 
then  a  Nandaua  leading  a  life  of  devotion. 

On  the  return  of  the  spirit  of  Nandana  to  earth  it  first  animated 
the  womb  of  the  wife  of  a  brahman,  but  Mahendra,  disapproving 
of  the  receptacle  as  of  low  caste,  transferred  it  to  the  womb  of 
Trisala  the  wife  of  Siddharta,  of  the  family  of  Iksvaku,  and  prince 
of  Ravana,  in  Bharatakshetra.  Mahavira  was  born  on  the  thirteenth 
of  the  light  fortnight  of  Chaitra  :  the  fifty-six  nymphs  of  the 
universe  assisted  at  his  birth,  and  his  consecration  was  performed 
by  Sakra  and  the  other  sixty- three  Indras.  The  name  given  by 
his  father  was  Yarddhamana,  as  causing  increase  of  riches  and 
prosperity,  but  Sakra  gave  him  also  the  appellation  of  Mahavira 
as  significant  of  his  power  and  supremacy  over  men  and  gods. 

Mahavira  married  Yasodu,  daughter  of  the  prince  Samaravira. 
By  her  he  had  a  daughter  Priyadarsana,  who  was  married  to 
Jamali,  a  prince,  one  of  the  saint's  pupils,  and  founder  of  a  schism. 
Siddhartha  and  his  wife  died  when  their  son  was  twenty-eight 
years  old,  on  which  Mahavira  adopted  an  ascetic  life,  the 
government  devolvi!]?  on  his  elder  brother  Nandivarddhana.   After 


MAH  373 


ten  years  of  abstinence  and  self-denial  at  home  he  commenced  an 
erratic  life,  and  tlie  attainment  of  the  degree  of  a  Jiua. 

During  the  first  six  years  of  his  peregrinations,  Mahavira 
observed  frequent  fasts  of  several  month's  duration,  during  each 
of  which  he  kept  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  tip  of  his  nose,  and 
maintained  perpetual  silence.  He  was  invisibly  attended  by  a 
Yaksha  named  Siddhartha,  who,  at  the  command  of  Indra  watched 
over  his  personal  security,  and  where  speech  was  necessary  acted  as 
spokesman.  In  his  travels  he  acquired  a  singular  follower  named 
Gosala,  a  man  of  low  caste  who  acted  as  a  sort  of  buffoon. 

It  is  not  the  duty  of  a  Jain  ascetic  to  inflict  tortures  on  himself  : 
his  course  of  penance  is  one  of  self-denial,  fasting,  and  silence  ;  and 
pain,  however  meritorious  its  endurance,  must  be  inflicted  by  others, 
not  himself.  Mahavira  voluntarily  exposed  himself  to  maltreatment 
at  the  hands  of  various  savage  tribes,  offering  no  resistance,  but 
rather  rejoicing  in  his  sufferings.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  year  he 
relinquished  his  silence  in  answer  to  a  question  put  by  Gosala,  but 
continued  engaged  in  the  practice  of  mortification  and  in  an 
erratic  life. 

In  the  course  of  twelve  years  and  six  months  he  attained  the 
Kevala,  or  onlt/  k?iowledge.  This  occurred  under  a  Sal  tree,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Rijupalika.  Indra  instantly  hastened  to  the 
spot  accompanied  by  thousands  of  deities,  who  all  did  homage  to 
the  saint.  He  commenced  his  instructions  on  a  stage  erected  for 
the  purpose  by  the  deities,  a  model  of  which  is  not  uncommonly 
represented  in  Jain  temples.  The  following  is  the  introductory 
lecture  ascribed  to  Mahavira  by  his  biographer. 

"  The  woi'ld  is  without  bounds  like  a  formidable  ocean  ;  its 
cause  is  action  (Karma)  which  is  as  the  seed  of  the  tree.  The 
being,  {Jiva)  invested  with  body,  but  devoid  of  judgment,  goes 
like  a  well-sinker  ever  downwards,  by  the  acts  it  performs,  whilst 
the  embodied  being  which  has  attained  purity  goes  ever  upwards 
by  its  own  acts,  like  the  builder  of  a  palace.  Let  not  any  one 
injure  life,  whilst  bound  in  the  bonds  of  action  ;  but  be  as  assiduous 
in  cherishing  the  life  of  another  as  his  own.  Never  let  any  one 
speak  falsehood,  but  always  speak  the  truth.     Let  every  one  who 


374  MAH 

has  a  bodily  form  avoid  giving  pain  to  others  as  much  as  to 
himself.  Let  no  one  take  property  not  given  to  him,  for  wealth  is 
like  the  external  life  of  men,  and  he  who  takes  away  such  wealth 
commits  as  it  were  murder.  Associate  not  with  women,  for  it  is 
the  destruction  of  life  ;  let  the  wise  observe  continence,  which 
binds  them  to  the  Supreme.  Be  not  encumbered  with  a  family,  for 
by  the  anxiety  it  involves  the  person  separated  from  it  falls  like  an 
ox  too  heavily  laden.  If  it  be  not  in  their  power  to  shun  these 
more  subtle  destroyers  of  life,  let  those  who  desh'e  so  to  do  avoid 
at  least  the  commission  of  all  gross  offences." 

When  Mahavira's  fame  began  to  be  widely  diffused,  it  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  brahmans  of  Magadha,  and  several  of  their  most 
eminent  teachers  undertook  to  refute  his  doctrines.  Instead  of 
effecting  their  purpose,  however,  they  became  converts,  and 
constituted  his  Ganadharas,  heads  of  schools,  the  disciples  of 
Mahavira,  and  teachers  of  his  doctrines,  both  orally  and  scripturally. 

The  period  of  his  liberation  having  arrived,  Mahavira  resigned 
his  breath,  and  his  body  was  burned  by  Sakra  and  other  deities, 
who  divided  amongst  them  such  parts  as  were  not  consumed  by 
the  flames,  as  the  teeth  and  bones,  which  they  preserved  as  relics  ; 
the  ashes  of  the  pile  were  distributed  amongst  the  assistants  ;  the 
gods  erected  a  splendid  monument  on  the  spot,  and  then  returned 
to  their  respective  heavens. —  Wilson'' s  Works,  Vol.  I,  p.  304. 

Mahavirya — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Vrihaduktha,  one  of  the 
kings  of  Mithila  ;  2,  A  sou  of  Bhavanmanyu,  a  descendant  of 
Bharata. 

Mahavishuba — The  great  equinox  when  the  sun  is  in  the  third 
deo-ree  of  Visakha  and  the  moon  is  in  the  head  of  Krittika.  At 
this  time  offerings  are  to  be  presented  to  the  gods  and  to  the  manes, 
and  gifts  are  to  be  made  to  the  Brahmans  by  serious  persons. 
Liberality  at  the  equinoxes  is  always  advantageous  to  the  donor. 
V.  P.,  p.  225. 

Mahayajnas — The  great  Sacrifices,  the  great  obligations,  or  as 
Sir  W.  Jones  terms  them  sacraments,  arc  but  five  :  viz  : — 

1 .  Bramhayajua,  sacred  study  ; 

2.  Pitriyajna,  libations  to  the  mane?  : 


MAH  375 

3.  Devayajna,  burnt  offerings  to  the  gods  ; 

4.  Baliyajna,  offerings  to  all  creatures  ; 

5.  Uriyajua,  Iiospitality. 

The  Prajdpatiyajna,  or  propagation  of  offspring,  and  Satyajna, 
observance  of  truth,  are  apparently  later  additions. —  IVilsojis 
Notes  to  V,  P. 

Mahaynga — The  aggregate  of  four   Yugas  or  ages  :    viz  : — 

Krili  Yuga 4000 

Sandhya 400 

Sandhyansa.  400 

4800 

Treta  Yuga 3000 

Sandhya 300 

Sandhyansa.  300 

3600 

Dwapara  Yuga 2000 

Sandhya 200 

Sandhyansa.  200 

2400 

Kali  Yuga 1000 

Sandhya 100 

Sandhyansa.   100 

1200 

If  these  divine  years  are  converted  into  years  of  mortals,  by 
multiplying  them  by  360,  a  year  of  men  being  a  day  of  the  gods 
we  obtain  the  years  of  which  the  Y^ugas  of  mortals  are  respectively 
said  to  consist : 

4800X360=1,728,000 
3600X360=1,296,000 
2400X360=  864,000 
1200X360=    432,000 


A  Mahay uga-4, 320,000 


So  that  these  periods  resolve  themselves  into  very  simple  elements  ; 
the  notion   of  four  ages   in  a  deteriorating   scries  expressed  by 


376  MAH— MAI 


descendiug  arithmetical  progression,  as  4,  3,  2,  1  :  the  conversion 
of  units  into  thousands  ;  and  the  mythological  fiction  that  these 
were  divine  years,  each  composed  of  360  years  of  men. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  refer  the  invention  to  any  astro- 
nomical computations,  or  to  any  attempt  to  represent  actual 
chronology. —  Wilso7i^s  Notes  to  V.  P. 

Mahendra — l,  One  of  the  seven  main  chains  of  mountains  in 
Bharata.  Mahendra  ds  the  chain  of  hills  that  extends  from  Orissa 
and  the  northern  Circars  to  Gondwaua,  part  of  which,  near  Ganjam, 
is  still  called  Mahendra  Malei,  or  hills  of  Mahendra  ;  2,  The  name 
of  a  star  in  the  tail  of  the  celestial  porpoise  ;  3,  The  name  of  a 
river  mentioned  in  the  Purauas. 

Maheswara — A  name  of  Siva,  '  the  great  Lord.' 

Maheyas — People  living  near  the  Malii  river. 

Mahi — A  river,  the  Mahy  of  Western  Malvva. 

Mahikas,  or  Mahishas — Supposed  to  be  the  ancient  name 
for  the  inhabitants  of  Mysore. 

Mahinasa — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Mahishakas — An  ancient  name  of  the  people  of  Mysore. 

Mahishmat — A  prince  of  the  Yada  race,  the  son  of  Sahanji. 

Mahishmati — A  city  on  the  road  to  the  south  (Mahabharata, 
Udyoga  Parva)  which  is  commonly  identified  with  Chuli  Mahes- 
war,  on  the  Narmada. 

Mayodaya — The  ancient  name  of  the  city  of  Kanouj,  q.  v. 

Mahyuttaras — A  people  to  the  north  of  the  river  Mahi. 

Mainaka — A  son  of  Himavat  and  Meua  ;  the  brother  of  Ganga 
and  Parvati. 

Maitreya — l,  A  disciple  of  Parasara,  to  whom  the  Vishnu 
Purana  is  related  in  reply  to  his  inquiries  ;  he  is  also  one  of  the 
chief  interlocutors  in  the  Bhagavata,  and  is  introduced  in  the 
Mahabhdrata,  (Vana  Parva,  S.  10)  as  a  great  Rishi,  or  sage,  who 
denounces  Duryodhana's  death.  In  the  Bhagavata  he  is  also 
termed  Kausharavi  ;  2,  A  sou  of  Mitrayu,  from  whom  the  Maitreya 
Brahmans  were  descended. 


MAI— MAN  377 


Msiitreyas — A  tribe  of  Brahmans  descended  from  Miti'dyu. 

Maitri — Friendship,  daughter  of  Daksha,  wife  of  Dharma. 

MSikara — A  huge  amphibious  monster,  usually  taken  to  be  the 
shark  or  crocodile,  but  depicted  in  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  with  the 
head  and  forelegs  of  an  antelope,  and  the  body  and  tail  of  a  fish. 
It  is  the  ensign  of  the  god  of  love.  Varuua,  the  god  of  the  sea, 
rides  upon  it  through  the  waves,  showing  it  to  have  been  e^Jish  of 
some  sort.     It  is  now  the  name  of  a  shark  in  many  parts  of  India. 

Makandi — The  capital  of  Southern  Panchala,  the  country 
Dorth  of  the  Ganges  as  far  as  to  the  Chambal. 

Maladas,  Malajas,  Malas — Tribes  of  people  enumerated  in 
the  Puranas,  but  not  satisfactorily  identified. 

Malavas — An  aboriginal  tribe  dwelling  along  the  Piripdtra 
mountains. 

Malaya — One  of  the  seven  chief  chains  of  mountains  in 
Bharata  ;  the  southern  portion  of  the  Western  Ghauts. 

Malyavan — One  of  Siva's  principal  attendants,  who  for 
interceding  for  one  of  his  fellow-servants  Pushpadanta  (q.  v.) 
was  sentenced  to  a  similar  punishment — namely,  to  leave  the 
paradise  of  Kailasa  and  be  born  as  a  human  being.  After  a  due 
interval  Malyavan  was  born  at  Pratishta,  under  the  name  of 
GvinU\ij2i.^  Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  152. 

Malyavan — A  mountain  at  the  base  of  Meru,  to  the  east. 

Malayas — The  aboriginal  tribes  of  the  Southern  Ghauts. 

Malina — The  son  of  Tansu,  a  descendant  of  Puru. 

Mallarashtra — A  name  given  in  the  Puranas  to  the  Mahratta 
country. 

Mallas — In  Bhiraa's  Dig-Vijaya  we  have  two  people  of  this 
name,  both  in  the  east,  one  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  and 
the  other  more  to  the  south. 

Manas — Mind  ;  that  which  considers  the  consequences  of  acts 
to  all  creatures,  and  provides  for  their  happiness.  It  is  Eometimes 
used  as  a  synonym  of  Mahat. 

48 


378  MAN 


Manasa — l,  A  form  of  Vishnu,  when  he  was  born  of  Sambhuti, 
alono-  with  the  gods  Abhutarajasas,  in  the  Rawala  Manwantara  ; 
2,  One  of  the  four  great  lakes,  the  waters  of  which  are  partaken 
of  by  the  gods. 

ManaSOttara — A  prodigious  range  of  mountains,  running  in  a 
circular  direction  (forming  an  outer  and  an  inner  circle,)  situated 
in  Pushkara,  the  seventh  Dwipa.  The  mountains  are  represented 
as  50,000  leagues  high,  and  on  the  eastern  face  of  tlie  summit,  the 
city  of  Indra  is  situated  ;  that  of  Yama  in  the  southern  face  ;  that 
of  Varuua  in  the  west,  and  that  of  Soma  in  the  north. 

Manaswini — The  wife  of  Mikrinda,  the  great  Muni. 

Manasya — A  prince,  the  son  of  Mahanta,  who  reigned  over 
India  in  the  first,  or  Swayambhuva  Manwantara. 

Mancha — A  raised  platform,  with  a  floor  and  a  roof,  ascended 
by  a  ladder.     V.  P.,  p.  553. 

Mandahara — A  minor  Dwipa  ;  the  Bh^gavata  and  Pddma 
name  eight  such  islands,  peopled  for  the  most  part  by  Mlechchhas, 
but  who  w^orship  Hindu  divinities. 

Mandara — The  mountain  which  was  used  by  the  gods  as  a 
churning  stick,  at  the  churning  of  the  sea  of  milk. 

MandehaS — Terrific  fiends  who  attempt  every  night  to  devour 
the  sun.  The  night  is  called  Usha,  and  the  day  is  denominated 
Vyushta,  and  the  interval,  between  them  is  called  Sandhya.  On 
the  occurrence  of  the  awful  Sandhya,  the  Mandehas  do  their 
utmost  to  devour  the  sun  ;  for  Brahma  denounced  this  curse  upon 
these  terrific  fiends,  that  without  the  power  to  perish  they  should 
die  every  day  (and  revive  by  night,)  and  therefore  a  fierce  contest 
occurs  daily  between  them  and  the  sun.  V.  P.  The  V^yu  says 
the  Mandehas  are  three  crores  in  number.  Professor  Wilson  says 
the  story  seems  to  be  an  ancient  legend  imperfectly  preserved  in 
some  of  the  Puranas. 

Mandhatri — A  prince,  the  son  of  Yuvandswa,  of  whose  birth 
the  Vishnu  Purana  relates  the  following  extraordinary  legend. 
Yuvaniswa  had  no  sou,  at  which  he  was  deeply  grieved.  The 
Munis  instituted  a  religious  rite  to  procure  him  progeny,  one  night 


MAN  379 


during  its  performance,  the  sages,  having  placed  a  vessel  of 
consecrated  water  upon  the  altar,  had  retired  to  repose.  It  was 
past  midnight  when  the  king  awoke,  exceedingly  thirsty  ;  and 
unwilling  to  disturb  any  of  the  holy  inmates  of  the  dwelling,  he 
looked  about  for  something  to  drink.  In  his  search  he  came  to 
the  water  in  the  jar,  which  had  been  endowed  with  prolific  efficacy 
by  sacred  texts,  and  he  drank  it.  When  the  Rishis  arose  and 
found  that  the  water  had  been  drunk,  they  inquired  who  had  taken 
it,  and  said,  '  The  queen  that  has  drunk  this  water  shall  give  birth 
to  a  mighty  and  valiant  son.'  *  It  Avas  I,'  exclaimed  the  Raja 
'  that  unwittingly  drank  the  water  ;'  and  accordingly,  in  due 
course,  the  Rdja  gave  birth  to  a  child  from  his  right  side.  Indra 
became  its  nurse  ;  and  hence  the  boy  was  named  Mandhatri.  The 
boy  grew  up  and  became  a  mighty  monarch.  He  married 
Bindumati,  and  had  by  her  three  sons  and  fifty  daughters.  The 
latter  were  all  married  to  the  sage  Saubhari,  q.  v. 

Mandukeya— A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  the  son  of  Indra- 
pramati  who  imparted  his  Sanhita  to  his  son,  and  it  thence 
descended  through  successive  generations  as  well  as  disciples. 

Mangala— The  fiery-bodied  Mars,  son  of  the  Rudra  Sirva  and 

his  wife  Vikesi. 

Mani— A  powerful  serpent,  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru. 

Manidhanga — The  king  of  a  tract  of  country  near  the  Vindhya 
mountains. 

Manojava—l,  The  son  of  the  Rudra  Isana  ;  2,  (Hanuman.) 
The  son  of  the  Vasu  Anila  (Wind)  Manojava  means  'swift  as 
thought ;'  3,  The  Indra  of  the  sixth  Manwautara  was  called 
Manojava. 

Manmatha— A  name  of  the  Indian  Cupid,  the  son  of  Vishnu, 
called  also  Kama,  q.  v.  He  is  represented  as  the  cause  of  sensual 
love  both  in  mortals  and  celestials,  but  more  especially  in  the  female 
sex  :  whilst  his  wife.  Rati,  inflames  the  fire  in  the  male  sex — like 
Venus  of  old. 

Mantra — A  hymn  of  invocation  or  form  of  prayer  in  the 
Sanskrit  language.  Mantras  are  used  in  the  performance  of  every 
religious  rite.     They  are  of  various  sorts,  invocatory,  evocatory, 


380  MAN 

deprecatory,  conservatory.  They  are  beneficent  or  hurtful,  salutary 
or  pernicious.  By  means  of  them  it  is  believed  that  great  and 
various  effects  may  be  produced.  Some  are  for  casting  out  evil 
spirits  ;  some  for  inspiring  love  or  hatred,  for  curing  diseases  or 
bringing  them  on,  for  causing  death  or  averting  it.  Some  are  of  a 
contrary  nature  to  others,  and  counteract  their  effect :  the  stronger 
overcoming  the  influence  of  the  weaker.  Some  are  potent  enough, 
it  is  said,  to  occasion  the  destruction  of  a  whole  army  :  while  there 
are  others  which  the  gods  themselves  are  constrained  to  obey. 

The  Purohitas,  or  domestic  chaplains,  of  all  Hindus,  understand 
them  best.  They  are  indispensably  necessary  to  them  for  accom- 
panying the  ceremonies  which  it  is  their  office  to  conduct.  But 
Brahmans  generally  are  conversant  with  these  formulae  ;  and  when 
rallied  upon  the  present  state  of  their  Mantras,  wholly  divested  as 
they  are  of  their  boasted  efficacy  and  power,  they  answer  that  this 
loss  of  their  influence  is  to  be  attributed  to  tKe  Kali  yuga  ;  the  age 
of  the  world  in  which  we  now  live,  the  iron  age,  the  time  of  evil 
and  misfortune  in  which  everything  has  degenerated.    See  Dubois. 

Manu — The  head  or  ruler  of  an  extensive  period  of  time,  termed 
a  Manwantara.  Each  Kalpa,  or  creation  of  the  world,  is  divided 
into  fourteen  Manwautaras  or  intervals,  over  which  a  Manu 
presides.  Six  of  these  periods  have  passed  ;  the  first  Manu  was 
Swayambhuva  ;  the  second  Swarochisa,  the  third  Auttami  ;  the 
fourth  Tamasa  ;  the  fifth  Raivata  ;  the  sixth  Chakshusha  ;  these 
six  Mauus  have  passed  away  ;  the  Manu  who  presides  over  the 
seventh,  which  is  the  present  period,  is  Vaivaswata,  the  son  of  the 
sun,  the  wise  lord  of  obsequies.  The  Vishnu  Purana  contains  an 
account  of  the  Manwautaras  yet  to  come  ;  and  the  names  of 
the  Manus  who  will  preside  over  each.  The  Jainas  have  also 
fourteen  Manus  to  whom  they  give  names  different  to  those  in  the 
Hindu  Puranas. 

Manu— The  Noah  of  the  Hindus.  The  Satapatha  Brahmana 
contains  an  important  legend  of  the  deluge,  but  speaks  of  Manu 
simply,  without  assigning  to  him  any  patronymic,  such  as  Vaivas- 
wata, so  that  it  is  uncertain  which  Manu  is  referred  to.  O.  S.  T., 
Vol.1,  p-  217.  Monier  Williams  writes  of  him  as  the  seventh  Manu, 


MAN  381 

or  Manu  of  the  present  period,  called  Vaivaswata,  and  regarded  as 
one  of  the  progenitors  of  the  human  race.  He  is  represented  as 
conciliating  the  favour  of  the  Supreme  in  an  age  of  universal 
depravity.  Dr.  Muir  gives  a  translation  of  the  legend  in  his 
Orig.  Sans.  Texts,  Vol.  I,  p.  182  ;  Prof.  Max  MuUer  has  also 
translated  it  on  his  An.  Sans.  Lit.,  p.  425.  The  following 
translation  is  from  Prof.  M.  Williams'  Indian  Epic  Poetry. 

"It  happened  one  morning  that  they  brought  water  to  Manu,  as 
usual,  for  washing  his  hands.  As  he  was  washing  a  fish  came  into 
his  hands.  It  spake  to  him  thus  :  *  Take  care  of  me  and  I  will 
preserve  thee.'  Manu  asked,  '  From  what  wilt  thou  preserve  me.* 
The  fish  answered,  *  A  flood  will  carry  away  all  living  beings  ;  I 
will  save  thee  from  that.'  He  said,  *  How  is  thy  preservation  to 
be  accomplished'  ?  The  fish  replied,  *  while  we  are  small,  we  are 
liable  to  constant  destruction,  and  even  one  fish  devours  another  ; 
thou  must  first  preserve  me  in  an  earthen  vessel  ;  when  I  grow 
too  large  for  that  dig  a  trench,  and  keep  me  in  that.  When  I  grow 
too  large  for  that,  thou  must  convey  me  to  the  ocean  ;  I  shall  then 
be  beyond  the  risk  of  destruction.'  So  saying,  it  rapidly  became  a 
great  fish,  and  still  grew  larger  and  larger.  Then  it  said,  *  After 
so  many  years  the  deluge  will  take  place  ;  then  construct  a  ship, 
and  pay  me  homage,  and  when  the  waters  rise,  go  into  the  ship, 
and  I  will  rescue  thee.'  Manu  therefore,  after  preserving  the  fish 
as  he  was  directed,  bore  it  to  the  ocean  ;  and  at  the  very  time  the 
fish  had  declared  he  built  a  ship  and  did  homage  to  the  fish.  When 
the  flood  rose  he  embarked  in  the  ship  and  the  fish  swam  towards 
him,  and  he  fastened  the  ship's  cable  to  its  horn.  By  its  means  he 
passed  beyond  this  northern  mountain.  The  fish  then  said  '  I  have 
preserved  thee  ;  now  do  thou  fasten  the  ship  to  a  tree.  But  let 
not  the  water  sink  from  under  thee  while  thou  art  on  the  mountain. 
As  fast  as  it  sinks  do  thou  go  down  with  it'.  He  therefore  so 
descended  ;  and  this  was  the  manner  of  Manu's  descent  from  the 
northern  mountain.  The  flood  had  carried  away  all  living 
creatures.  Manu  alone  was  left.  Wishing  for  offspring  he 
diligently  performed  a  sacrifice.  In  a  year's  time  a  female  was 
produced.  She  came  to  Manu.  He  said  to  her,  '  Who  art  thou  ?* 
She  answered,  *  Thy  daughter.*     He  asked,  *  How  lady  art  thou 


382  MAN 


my  daughter?'  She  replied,  'The  oblations  which  thou  didst  offer 
in  the  waters,  viz.,  clarified  butter,  thick  milk,  whey  and  curds  ; 
from  these  hast  thou  begotten  me.  I  can  confer  blessings.'  With 
her  he  laboriously  performed  another  sacrifice,  desirous  of  children. 
By  her  he  had  offspring,  called  the  offspring  of  Manu  ;  and 
whatever  blessings  he  prayed  for  were  all  granted  to  him." 

"  From  this  interesting  legend  we  learn  that,  according  to  its 
author's  belief,  Manu  was  not  the  creator  of  mankind,  as  some  later 
accounts  considered  him  to  have  been,  but  himself  belonged  to  an 
earlier  race  of  living  beings,  which  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
the  deluge  which  is  described.  The  legend  regards  him  as  a 
representative  of  his  genei'atiou,  who  for  some  reason,  perhaps  his 
superior  Avisdom,  or  sanctity,  or  position,  was  selected  out  of  the 
crowd  of  ordinary  mortals  to  be  rescued  from  the  impending 
destruction.  That  he  was  regarded  as  a  mere  man,  and  not  as  a  being 
of  a  superior  order,  is  shown  by  the  fact  of  his  requiring  the  aid 
of  a  higher  power  to  preserve  him.  A  supernatural  fish,  apparently 
some  divine  person,  conceived  as  taking  the  form  of  a  creature 
which  would  be  perfectly  secure  and  at  home  in  the  midst  of  the 
raging  waters,  undertook  to  deliver  him,  and  guided  the  ship  on 
which  he  was  directed  to  embark,  through  all  dangers  to  its 
destined  haven.  No  one  but  Manu  took  refuge  in  the  ship,  for  he 
alone,  the  story  expressly  records,  was  preserved,  while  all  the 
other  living  beings  were  overwhelmed.  Finding  himself  the  sole 
survivor  when  the  waters  subsided,  he  became  desirous  of  progeny  ; 
and  with  intense  devotion  performed  certain  religious  rites  in  the 
hope  of  realizing  his  wish  through  their  efficacy.  As  a  result  of 
his  oblations,  a  woman  arose  from  the  waters  into  which  they  had 
been  cast.  A  male  and  a  female  now  existed,  the  destined  parents 
of  a  new  race  of  men  who  sprang  from  their  union, — a  union  the 
fruitfulness  of  which  was  assured  by  their  assiduous  practice  of 
sacred  ceremonies.  From  Manu  and  Ida,  we  are  expressly  told, 
the  race  known  as  that  of  Manu,  i.  e.,  the  race  of  men,  was 
produced.  The  legend  says  nothing  whatever  of  this  race  being 
originally  characterized  by  any  distinction  of  castes,  or  about  four 
sons,  the  ancestors  of  Brahmans,  Kshatriyas,  Vaisyas,  and  Sudras 
being  born  to  Manu  and  Ida.     We  must  therefore  suppose  that  the 


MAN  383 

author  of  the  legend  inteuds  to  represent  the  early  race  of  mankind, 
or  at  least  the  first  inhabitants  of  Bharatavarsha,  as  descended 
from  one  common  progenitor  without  any  original  varieties  of 
caste,  however  different  the  professions  and  social  position  of  their 
descendants  afterwards  became.  We  are  consequently  entitled  to 
regard  this  legend  of  the  Satapatha  Brahmaua  as  at  variance  with 
the  common  fable  regarding  the  separate  origin  of  the  Brahmans, 
Kshatriyas,  Vaisyas  and  Sudras." — Muir.  0.  S.  7\,  Vol.  I, p.  185. 

Mann — The  great  Hindu  law-giver  who  lived  about  800  b.  c. 
The  institues  of  Manu,  or  code  of  laws  still  extant,  is  sometimes 
attributed  to  Swayambhuva  the  first  Manu.  The  Manu  of  the 
present  period  is  sometimes  considered  the  author  of  the  Dliarma- 
shastra,  the  code  which  bears  his  name.  "  The  name  belongs  to 
the  Epic  and  Puranic  periods.  In  the  former  we  may  trace  in  it 
the  remains  of  the  tradition  of  a  first  man,  alike  progenitor,  or  even 
creator,  like  Prometheus,  of  his  descendants,  and  law-giver.  We 
should  conceive  its  historical  value  to  be  the  allusion  to  some 
legendary  personage,  such  as  every  nation  can  boast  of,  who  first 
wakes  his  country-men  from  barbarism  and  a  wild  life,  to  the  light 
of  civilization  and  systematic  government."  Thomson.  Manu 
was  "  a  legislator  and  saint,  a  son  of  Bralimd,  or  a  personification 
of  Brahma  himself,  the  creator  of  the  world  and  progenitor  of 
mankind.  Derived  from  the  root  man  to  think,  the  word  means 
originally  nian,  the  thinker,  and  is  found  in  this  sense  in  the  Rig 
Veda. 

"  Manu  as  a  legislator  is  identified  with  the  Cretan  Minos  ;  as 
progenitor  of  mankind  with  the  German  Mannus  :  '  Celebrant 
carminibus  antiquis,  quod  unum  apud  illos  memorise  et  auualium 
genus  est,  Tuisconem  deum  terra  editum,  et  filium  Mannum, 
origiuem  gentis  conditoresque.  Tacitus,  Germauia,  Cap.  II." — 
Griffiths. 

Manu — 1,  The  name,  according  to  the  Bhagavata  of  one  of 
the  eleven  Rudras  ;  2,    A  sage,  the  son  of  Krisaswa  and  Dhishana. 

Manwantara — A  period  equal  to  seventy-one  times  the  number 
of  years  contained  in  the  four  Yugas,  with  some  additional  years  : 
this  is  the  duration  of  the  Manu,  the  (attendant)  divinities,  and  the 


384  MAR 

rest,  which  is  equal  to  852,000  divine  years,  or  to  306,720,000 
years  of  mortals,  iudependent  of  the  additional  period.  Fourteen 
times  this  period  constitutes  aBrahm^  day,  that  is  a  day  of  Brahmi, 
or  a  Kalpa. 

Margashirsha — The  month  which  comprises  the  latter  half  of 
November  and  the  former  half  of  December.  "It  is  otherwise 
called  Agrahayana  "  the  commencement  of  the  year ;"  and 
although  the  Hindus  now  begin  their  year  in  the  month  Vaishdka 
(April,  May)  we  find  in  Prinsep's  Useful  Tables,  part  II,  p.  18, 
that  in  Bentley's  opinion,  this  month  would  have  begun  the  year, 
before  the  use  of  a  fixed  calendar  in  India,  between  b.  c.  693 
and  451. 

Maricha — A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Sunda. 

Marichi — l,  A  Prajapati,  one  of  the  nine  Brahma  rishis,  or 
mind-born  sons  of  Brahma  ;  he  was  married  to  Sambhuti  (fitness) 
one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha.  Their  son,  Kasyapa,  had  an 
extensive  posterity  ;  2,  The  chief  of  the  Maruts,  or  personified 
winds. 

Marichigarbhas — A  class  of  deities  belonging  to  the  ninth 
Manwantara. 

Marisha — The  daughter  of  the  sage  Kandu,  and  the  nymph 
Pramlocha.  An  account  of  her  birth  has  been  given  under  Kandu  : 
in  a  previous  existence  she  was  the  ^widow  of  a  prince,  and  left 
childless  at  her  husband's  death  :  she  prayed  to  Vishnu  that  in 
succeeding  births  she  might  have  honorable  husbands  and  a  son 
equal  to  a  patriarch  amongst  men.  The  prayer  was  granted  and 
she  was  married  to  the  Prachetasas. 

Markandeya — The  son  of  the  Rishi  Mrikanda. 

Markandeya  Purana — This  Purana  contains  an  account  of 
the  nature  of  Vasudeva,  and  an  explanation  of  some  of  the 
incidents  described  in  the  Mahdbh^rata.  It  was  narrated  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  Muni  Markandeya,  and  in  the  second  place 
by  certain  fabulous  birds,  of  heavenly  descent,  profoundly 
versed  in  the  Vedas.  It  contains  a  long  episodical  narrative 
of  the  actions  of  the  goddess  Durga,  and  furnished  the  pomp 


MAR  385 

aud  circumstance  of  the  great  festival  of  Bengal,  the  Durga 
Puja,  or  public  worship  of  that  goddess.  Professor  Wilson  says 
this  Purana  has  a  character  different  from  that  of  all  the 
others  ;  it  contains  few  precepts,  moral  or  ceremonial.  Its 
leading  feature  is  narrative,  and  it  presents  a  succession  of  legends, 
most  of  which,  when  ancient,  are  embellished  with  new  circum- 
stances ;  and  when  new,  partake  so  far  of  the  spirit  of  the  old, 
that  they  arc  disinterested  creations  of  the  imaginaiion,  having  no 
particular  motives. 

Marriage — The  forms  of  marriage  arc  eight,  the  Brahma, 
Daiva,  the  Arsha,  Prajapatya,  Asura,  Gandharba,  Rak  shasa  and 
Paisacha.  These  different  modes  of  marriage  are  described  by 
Manu  III,  27,  &c.  The  Vishnu  Purana  desciibes  the  kind  of 
maiden  that  should  be  selected  by  the  man  who  has  finished  his 
studies,  and  proposes  to  enter  into  the  married  state.  She  should 
be  a  third  of  his  own  age  ;  one  who  has  not  too  much  hair,  but  is 
not  without  any  ;  one  who  is  not  very  black  nor  yellow  com- 
plexioned,  and  who  is  not  from  birth  a  cripple  or  deformed  : 
he  must  not  marry  a  girl  who  is  vicious  or  unhealthy,  of  low  orif^in 
or  labouring  under  disease  ;  one  who  has  been  ill  brought  up  ;  ouc 
who  talks  improperly  ;  one  \vho  inherits  some  malady  from  father 
or  mother  ;  one  who  has  a  beard,  or  is  of  a  masculine  appearance  ; 
one  who  speaks  thick  or  thin,  or  croaks  like  a  raven  ;  one  who 
keeps  her  eyes  shut,  or  has  the  eyes  very  prominent  ;  one  who  has 
hairy  legs,  or  thick  ankles  ;  or  one  who  has  dimples  in  her  cheeks 
when  she  laughs  ;*  let  not  a  wise  aud  prudent  man  marry  a  girl 
of  such  a  description  ;  nor  let  a  considerate  man  wed  a  girl  of  a 
harsh  skin  ;  or  one  with  white  nails  ;  or  one  with  red  eyes  ;  or 
with  very  fat  hands  and  feet  ;  or  one  who  is  a  dwarf,  or  who  is 
very  tall  ;  or  one  whose  eyebrows  meet,  or  whose  teeth  are  far 
apart  aud  resemble  tusks. 

Marshti,  Marshtimat — Two  of  the  sons  of  Sarana  of  the 
family  of  Vasudeva. 

»  For  thn  credit  of  Hindu  taste  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  commentator 
observes  the  hemistich  in  which  this  claudc  occur-s  i.s  not  found  in  all  copies 
of  the  text.— Pro/,    WHsop. 

if) 


386  MAR 

Marttikavatas — Princes  of  Mrittikavati. 

Maru — 1,  The  son  of  Sighra,  a  descendant  of  Rama.  In  the 
Vishnu  Purana  it  is  stated  that  Maru  is,  through  the  power  of 
devotion,  (Yoga)  still  living  in  the  village  called  Kalapa,  and  in  a 
future  age  will  be  the  restorer  of  the  Kshatriya  race  in  the  solar 
dynasty  ;  2,  The  name  of  the  son  of  Hariyaswa,  king  of  Mithila. 

Marubhaumas — The  inhabitants  of  Marubhumi,  the  desert; 
an  aboriginal  tribe  occupying  the  sandy  deserts  of  Sindh. 

Marudeva — A  prince,  the  son  of  Supratitha,  a  descendant  of 
Ikshvaku. 

Marut-loka — The  heaven  of  the  winds  and  Vaisyas. 

MarutS — The  Avinds.  The  sons  of  Diti,  who  having  lost  her 
children  prayed  for  a  son  of  irresistible  prowess  who  should 
destroy  Jndra.  The  Muni  Kasyapa  granted  his  wife  the  great 
boon  she  solicited,  but  with  one  condition  ;  that  she  should  be 
pregnant  a  hundred  years,  and  maintain  a  rigid  observance  of  all 
religious  rites  during  the  whole  period.  Indra  watched  for  an 
opportunity  of  frustrating  her  intentions,  and  in  the  last  year  of 
the  century,  an  opportunity  occurred.  Diti  retired  one  night  to 
rest  without  performing  the  prescribed  ablution  of  her  feet,  and 
fell  asleep  :  on  which  Indra  divided  the  embryo  in  her  womb  into 
seven  portions.  The  child,  thus  mutilated,  cried  bitterly.  Indra 
failing  to  silence  it  again  divided  each  of  the  seven  portions  into 
seven,  and  thus  formed  the  swift-moving  deities  called  Marutas 
(winds.)  They  derived  this  appellation  from  the  words  with 
which  Indra  had  addressed  them  (Marodih,  weep  not,)  and  they 
became  forty-nine  subordinate  divinities,  the  associates  of  the 
weilder  of  the  thunderbolt.  V.  P.  This  legend,  says  Professor 
Wilson,  occurs  in  all  the  Purinas  in  which  the  account  of  Kasyapa's 
family  is  related.  The  Vishnu  Purana  in  another  place,  says  the 
winds  were  the  children  of  Marutwati.  The  Maruts  are  said  to 
have  given  Bharata  a  son  named  Ijharadwaja.  q.  v.  Among  the 
lesser  gods,  an  important  share  of  adoration  is  enjoyed  by  a  group 
avowedly  subordinate  to  Indra,— involving  an  obvious  allegory, — 
the   Maruts,   or   Winds,   who  are   naturally   associated   with   the 


MAR-MAT  38^ 


firmameut.  We  have,  iudeed,  a  god  of  the  wind,  in  A^ayu  ;  but 
little  is  said  of  him,  and  that  chiefly  in  association  with  Indra,  with 
whom  he  is  identified  by  scholiasts  on  the  Veda.  The  Maruts,  on 
the  contrary,  are  frequently  addressed  as  the  attendants  and  allies 
of  Indra,  confederated  with  him  in  the  battle  with  Vritra,  an<i 
aiding  and  encouraging  his  exertions.  They  are  called  the  sons 
ofPrisni,  or  the  enrth,  and  also  Rudras,  or  sons  of  Rudra  :  the 
meaning  of  which  affiliations  is  not  very  clear,  although,  no  doubt, 
it  is  allegorical.  They  are  also  associated,  on  some  occasions, 
with  Agni  ;  an  obvious  metaphor,  expressing  the  action  of  wind 
upon  fire.  It  is  also  intimated  that  they  were,  originally,  mortal, 
and  became  immortal  in  consequence  of  worshipping  Agni,  which 
is  also  easy  of  explanation.  Their  share  in  the  production  of  rain, 
and  their  fierce  and  impetuous  nature,  are  figurative  representa- 
tions of  physical  phenomena. —  Wilson. 

Marutta — l,  A  celebrated  Chakravartti,  or  universal  monarch, 
the  son  of  Avikshit.  A  Sanskrit  verse  thus  sets  forth  the  splendour 
of  his  proceedings  : — "  There  never  was  beheld  on  earth  a  sacrifice, 
equal  to  the  sacrifice  of  Marutta  :  all  the  implements  and  utensils 
were  made  of  gold.  Indra  was  intoxicated  with  the  libations  of 
Soma  juice,  and  the  Brahmans  were  enraptured  with  the  magnifi- 
cent donations  they  received.  The  winds  of  heaven  encompassed 
the  rite  as  guards,  and  the  assembled  gods  attended  to  behold  it." 
Marutta  reigned  85,000  years,  according  to  the  Markendaya 
Puniua  ;  2,  A  son  of  Karandhama,  a  descendant  of  Turvasa. 

Marutwati — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was  married 
to  Dharma. 

Matali — The  charioteer  of  Indra.  It  was  he  who  was  sent  to 
convey  Yayati  to  heaven,  when  Indra  invited  him  thither.  The 
Padma  Puraua  relates  a  philosophical  conversation  that  took  place 
between  the  king  and  Matali,  in  which  the  imperfection  of  all 
corporeal  existence,  and  the  incomplete  felicity  of  every  con^lition 
of  life  are  discussed.  These  attributes  belong,  it  is  said,  even  to 
the  gods  themselves,  for  they  are  affected  with  disease,  subject  to 
death,  disgraced  by  the  passions  of  lust  and  anger,  and  are 
consequently  instances  of  imperfection  and  of  misery.     Various 


388  MAT 

degrees  of  vice  are  then  described,  and  their  prevention  or 
expiation  are  dechired  to  be  the  worship  of  Siva  or  Vishnu, 
between  whom  there  is  no  difference  ;  they  are  but  one,  as  is  the 
case  indeed  with  Brahma  also  ;  for  '  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Maheswara  are  one  form,  though  three  gods  ;  there  is  no  difference 
between  the  three  :  the  difference  is  that  of  attributes  alone.' 
See  Yayati. 

Matanga — A  brahman  mentioned  in  the  Dasakumara  who  was 
killed  while  trying  to  preserve  the  life  of  another  brahman.  On 
reaching  the  city  of  souls,  Yama  said  to  Chandragupta  '  This 
man's  hour  is  not  yet  come.  He  died  in  defence  of  a  brahman. 
That  one  virtuous  act  effaces  all  his  former  sins.  Let  him  behold 
the  penalty  paid  to  the  wicked,  and  then  restore  him  to  his  former 
body.'  Returning  to  life  his  adventures  were  still  more  remark- 
able. Aided  by  a  prince  whom  he  met  in  the  forest  he  penetrated 
the  path  to  Patdla.  On  arriving  near  the  city,  he  cast  himself 
into  the  flames  of  a  fire  he  had  prepared  and  rose  again  in  an 
angelic  form.  A  damsel  richly  arrayed  and  numerously  attended, 
who  said  her  name  w^as  Kalindi,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Asuras, 
and  that  she  had  come  with  the  concurrence  of  her  council  to  offer 
the  kingdom  and  herself,  twin  wives,  to  his  espousal.  Matanga 
married  her  and  became  king  of  Patala. —  JFilson's  TVorks,  Vol. 
IV,  p.  174. 

Mathura — A  holy  city,  founded  by  Satrughna,  (the  younger 
brother  of  Rama.)  It  is  situated  in  the  banks  of  the  Yamuna, 
where  a  demon  at  one  time  resided,  named  Madhu.  His  son  the 
Rakshas  Lavana,  was  slain  by  Satrungha,  who  afterwards  built  the 
shrine  which  obtained  celebrity  as  a  purifier  from  all  sin.  It  was 
in  this  place  that  Dhruva's  penance  w^as  performed. 

Mati — Understanding — that  which  discriminates  and  distin- 
guishes objects  preparatory  to  their  fruition  by  the  soul.  It  is 
often  used  to  signify  mind,  intelligence,  knowledge,  wisdom. 

Matinara — The  son  of  Rikska,  the  fifteenth  in  descent  from 
Puru.     V.  P. 

Matsya — l,  The  name  of  one  of  the  Minor  Dwipas  :  2,  A 
teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  a  disciple  of  Vedamitra. 


MAT  '    389 

Matsya,  or  fish  Avatara — The  first  of  the  ten  Avataras  of 
Vishnu.  "When,  at  the  end  of  the  last  mundane  age,  the  Bhaga- 
vata  Pui-ana  relates,  Brahma,  the  first  god  of  the  Trimurti,  had 
fallen  asleep,  a  powerful  demon,  Hayagriva,  stole  the  Vedas 
which  had  issued  from  the  mouth  of  Brahmi,  and  lay  by  his  side. 
About  that  time,  a  royal  saint,  Satyavrata^  had  by  his  penance 
attained  the  rank  of  a  Manu,  and  Vishnu,  who  had  witnessed  the 
deed  of  Hayagriva,  and  intended  to  slay  him,  assumed  for  this 
purpose  the  form  of  a  very  small  fish,  and  glided  into  the  hands 
of  the  saint  when  the  latter  made  his  daily  ablutions  in  the  river. 
Manu,  about  to  release  the  little  fish,  Avas  addressed  and  asked  by- 
it  not  to  expose  it  to  the  danger  that  might  arise  to  it  from  the 
larger  fish  in  the  river,  but  to  place  it  in  his  water-jar.  The  saint 
complied  with  its  wish  ;  but  in  one  night  the  fish  grew  so  large, 
that  at  its  request  he  had  to  transfer  it  to  a  pond.  Yet  soon  the 
pond  also  becoming  insufficient  to  contain  the  fish,  Manu  had  to 
choose  a  larger  pond  for  its  abode  ;  and,  after  successive  other 
changes,  he  took  it  to  the  ocean,  Satyavrata  now"  understood 
that  the  fish  w^as  no  other  than  Nardyana  or  Vishnu,  and,  after 
lie  had  paid  his  adoration  to  the  god,  the  latter  revealed  to  him 
the  imminence  of  a  deluge  which  would  destroy  the  w^orld,  and 
told  him  that  a  large  vessel  would  appear  to  him,  in  which  he  was 
to  embark  together  wnth  the  seven  Bishis,  taking  with  him  all  the 
plants  and  all  the  seeds  of  created  things.  Manu  obeyed  the 
behest  of  the  god  :  and  when  the  w^ater  covered  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  Vishnu  again  appeared  to  him  in  the  shape  of  a  golden  fish 
with  a  single  horn,  10,000  miles  long;  and  to  this  horn  Manu 
attached  the  vessel,  by  means  of  Vishnu's  serpent  serving  as  a 
cord.  While  thus  floating  in  the  vessel,  Manu  w^as  instructed  by 
the  fish-god  in  the  philosophical  doctrines  and  the  science  of  the 
supreme  spirit  ;  and  after  the  deluge  had  subsided,  the  fish-god 
killed  Hayagriva,  restored  the  Vedas  to  Brahmd,  and  taught  them 
to  the  Manu  Satyavrata,  who  in  the  present  mundane  age  was 
born  under  the  name  of  Sraddhadeva^  as  the  son  of  Vivasvat.  A 
fuller  account  of  this  Avatara  is  given  in  the  Matsya-Furana, 
where  the  instruction  imparted  to  Manu  by  the  fish-god  includes 
all  the  usual  detail  contained   in  a  Purina  (q,  v..)  that  relating  to 


390  MAT 

creation,  the  patriarchs,  progenitors,  regal  dynasties,  the  duties  of 
the  different  orders,  and  so  forth.  In  the  Mahabharata,  where  the 
same  legend  occurs,  but  without  either  that  portion  concerning 
Hayagriva,  or  the  instruction  imparted  by  the  fish,  there  is,  besides 
minor  variations,  tliat  important  difference  between  its  story  and 
that  of  the  Puriinas,  that  the  fish  is  not  a  personification  of  Vishnu, 
but  of  Brahma,  and  that  the  deluge  occurs  in  the  present  mundane 
age,  under  the  reign  itself  of  the  Manu,  who  is  the  son  of 
Vivasvat.  The  origin  of  this  Avatdra  is  probably  a  kindred 
legend,  which  occurs  in  the  Sathapatha  brdhmana,  of  the  White 
Yajurveda  ;  but  there  the  fish  does  not  represent  any  special 
deity,  and  the  purpose  of  the  legend  itself  is  merely  to  account 
for  the  performance  of  certain  sacrificial  ceremonies. — [Manu.] 

Matsya  Purana — This  Purana,  after  the  usual  prologue  of 
Suta  and  the  Rishis,  opens  with  the  account  of  the  Matsya  or 
*  fish'  Avatara  of  Vishnu,  in  which  he  preserves  a  king  named  Manu, 
with  the  seeds  of  all  things,  in  an  ark,  from  the  waters  of  that 
inundation  which  in  the  season  of  a  Pralaya  overspreads  the  world. 
Whilst  tlie  ark  floats  fastened  to  the  fish  (Vishnu)  Manu  enters 
into  conversation  with  him,  and  his  questions,  and  the  replies  of 
Vishnu,  forms  the  main  substance  of  the  comj)ilation.  The  first 
subject  is  the  creation,  which  is  that  of  Brahma  and  the  patriarchs  ; 
the  regal  dynasties  are  next  described  ;  and  then  follow  chapters 
on  the  duties  of  the  different  orders,  &c.  The  account  of  the 
universe  is  given  in  the  usual  strain.  Saiva  legends  ensue  ;  as 
the  destruction  of  Triparasura  j  the  war  of  the  gods  with  Taraka 
and  the  Daityas,  and  the  consequent  birth  of  Kartikeya,  with  the 
various  circumstances  of  Uma's  birth  and  marriage,  the  burning  of 
Kamadeva  ;  the  destruction  of  the  AsuraS"  Maya  and  Andhaka  ; 
interspersed  with  the  Vaishuava  legends  of  the  Avataras.  There 
are  also  chapters  on  law  and  morals,  and  one  which  furnishes 
directions  for  building  houses  and  making  images.  See  Vishnu 
Purana,  Preface. 

Matsyas — The  people  of  Dinajpur,  Rangpur,  and  Cooch  Bchar. 
There  are,  however,  two  Matsyas,  one  of  which  according  to  the 
Yantra  Samrat,  is  identifiable  with  Jaypur.  In  the  Dig  Vijaya  of 
Nakula  the  Matsyns  are  placed  farther  to  the  west  or  in  Guzerat. 


MAU— MAY  891 


Maudga — A  teacher  of  the  Sdraa  Veda,  and  disciple  of 
Devadersa. 

Maudgalyas — A  class  of  Brahmans  descended  from  Mudgala  : 
they,  as  well  as  the  Kanwas,  were  all  followers  or  partisans  of 
Angiras. 

Maunas — A  dynasty  of  kings,  consisting  of  eleven  sovereigns  ; 
and  forming  part  of  the  seventy-nine  princes  mentioned  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana  as  to  reign  over  the  earth  for  one  thousand  three 
hundred  and  ninety  years. 

Mauneyas — A  name  of  the  Gandharbas,  dwelling  in  the  regions 
below  the  earth,  sixty  millions  in  number,  who  defeated  the  tribes 
of  the  Nagas,  or  snake-gods,  seizing  upon  their  most  precious 
jewels  and  usurping  their  dominion. 

Mauryas — A  race  of  kings  of  Magadha  commencing  with 
Chaudragupta,  whose  dynasty  lasted  for  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  years. 

Maya— A  powerful  Danava,  of  some  note  as  the  father  of 
Vajrakama  and  Mahodari. 

]y[aya— Illusion.  "  Know  that  matter  is  illusion,  and  the  great 
deity  the  possessor  of  illusion.  The  vedantists  say  that  Brahma,  the 
self-resplendent,  the  supremely  happy,  and  the  one  sole  essence, 
assumes,  unreally,  the  form  of  the  world  through  the  influence  of 
his  own  illusion."  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  195.  "  In  the  spirit  of 
theBerkeleyan  theory  they  affirm  that  matter  exists  not  independent 
of  perception  ;  and  that  substances  are  indebted  for  their  seeming 
reality  to  the  ideas  of  the  mind.  All  that  we  see  is  Maya, 
deception,  illusion.  There  are  no  two  things  in  existence  ;  there 
is  but  one  in  all.  There  is  no  second  ;  no  matter  ;  there  is  spirit 
alone.  The  world  is  not  God,  but  there  is  nothing  but  God  in  the 
vfOYia:'— Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  II,  p.  98. 

I^aya—*  Deceit' ;  1,  A  daughter  of  Adharma  (vice);  2,  A 
daughter  of  Anrita  (falsehood). 

Mayadevi — The  supposed  wife  of  the  Asura  Samljara,  who 
rescued  Pradyurana  when  he  was  thrown  into  the  sea  as  an  infant, 
and  swallowed    by  a    i\^h    (Sec    Fiadynmuu.)    She    had  deluded 


392  MED— MER 


Sambara  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  and  rearing  Pradyumna  to 
■whom  she  was  afterwards  married,  and  returned  with  him  to 
Dwaraka  to  the  great  joy  of  Rukmini  and  Krishna. 

Medha — *  Intelligence'  ;  1,  One  of  the  three  sons  of  Priyavrata 
who  adopted  a  religious  life  ;  remembering  the  occurrences  of  a 
prior  existence  they  did  not  covet  dominion,  but  diligently 
practised  the  rites  of  devotion,  in  due  season,  wholly  disinterested, 
and  looking  for  no  reward.  V.  P.  2,  A  daughter  of  Daksha  who 
was  married  to  Dharma. 

Medatithi  —  One  of  the  sous  of  Priyavrata  who  became  king  of 
Plaksha  dwipa.  He  had  seven  sous,  and  the  Dwipa  was  divided 
amongst  them,  each  division  being  named  after  the  prince  to  whom 
it  was  subject,  the  people  enjoyed  uninterrupted  felicity,  being 
sinless,  V.  P.,  p.  197. 

Medhavin — A  prince,  the  son  of  Siinaya,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Mekala — A  Rishi,  the  father  of  the  river  Narraada  ;  thence 
called  Mekala  and  Mekalakanya  :  the  mountain  where  it  rises  is 
also  called  Mekaladri. 

MekalaS — A  tribe  which  according  to  the  Puranas  live  in  the 
Vindhya  mountains  :  this  locality  is  confirmed  by  mythological 
personations.  The  Ramayana  places  the  Mekalas  amongst  the 
Southern  tribes. 

Mena — A  daughter  of  the  Pitris,  acquainted  with  theological 
truth  and  addicted  to  religious  meditation  ;  accomplished  in  perfect 
wisdom  and  adorned  with  all  estimable  qualities.  She  was  married 
to  Hiraavat,  and  was  the  mother  of  Maiuaka  and  of  Ganga,  and  of 
Parvati  or  Uma  ;  2,    A  river. 

Menaka — A  divine  nymph  ;  one  of  the  ten  Apsarasas  who  are 
specified  as  of  the  Daivika  or  divine  class,  and  whose  principal 
occupation  is  the  interruption  of  the  penances  of  holy  sage?. 

Mendicant — See  Vanaprastha. 

Meru — In  the  earlier  Epic  period  this  i=  probably  the  name 
given  to  the  high  table-land  of  Tartary,  to  the  north  of  the 
Himalaya  range,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  which  the  Aryan  race 
may    originally    have    pushed    their    w^ay    southwards^    into    the 


MER  3}):; 


peniusiila,  and  thus  have  preserved  the  name  iu  their  traditions  as  a 
relic  of  the  old  mountain  worship.*  In  the  Puranas  it  is  described 
as  the  golden  mountain  in  the  centre  of  Jambu-dwipa.  Its  height 
is  eighty-four  thousand  Ydjauas  ;  and  its  depth  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth  sixteen  thousand.  Its  diameter  at  the  summit  in 
thirty-two  thousand  Yojanas  ;  (the  yojaua  is  nine  miles)  and  at  its 
base  sixteen  thousand  ;  so  that  this  mountain  is  like  the  seed  cup 
of  the  lotus  of  the  earth.  V.  P.  Prof.  Wilson  in  a  note  states 
"  the  shape  of  Meru  according  to  this  description,  is  that  of  an 
inverted  cone  ;  and  by  the  comparison  to  the  seed  cup  its  form 
should  be  circular  :  but  there  seems  to  be  some  uncertainty  upon 
this  subject  amongst  the  Pauranics.  'J'ho  Padma  compares  its 
form  to  the  bell-shaped  flower  of  the  Dhatura.  The  Vayu 
represents  it  has  having  four  sides  of  different  colours  ;  or  white 
on  the  east,  yellow  on  the  south,  black  on  the  west,  and  red  on  the 
north  :  but  notices  also  various  opinions  of  the  outline  of  the 
mountain,  which,  according  to  Atri,  had  a  hundred  angles  :  to 
Bhrigu  a  thousand  ;  Savarni  calls  it  octangular;  Bhaguri  quadran- 
gular ;  and  Varshayani  says  it  has  a  thousand  angles  :  Galana 
makes  it  saucer-shaped  ;  Garga,  twisted,  like  braided  hair  :  and 
others  maintain  that  it  is  circular.  The  Linga  makes  its  eastern 
face  of  the  colour  of  ruby  ;  its  southern,  that  of  the  lotus  ;  its 
western,  golden  ;  and  its  southern  coral.  The  Matsya  has  the 
same  colours  as  the  Viyu  and  both  contain  this  line  *  Four- 
coloured,  golden,  four  cornered,  lofty  :  but  the  Vayu  compares  its 
summit  iu  one  place  to  a  saucer ;  and  observes  that  its  circumference 
must  be  thiico  its  diameter.  The  Matsya  also  says  the  measure- 
ment is  that  of  a  circular  form  but  it  is  considered  quadrangular. 
According  to  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon,  Meru  is  said  to  be  of  the 
same  diameter  throughout.  Those  of  Nepal  consider  it  to  le 
shaped  like  a  drum." 

On  the  summit  of  Meru  is  the  vast  city  of  Brahma,  extending 
fourteen  thousand  leagues  and  renowned  in  heaven  ;  and  around  it 
iu  the  cardinal  points  and  the  intermediate  quarters  ;  are  situated 

^Thomson. 

."iO 


394  MER— MIM 


the  stately  cities  of  luclra  and  the  other  regents  of  the  spheres. 
Mount  Meru  is  iu  short  the  Olympus  of  India. 
Merubhutas— See  Marubhaumas. 

Merumandara — A  naountaiu  to  the  south  of  Meru  with  a  large 
Pipal  tree  on  its  summit. 

Meru-savarnis — The  Manus  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth 
Manwautaras  ;  described  in  the  Vdyu  as  the  mind-engendered  sons 
of  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  by  himself  and  the  three  gods  Brahma, 
Dharma,  and  Rudra,  to  whom  he  presented  her  on  Mount  Meru  ; 
whence  they  are  called  Meru-savarnis.  They  are  termed  Savarnis 
from  their  being  of  one  family. 

Mimansa  Darsana—"  The  founder  of  the  Mlmansd  School 
was  Jaimini,  of  whose  history  very  little  is  known.  He  is 
described  as  a  short  young  man,  of  light  complexion,  wearing  the 
dress  of  a  mendicant,  and  living  at  Nilavata-Mtila.  He  was  born 
at  Dwaita-vana.  His  father,  Sakatayana,  was  author  of  a  Sanskrit 
dictionary,  and  his  son,  Kriti,  wrote  certain  verses  in  the  Devi- 
Bhagavata. 

There  are  about  twenty-six  works  extant,  illustrating  the 
Mimansa  system,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Sutras  of  Jaimini  ; 
the  Bhashya,  by  Shavara  (and  comments  thereon  by  Bhatta, 
Vachaspati  Mishra  and  R^naka)  ;  the  Satika-Sastra-Dipika,  by 
Soma-Natha  ;  the  Dharma-Dipika  ;  the  Mimansa-Sdra  ;  and  the 
Mimansa  Sangraha. 

From  the  three  last-named  works  chiefly  we  gather  the  following 
abridgment  of  the  system  of  Jaimini.  He  taught  that  God  is  to 
be  worshipped  only  through  the  incantations  of  the  Vedas  :  that 
the  Vedas  were  uncreated,  and  contained  in  themselves  the  proofs 
of  their  own  divinity,  the  very  words  of  which  were  unchangeable. 
His  reasonings  on  the  nature  of  material  things  were  similar  to 
those  of  Gautama,  insisting  that  truth  is  capable  of  the  clearest 
demonstration,  without  the  possibility  of  mistake.  Creation, 
preservation,  and  destruction,  he  represented  as  regulated  by  the 
merit  and  demerit  of  works  ;  while  he  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the 
total  destruction  of  the  universe.  He  maintained  that  the  images 
of  the  gods  were  not  real  representations  of  these  beings,  but  only 


MIM  395 

given  to  assist  tho  mind  of  the  worshipper  ;  that  the  mere  forms 
of  worship  had  neither  merit  nor  demerit  in  tliem  ;  and  that  the 
promises  of  the  Sastra  to  persons  who  presented  so  many  offerings, 
so  many  prayers,  &;c.,  were  only  given  as  alUirements  to  duty. 

He  directed  the  person,  who  sought  final  emancipation,  to 
cherish  a  firm  belief  in  the  Vedas,  as  well  as  persuasion  of  the 
benefits  of  religion,  and  the  desire  of  being  engaged  in  the  service 
of  the  gods  ;  and  then,  by  entering  upon  the  duties  of  religion, 
and  by  degrees  ascending  through  the  states  of  a  student,  a  secular, 
and  a  hermit,  he  would  be  sure  to  obtain  final  absorption  iu 
Brahma. 

Of  the  three  divisions  of  the  Veda,  the  first,  called  the  Karma 
Kdtida,  or  "  practical  part,"  relates  to  religious  cere??wnies 
(including  moral  and  religious  obligations.)  This  portion  Jaimini 
has  attempted  to  explain  in  his  Sutras,  and  in  the  Furva  Mimansa 
(e.  €.,  former  "  Mimansa,"  which  is  commonly  referred  to  when 
the  term  "  Mhnd?isa'  simply  is  used,)  so  called  in  distinction  from 
the  Uttara  (or  latter)  Mimansa  ascribed  to  Vyasa,  which  is  the 
the  same  as  the  Vedd^nta,  and  is  founded  on  the  Judna  Kdnda  (or 
theological  part)  of  the  Vedas,  treating  of  the  spiritual  worship 
of  the  Supreme  Being  or  soul  of  the  Universe. 

Sou?idy  says  Jaimini,  in  opposition  to  the  Nyaiyikas,  who  deny 
this,  is  uncreated  and  eternal,  and  is  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  simple 
sound,  or  that  which  is  produced  by  an  impression  on  the  air 
without  requiring  an  agent,  as  the  name  of  God  ;  and  compound 
(smybolized  or  audible)  sound.  Thus,  the  state  of  the  sea,  in  a 
perfect  calm,  represents  simple,  uncreated  sound  ;  but  the  sea,  iu 
a  state  of  agitation,  illustrates  sound  as  made  known  by  an  agent. 

Symbols,  of  sounds,  or  letters,  are  eternal  and  uncreated  ;  as  is 
also  the  meaning  of  sounds.  For  instance,  when  a  person  has 
pronounced  ka,  however  loug  he  may  continue  to  utter  ka,  ha,  it 
is  the  same  sound,  sometimes  present  and  sometimes  absent  ;  but 
sound  is  never  new.  Its  manifestation  alone  is  new  by  an  impres- 
sion made  upon  the  air.  Therefore  sound  is  God  (Brahma),  and 
the  world  is  nothing  but  name. 

The  Veda  has  no  human  oiigin,  but  contains  iu  itself  the 
evidence  of  divine  authorship,  and  corner  forth  as  the  command  of 


396  MIM 

a  monarch.  It  is  incumbent  on  men  to  receive  also,  as  divine, 
those  works  (of  the  sages)  which  are  found  to  agree  with  the 
Veda,  to  contain  clear  definitions  of  duty,  and  to  be  free  from 
contradictions. 

What  is  religion  ?  That  which  secures  happiness.  And  it  is 
the  duty  of  man  to  attend  to  the  duties  of  religion,  not  only  on 
this  account,  but  in  obedience  to  the  commands*  of  God.  The 
divine  law  is  called  Vidhi. 

Should  any  one  say,  then  I  have  nothing  to  do  with  other  kinds 
of  instruction,  since  this  alone  is  divine.  To  that  it  is  replied, 
that  forms  of  praise,  motives  to  duty,  and  religious  observances, 
are  auxiliaries  to  the  divine  law,  and  have,  therefore,  a  relative 
sanctity  and  obligation. 

There  are  five  modes  of  ascertaining  the  commands  of  God, 
viz:  (1),  the  subject  to  be  discussed  is  brought  forward;  (2), 
questions  respecting  it  are  stated  ;  (3),  objections  are  started  ;  (4), 
replies  to  these  objections  are  given  ;  and  (o),  the  question  is 
decided.  He  who  acts  in  religion  according  to  the  decision  thus 
come  to,  does  well ;  and  so  does  he  who  rejects  what  will  not  bear 
this  examination  ;  but  he  who  follows  rules  which  have  been 
hereby  condemned,  labours  in  vain. 

Those  actions  from  which  future  happiness  will  arise  are  called 
religious,  or  good,  because  productive  of  happiness  ;  and  those 
which  tend  to  future  misery  are  called  evil,  on  account  of  their 
evil  fruits.  Hence,  according  to  Jaimini,  actions  of  themselves 
have  in  them  neither  good  nor  evil.  Their  nature  can  only  be 
inferred  from  the  declarations  of  the  Veda  respecting  them,  or 
from  future  consequences.  The  Hindus  appear  to  have  no  just 
idea  of  moral  evil. 

Of  all  the  works  on  the  Civil  and  Canon  Law,  that  of  Manu  is 
to  be  held  in  the  greatest  reverence,  for  Manu  composed  his  work 
after  a  personal  study  of  the  Veda.  Other  sages  have  composed 
theirs  from  mere  comments. 

From  the  evidence  of  things  which  God  has  afibrded,  especially 
the  evidence  of  the  senses,  mistakes  cannot  arise  either  respecting 
secular  or  religious  affairs.  When  there  may  exist  error  in  this 
evidence,  it  will  dimiuish,  but.  cannot  destroy  the  nature  of  things. 


MIM  397 

If  there  be  an  imperfection  in  seed,  the  production  may  bo 
imperfect,  but  its  nature  will  not  be  changed.  The  seat  of  error 
and  inattention  is  to  be  found  in  this  reasoning  faculty,  and  not  in 
the  senses  ;  error  arising  from  the  confused  union  of  present  ideas 
( anuhhava )  with  recollection. 

Some  affirm  that  ideas  are  received  into  the  understanding 
separately,  and  never  two  at  the  same  instant.  This  is  incoriect  ; 
for  it  must  be  admitted,  that  while  one  idea  is  retained,  there  is 
an  opening  left  in  the  understanding  for  the  admission  of  another. 
Thus,  in  arithmetical  calculations,  "one  added  to  one  makes  two." 

The  Veda  has,  in  some  parts,  forbidden  all  injury  to  sentient 
beings,  and  in  others  has  prescribed  the  offering  of  bloody  sacrifices; 
Jaimini  explains  this  apparent  contradiction  by  observing  that 
some  commands  arc  general,  and  others  particular  :  that  the 
former  must  give  way  to  the  latter,  as  a  second  knot  always 
loosens,  in  a  degree,  the  first.  So,  when  it  is  said  that  Saraswati 
is  altogether  white,  it  is  to  be  understood,  not  literally,  but 
generally,  for  the  hair  and  eyebrow^s  of  the  goddess  are  not  white. 
Therefore,  in  cases  where  general  commands  are  given,  they  must 
be  observed  with  those  limitations  which  are  found  in  the  S'dstra, 

The  promises  of  reward  contained  in  the  S dsira  upon  a  minute 
attention  to  the  different  parts  of  duty,  have  been  given  rather  as 
an  incitement  to  its  performance  than  with  the  intention  of  entire 
fulfilment.  He  who  has  begun  a  ceremony,  but  has,  by  circum- 
stances, been  unable  to  finish  it,  shall  yet  not  be  unrewarded. 

The  benefits  resulting  from  the  due  performance  of  civil  and 
social  duties  are  confined  to  this  life.  Those  connected  with  the 
performance  of  religious  duties  are  to  be  enjoyed  in  a  future  state, 
while  some  meritorious  actions,  or  virtues,  reap  their  reward  both 
in  the  present  and  the  future  life. 

Works  give  birth  to  invisible  consequences — either  propitious 
or  otherwise — according  to  their  nature  ;  and,  besides  works,  there 
is  no  other  sovereign  or  judge.  These  consequences,  ever  accom- 
panying the  individual,  as  the  shadow  the  body,  appear  in  the  next 
birth,  in  accordance  with  the  time  and  manner  in  which  those 
actions  were  performed  in  the  preceding  birth.  "  Works  rule,  and 
men  by  them  are  led  or  driven,  as  the  ox  with  a  hook  in  its  nose." 


398  MIN— MIT 


The  progress  of  all  actions,  whether  they  originate  in  the 
commands  of  the  Sastras,  or  in  the  customs  of  a  country,  are  as 
follows  : — First,  the  act  is  considered  and  resolved  on  in  the 
mind  ;  then  it  is  pursued  by  means  of  words  ;  and,  lastly,  it  is 
accomplished  by  executing  the  different  constituent  parts  of  the 
action.  Hence  it  follows  that  religion  and  irreligion  refer  to 
thoughts,  words,  and  actions.  Some  actions,  however,  are  purely 
those  of  the  mind,  or  of  the  voice,  or  of  the  body.  The  virtue  or 
vice  of  all  actions  depend  on  the  state  of  the  heart. 

The  doctrine  that,  at  a  certain  period,  the  whole  universe  will 
be  destroyed  at  once,  is  incorrect.  The  world  had  no  beginning, 
and  will  have  no  end.  As  long  as  there  are  works,  there  must  be 
birth,  as  well  as  a  world  like  the  present,  to  form  a  theatre  on 
-which  they  may  be  performed,  and  their  consequences  either 
enjoyed  or  endured. 

One  of  the  sages  of  the  Mimansa  school  thus  expresses 
himself: — *  God  is  simple  sound.  To  assist  the  pious  in  their 
forms  of  meditation  (or  incantations).  He  is  represented  as  light  ; 
but  the  power  of  liberation  lies  in  the  sound  *  God— God.'  When 
the  repeater  is  perfect,  the  incantation,  or  name  repeated,  appears 
to  him  in  the  form  of  simple  light  or  glory. 

The  objects  of  worship,  which  are  within  the  cognisance  of 
the  senses,  are  to  be  received  ;  for  without  faith  religious  actions 
are  destitute  of  fruit.  Therefore,  let  no  one  treat  an  incantation 
as  a  mere  form  of  alphabetic  signs,  nor  an  image  as  composed  of 
the  inanimate  material,  lest  he  should  be  guilty  of  a  serious  crime.' 
^S?nall,  H.  S.  L. 

Minaratha— A  prince,  the  son  of  Anenas,  a  king  of  Mithila, 
of  the  family  of  Janaka. 

Misrakesi— One  of  the  Apsarasas,  a  Laukika  nymph. 

Mithi— A  prince,  the  sou  of  Nimi,  the  legend  of  whose  birth  is 
thus  related  in  the  Vishnu  Purana.  As  Nimi  left  no  successor, 
the  Munis,  apprehensive  of  the  consequences  of  the  earth  being 
without  a  ruler,  agitated  the  embalmed  body  of  Nimi,  and  produced 
from  it  a  prince  who  was  called  Janaka,  from  being  born  without 
a  progenitor.     In  consequence  of  being    produced   by  agitation. 


MIT  399 

(Mathaua)  he  was  further  termed  Mithi.  The  Ramayana  places 
a  prince  named  Mithi  between  Nimi  and  Janaka,  whence  comes 
the  name  Mithila. 

Mithila — The  modern  Tirhoot.  Mithila  is  celebrated  in  the 
Puranas  as  the  country  over  which  the  descendants  of  Ikshvuku 
reigned  for  a  long  period.  Mithi,  from  whom  the  country  derived 
its  name,  was  the  grandson  of  Ikshvaku. 

Mitra — l,  One  of  the  twelve  Adityas,  the  one  who  presides 
over  the  organs  of  excretion  :  2,  A  sage,  one  of  the  seven  sous  of 
Vasishtha.     V.  P. 

Mitra  is  the  god  of  the  day.  Mitra  is  said  to  represent  the  sun 
by  day,  and  Varuua  the  setting  luminary.  "  Mitra  re-appears  in 
the  Zendavesta  as  the  w^ell-known  Mithra,  who  is  the  angel 
presiding  over  and  directing  the  course  of  the  sun." — QuarteriT/ 
Review,  Jidy  1 870. 

Mitrasaha — A  prince,  the  son  of  Sudasa.  Having  gone  into 
the  woods  to  hunt,  he  fell  in  with  two  tigers  by  whom  the  forest 
had  been  cleared  of  the  deer.  The  prince  slew  one  of  these  tigers 
with  an  arrow.  At  the  moment  of  expiring  the  form  of  the 
animal  was  changed,  and  it  became  that  of  a  fiend  of  a  fearful 
figure  and  hideous  aspect.  Its  companion,  threatening  the  prince 
with  its  vengeance,  disappeared.  After  some  interval  Saudasa 
celebrated  a  sacrifice  which  w^as  conducted  by  Vasishtha.  At  the 
close  of  the  rite  Vasishtha  went  out  ;  when  the  Rakshasa,  the 
fellow  of  the  one  that  had  been  killed  in  the  figure  of  a  tiger, 
assumed  the  semblance  of  Vasishtha,  and  came  and  said  to  the 
king  *'  now  that  the  sacrifice  is  ended,  you  must  give  me  flesh  to 
eat ;  let  it  be  cooked  and  I  will  presently  return.  Having  said 
this  he  withdrew,  and  transforming  himself  into  the  shape  of  the 
cook,  dressed  some  human  flesh  which  he  brought  to  the  king, 
who,  receiving  it  on  a  plate  of  gold,  awaited  the  re-appearance  of 
Vasishtha  ;  as  soon  as  the  Muni  returned  the  king  offered  to  him 
the  dish.  Vasishtha  knowing  it  to  be  human  flesh  was  surprised 
at  such  an  insult,  and  in  his  anger  denounced  a  curse  upon  the 
Raja,  transforming  him  into  a  cannibal.  *'  It  was  yourself  replied 
the  Raja  to  the   indignant   sa^rp.  who  commanded   this  food  to  be 


400  MIT— MOK 


prepared."  Vasishtha,  having  recourse  to  meditation  then  detected 
the  whole  truth  :  but  though  the  curse  was  partially  withdrawn, 
the  Raja  became  a  cannibal  every  sixth  watch  of  the  day  for 
twelve  years,  and  in  that  state  wandered  through  the  forests  and 
devoured  raulritudes  of  men.  On  one  occasion  he  met  with  a 
brahman  and  his  wife  :  seizing  the  husband,  and  regardless  of  the 
wife's  reiterated  supplications,  he  ate  the  brahman  as  a  tiger 
devours  a  deer.  He  returned  to  his  wife  Madayanti  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  period  of  his  curse,  but  suffered  from  the  imprecation 
of  the  brahman's  wife.     V.  P. 

Mitravrinda — One  of  the  seven  beautiful  wives  of  Krishna. 

Mitraya — l,  A  scholar  of  Suta's  and  teacher  of  the  Puranas 
and  legendary  lore  :  he  was  also  a  composer  of  one  of  the  Sanhitas 
afterwards  collected  into  the  Vishnu  Purana  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Divodasa,  from  whom  the  Maitreya  brahmans  were  descended. 

Mlechchas — Outcastes.  The  Vishnu  Purana  states  that 
various  Kshatriya  races  were  degraded  by  Sagara,  by  being 
deprived  of  established  usages  and  the  study  of  the  Vedas  ;  and 
thus  separated  from  religious  rites,  and  abandoned  by  the  brahmans, 
these  different  tribes  became  Mlechchas. 

Moha — 1,  '  Duluess'  or  '  Stupefaction,'  a  property  of  sensible 
objects  ;  a  kind  of  ignorance  ;  or  illusion  produced  by  the  notion 
of  property  or  possession,  and  consequent  attachment  to  objects, 
as  children  and  the  like,  as  being  one's  own.  Moha  also  occurs  in 
the  Bhagavata  and  Matsya  Purana  amongst  a  series  of  Brahma's 
progeny,  or  virtues  and  vices  ;  Moha  is  there  translated  by  Wilson 
to  mean  Infatuation. 

Mohini — Vishnu  in  a  female  form.  The  product  of  Siva's 
union  with  Mohini  was  Ayenur,  the  only  male  among  the  Grama- 
devatas. 

Moksha — Absorption  into  the  Deity.  The  Hindu  idea  of 
supreme  blessedness.  It  is  only  those  who  attain  to  a  full  know- 
ledge of  the  nature  of  the  deity,  the  soul,  the  intellect,  &c.,  derived 
from  meditation,  the  teaching  of  the  guru,  experience,  penance, 
&c.,  or  the  exalted   ascetic,   who,   by    austerities  is  said  to   have 


MON— MRI  401 


auuihilated   his  passions,  and  freed   his  soul   from  earthly  desire, 
that  is  considered  ripe  for  this  final  emancipation  or  Moksha. 

Monotheism — In  the  Vishnu  Puniua  it  is  said,  *  the  only  one 
God,  Janarddana  takes  the  designation  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Siva,  accordingly  as  he  creates,  preserves  or  destroys.  This,  says 
Professor  Wilson,  is  the  invariable  doctrine  of  the  Puranas, 
diversified  only  according  to  the  individual  divinity  to  whom  they 
ascribe  identity  with  Paramatraa  or  Parameswara.  In  the  Vishnu 
Pur£na  this  is  Vishnu  ;  in  the  Saiva  Puranas,  as  in  the  Linga,  it 
is  Siva  ;  in  the  Brahma-vaivartta  it  is  Krishna.  The  identifica- 
tion of  one  of  the  hypostases  with  the  common  source,  the  triad, 
was  an  incongruity  not  unknown  to  the  other  theogouies  ;  for 
Cneph  amongst  the  Egyptians,  appears  on  the  one  hand  to  have 
been  identified  with  the  Supreme  Being,  the  indivisible  unity, 
whilst  on  the  other  he  is  confounded  with  both  Eureph  and  Ptha, 
the  second  and  third  persons  of  the  triad  of  hypostases.  Cudworth, 
Vol.  I,  p.  4-18. 

Moon — The  Vishnu,  Vayu,  and  Padma  Puranas  all  relate  in 
detail  the  legend  of  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  and  state  that  the 
cool-rayed  moon  was  one  of  the  products  of  the  operation  ;  it  was 
seized  by  Mahiideva.  The  Vishnu  Puriina  says  that  the  chariot 
of  the  moon  has  three  wheels,  and  is  drawn  by  ten  horses,  of  the 
whiteness  of  the  jasmine,  five  in  the  right  half  of  the  yoke  and  five 
in  the  left.  The  horses  drag  the  car  for  a  whole  Kalpa.  During 
the  dark  half  of  the  month  nectar  and  ambrosia  are  accumulated 
in  the  moon,  and  these  are  drunk  by  thirty-six  thousand  divinities 
during  the  light  fortnight  ;  the  Pitris  are  nourished  by  it  in  the 
dark  fortnight  ;  vegetables  with  the  cool  nectary  aqueous  atoms 
it  sheds  on  them  ;  and  through  their  development  it  sustains  men, 
animals,  and  insects  ;  at  the  same  time  gratifying  them  with  its 
radiance.  V.  P.,  p.  239.  The  orb  of  the  Moon,  according  to  the 
Linga  Purana  is  only  congealed  water. 

Mrigavithi — A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions,  in  the  southern 
Avashtana. 

Mrida — A  prince,  the  son  of  Nripanjaya,  of  the  raceof  Puru. 

51 


402  MRI— MUC 


Mrigasiras — A  Umar  mansion,  in  Gajavithi  of  the  northern 
Avashtana. 

Mrigavyadha — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  according  to  the 
enumeration  in  the  Matsya  Purana. 

Mrikanda — The  son  of  Vidhjitri  and  Niryati,  descendants  of 
the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  were  married  to  the  Rishis. 

Mrittikavati — A  city  in  Malwa,  near  the  Parnasa  river,  whose 
sovereigns  were  the  Bhojas,  descendants  of  Satwata. 

Mritya — l,  *  Death,'  one  of  the  progeny  of  Brahma  ;  he  is  also 
represented  in  the  same  work,  the  Vishnu  Purana,  as  the  son  of 
Bhaya  and  Maya ;  and  his  children  are  thus  given  Vyadhi 
(disease),  Jara  (decay),  Soka  (sorrow),  Trishna  (greediness),  and 
Krodha  (wrath)  ;  2,  The  name  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  in  the 
Vayu  list ;  3,    A  Vyasa  in  the  sixth  Dwapara  age. 

Muchukunda— One  of  the  sons  of  Mandhdtri,  called  the  *  king 
of  men,'  who  iu  a  battle  between  the  gods  and  demons,  had 
contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  latter  ;  and  being  overcome  with 
sleep  he  solicited  of  the  gods  as  a  boon,  that  he  should  enjoy  a  long 
repose.  '  Sleep  long  and  soundly,  said  the  gods,  and  whoever 
disturbs  you  shall  be  instantly  burnt  to  ashes  by  fire  emanating 
from  your  body.'  The  black  king,  Kalyavana,  met  with  this  fate, 
by  a  stratagem  of  Krishna  ;  and  Muchukunda  haxiug  fallen  down 
and  worshipped  Krishna  as  the  undecayiug,  illimitable  and 
imperishable  being,  departed  to  Gandhamadana  to  perform  penance, 
and  obtain  emancipation  from  all  existence.  Another  account 
states  that  "Muchukunda  carried  on  war  against  the  Buddhists 
till  he  was  too  weary  to  fight  any  longer  ;  whereupon  he  sought 
the  grateful  seclusion  of  the  Guttikonda  cave.  In  this  peaceful 
and  salubrious  spot  he  fell  asleep  ;  it  was  a  sleep  of  the  greatest 
profundity,  and  lasted  for  some  centuries.  In  an  evil  moment  for 
the  Buddhists  they  entered  the  cave  in  pursuit  of  Krishna,  and 
disturbed  the  placid  slumbers  of  Muchukunda.  After  a  nap  of 
some  hundreds  of  years,  he  was  not  a  man  to  be  trifled  with  ;  so 
he  rose  up  in  the  exuberance  of  his  renovated  energies  and 
extirpated  the  obnoxiou*^  Buddhist?."     A,  «,V  37.  /. 


MUD  403 


Muda — '  Pleasure,'  a  son  of  Dharraa  by  one  of  the  daughters  of 
Daksha,  Santosha  (Joy). 

Mudgala — l,   A  sage  mentioned  in  the  Mahabharata,  who  had 
lived  a  life  of  poverty,  piety,  and  self-restraint,  offering  hospitality 
to  thousands  of  brahmaus,  according  to  his  humble  means,  with  the 
grain  which  he  gleaned  like  a  pigeon,  and  which  (like  the  widow 
of  Zarephath's  oil)  never  underwent  diminution.    At  length  another 
sage  called  Durvasas,  famous  in  Hindu  tradition  for  his  irascible 
temper,  came  to  prove  Mudgala's  powers  of  endurance  ;  and  six 
times  devoured  all  the  food  which  the  hospitable  saint  possessed. 
Finding  that  the  temper  of  his  host  was  altogether  unaffected  by 
these  trials,   Durvasas  expressed  the  highest  admiration   of  his 
virtue,  and  declared  that  he  would  go  bodily  to  lieaven.     As  he 
spoke  these  words  a  messenger  of  the  gods  arrived  in  a  celestial 
car,  and   called  upon   Mudgala  to  ascend  to  a  state  of  complete 
perfection.   The  sage,  however  desired  first  to  learn  the  advantages 
and  drawbacks  of  the  heavenly  state,  and  the  messenger  proceeded 
to   tell    him    first   what    kind   of  people   go    there,    viz   ;   those 
who   have    performed   austerities    or   celebrated    great    sacrifices, 
the  truthful,  the  orthodox,  the  righteous,  the  self-restrained,  the 
meek,  the  liberal,  the  brave,  &c.     These  celestial  abodes  were,  he 
said,  shining,  glorious,  and  filled  with  all  delights.     There  is  seen 
the  vast-golden  mountain  Meru,  and  the  holy  garden  Naudaua,  &c., 
where  the  righteous   disport.     There  hunger,   thirst,   weariness, 
cold,  heat,  fear,   are   unknown  ;   there   is   nothing   disgusting  or 
disagreeable  ;  the  scents  are  delightful  ;  the  sounds  are  pleasant  to 
the  ear  and  mind  ;  there  is  no  sorrow,  nor  lamentation,  nor  decay, 
nor   labour,  nor   envy,   nor  jealousy,   nor    delusion.     There   the 
blessed  are  clothed  with  glorious  bodies,  which  are  produced  by 
their  works,  and  not  generated  by  any  father  or  mother.     Their 
garlands   are    fragrant  and   unfading  ;    they   ride   in    aerial    cars. 
Beyond    these   regions   there  are,    however,   others    of  a   higher 
character — those  to  which  the  Rishis,  who  have  been  purified  by 
their  works,  proceed.    Still  further  on  are  those  whore  the  Ribhus, 
who  are  gods  even   to  the  gods,  dwell,   and  where   there  is  no 
annoyance  occasioned  by  women,  or  by  envy  arising  from  the  sight 
of  worldly  grandeur.    The  blessed  there  do  not  subsist  on  oblatioup, 


404  MUD 


nor  do  they  feed  upon  ambrosia  ;  they  have  celestial  and  not  coarse 
material  bodies.  These  eternal  gods  of  gods  do  not  desire 
pleasure  ;  they  do  not  change  with  the  revolutions  of  Kalpas 
(great  mundane  ages).  How  can  they  then  be  subject  either  to 
decay  or  death?  They  experience  neither  joy,  nor  pleasure,  nor 
delight,  neither  happiness  nor  suffering,  neither  love  nor  hatred. 
That  highest  state,  so  difficult  to  attain,  and  which  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  those  who  seek  after  pleasure,  is  desired  even  by  the  gods. 
This  celestial  felicity,  the  messenger  says,  is  now  within  Mudgala's 
reach, — the  fruit  of  his  good  deeds.  The  speaker  next,  according 
to  his  promise,  explains  the  drawbacks  of  the  heavenly  state.  As 
the  frnit  of  works  done  on  earth  is  enjoyed  in  heaven,  whilst  no 
other  new  works  are  performed  there  from  which  new  rewards 
could  spring,  this  ecjoymcut  is  cut  off  from  its  root,  and  must 
therefore  come  to  an  end.  For  this  world  is  the  place  for  works, 
while  the  other  is  the  place  for  reward.  This  loss  of  gratifications 
to  which  the  heart  has  become  devoted,  and  the  dissatisfaction  and 
pain  which  arise  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  sunk  to  a  lower 
estate,  from  beholding  the  more  brilliant  prosperity  of  others,  is 
intolerable.  To  this  must  be  added  the  consciousness  and  the 
bewilderment  of  those  who  so  descend,  and  the  fear  of  falling  which 
they  experience  when  their  garlands  begin  to  fade.  Such  are  the 
defects  which  attach  to  all  existence  till  it  is  absorbed  in  Brahma. 
But  the  state  of  those  who  have  fallen  from  heaven  is  not 
altogether  without  compensation.  As  a  result  of  their  previous 
good  deeds  they  are  born  in  a  condition  of  happiness  ;  though,  if 
they  are  not  vigilant,  they  aink  still  lower.  Having  given  this 
explanation,  the  messenger  of  the  gods  invites  Mudgala  to 
accompany  him  to  paradise.  The  saint,  however,  after  consideration, 
replies  that  he  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  a  state  of  happiness 
which  is  vitiated  by  so  great  defects,  and  the  termination  of 
which  is  followed  by  so  great  misery.  He  has  therefore  no  desire 
for  heaven  ;  and  will  seek  only  that  eternal  abode  where  there  is 
no  sorrow,  nor  distress,  nor  change.  He  then  asks  the  celestial 
messenger  what  other  sphere  there  is  which  is  free  from  all  defects. 
The  messenger  replies,  that  above  the  abode  of  Brahmi  is  the  pure 
eternal  light,  the  highest  sphere  of  Vishnu  who  is  regarded  as  the 


MUD— MUL  405 


supreme  Brahma.  Thither  noue  can  proceed  who  are  devoted  to 
objects  of  sense,  or  who  are  the  slaves  of  dishonesty,  avarice, 
anger,  delusion  or  malice  ;  but  only  the  unselfish,  the  humble, 
those  who  are  indifferent  to  pain  and  pleasure,  those  whose  senses 
are  under  restraint,  and  those  who  practice  contemplation  and  fix 
their  minds  on  the  deity.  The  sage  then  dismissed  the  messenger 
of  the  gods,  began  to  practise  ascetic  virtues,  becoming  indifferent 
to  praise  and  blame,  regarding  clouds,  stones  and  gold  as  alike. 
Pure  knowledge  led  to  fixed  contemplation  ;  and  that  again  imparted 
strength  and  complete  comprehension,  whereby  he  attained  supreme 
eternal  perfection.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  324—6. 

Mudgala — 2,  A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda  ;  3,  One  of  the  five 
sons  of  Hariyaswa,  king  of  Panchala. 

Mudita — One  of  the  five  kinds  of  Bhavana  or  meditation,  in 
which  the  Buddhist  priests  are  required  to  engage.  The  mudita 
is  the  meditation  of  joy,  but  it  is  not  the  joy  arising  from  earthly 
possessions.  It  feels  indifferent  to  individuals,  and  refers  to  all 
sentient  beings.  In  the  exercise  of  this  mode  of  meditation,  the 
priest  must  express  the  wish,  "  May  the  good  fortune  of  the 
prosperous  never  pass  away  ;  may  each  one  receive  his  own 
appointed  reward." 

Muhurtta — l,  A  measure  of  time,  thirty  Kalas,  according  to 
the  Vishnu  Purina.  Other  Puranas  say  that  a  Muhurtta  is 
twelve  kshauas,  and  that  one  kshana  contains  thirty  kalas.  The 
Bhigavata  states  that  two  Narikas  make  one  Muhurtta  ;  2,  The 
name  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha. 

Muka — A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Upasanada,  famous  in  Puranic 
legend. 

Mukhyas — A  class  of  deities  to  come  in  the  ensuing  or  eighth 
Manwantara. 

Mula — The  nineteenth  lunar  mansion,  in  Ajavithi,  of  the 
Southern  Avashth^na. 

Mulaka — The  son  of  Asmaka.  The  Vishnu  Purana  states 
that  when  the  warrior  tribe  was  extirpated  upon  earth,  he  was 
surrounded  and  concealed  by  a  number  of  females  ;  whence  he  was 


400  MUM— MUR 


denominated  Nari-kavacha  (having  women  for  armour.)  Mulaka, 
or  *  the  root'  refers  also  to  his  being  the  stem  whence  the  Kshatriya 
races  again  proceeded.     V.  P.  and  note,  p.  383. 

Mummies — The  Vishnu  Purana  states  that  the  corpse  of  Nimi 
was  preserved  from  decay  by  being  embalmed  with  fragrant  oils 
and  resins,  and  it  remained  entire  as  if  it  were  immortal.  This, 
says  Professor  Wilson,  shows  that  the  Hindus  were  not  unac- 
quainted with  the  Egyptian  art  of  embalming  dead  bodies,  though 
such  a  practice  would  be  thought  impure  in  the  present  day. 

Mundas — A  dynasty  of  kings,  consisting  of  thirteen,  who  are 
said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  be  sovereigns  of  the  earth  for 
upwards  of  two  hundred  years  ;  Wilford  regards  them  as  Huns, 
the  Morunda  of  Ptolemy.     Notes  to  Vishnu  Purdna. 

Muni — 1,  Any  great  sage  or  Rishi.  In  Southern  India  they 
are  said  to  be  forty-eight  thousand  :  they  are  supposed  to  be  holy 
persons  who  by  different  kinds  of  austerities  have  acquired  great 
gifts,  and  power  to  bless  and  curse  most  effectually.  The  accounts 
given  of  them  are  rather  contradictory  ;  they  are  said  to  need 
neither  sleep  nor  rest,  neither  food  nor  diink  ;  and  yet  that  they 
perform  severe  penance  before  God  continually  ;  2,  The  name 
of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to  Kasyapa. 

Munjakesa — A  teacher  of  the  Atharva  Veda,  and  founder  of  a 
school.  Sometimes  Munjakesa  is  regarded  as  another  name  for 
Babhra. 

Mura — A  demon  of  great  power  Avho  had  seven  thousand  sous. 
He  defended  Pragjyotisha  by  surrounding  the  environs  with 
nooses  as  sharp  as  razors,  but  Krishna  cut  them  to  pieces  by 
throwing  his  discus,  Sudarsana,  amongst  them.  He  afterwards 
slew  the  demon  and  burnt  all  his  sons,  like  moths,  with  the  flame 
of  the  edge  of  his  discus. 

Murdhabhishikta — An  anointed  Eajah.  Hindu  rajahs  were 
formerly  consecrated  by  having  water  from  a  sacred  stream  mixed 
with  honey,  ghee,  and  spirituous  liquor,  as  well  as  two  sorts  of 
grass  and  the  spirits  of  corn,  poured  on  their  heads  while  seated 
on  a  throne  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  term  applies  to  the 
Kshatriya  as  the  caste  from  which  kings  are  taken. 


MUR— MUS  4o: 


Murtti — '  Form'  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to  Dharma. 
Murundas — See  Mundas. 

Musala — A  club,  born  of  Sambu  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Yadavas.  Ugrasena  had  the  chib,  which  was  of  iron,  ground  to 
dust,  and  thrown  into  the  sea  ;  but  the  particles  of  dust  there 
became  rushes  (erakaj.  There  was  one  part  of  the  iron  club 
which  was  like  the  blade  of  a  lance,  and  which  the  Andhakas  could 
not  break  ;  this,  when  thrown  into  the  sea,  was  swallowed  by  a 
fish;  the  fish  was  caught,  the  iron  spike  was  extracted  from  its 
belly,  and  was  taken  by  a  hunter  named  Jara,  by  whom  Krishna 
was  subsequently  killed. 

Mushtika — A  demon  celebrated  as  a  great  wrestler.  At  the 
games  of  Mathura,  when  Kansa  hoped  to  destroy  Krishna,  Bala- 
bhadra  wrestled  with  Mushtika  and  at  last  killed  him. 


Nabha — A  powerful  Daaava,  the  son  of  Viprachitti  by  Sinhika, 

the  sister  of  Hiranyakasipu. 

Nabhaga-nedishta — One  of  the  sons  of  theManu  Vaivaswata  ; 
his  name  means  '  no  share,'  and  in  the  Aitareya  Brahmana  he  is 
said  to  have  been  excluded  from  all  share  of  his  inheritance  on  the 
plea  of  his  being  wholly  devoted  to  a  re]igious  life.  The  Bhagavata 
says  that  having  protracted  his  period  of  study  beyond  the  usual 
age,  his  brothers  appropriated  his  share  of  the  patrimony.  On 
his  applying  for  his  portion  they  consigned  their  father  to  him,  by 
whose  advice  he  assisted  the  descendants  of  Angiras  in  a  sacrifice, 
and  they  presented  him  with  all  the  wealth  that  was  left  at  its 
termination.  Rudra  claimed  it  as  his  ;  and  Nabhaga  acquiescing, 
the  god  confirmed  the  gift,  by  which  he  became  possessed  of  an 
equivalent  for  the  loss  of  territory. 

Nabhaga — l,  The  son  of  the  preceding  ;  he  became  a  Vaisya 
through  carrying  off  and  marrying  the  daughter  of  a  Vaisya  ;  it 
appears  from  this  that  a  race  of  Vaisya  princes  was  recognised  by 
early  traditions  ;  2,  A  son  of  Sruta,  a  descendant  of  Sagara  ;  3, 
A  son  of  Yayati. 

Nabhas,  Nabhasya — l,  A  name  of  the  months,  Sravana  and 
Bhddra,  corresponding  to  tluly  and  August,  the  names  occur  in 
the  Vedas  and  belong  to  a  system  now  obsolete  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Nala,  a  descendant  of  Kusa. 

Nabaswati — The  wife  of  Antarddhana,  a  descendant  of  Pritha. 

Nabhi — One  of  the  nine  sons  of  Agnidhra,  to  whom  the  country 
of  Himahwa  was  assigned. 

Nachiketas — A  philosopher,  the  son  of  Gautama,  mentioned 
in  the  KathaUpanishad,  of  whom  Dr.  Roer  says,  "  the  enthusiasm 
and  intimate  conviction  which  Nachiketas  shows  about  the  infinite 
superiority  of  what  is  good  to  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  and  the 


NAG  409 

firmuess  which  he  maintains  amidst  all  the  allurements  whicli  are 
placed  before  him,  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  energy  of  mind 
Avilh  which  Plato,  in  the  first  and  second  books  of  his  '  Republic,' 
shows  that  justice  has  an  incomparable  worth,  and  ought  to  be 
preserved  under  any  circumstances."*  In  an  interview  with 
Yama,  who  promised  Nachiketas  any  boon,  the  latter  requested  to 
be  instructed  in  the  nature  of  the  soul,  Yama  objected  saying,  even 
gods  have  doubted  and  disputed  on  this  subject,  for  it  is  not  easy 
to  understand  it.  But  Nachiketas  could  not  be  persuaded  to  think 
any  other  boon  worth  asking  for.f 

Naga — 1,  A  mountainous  ridge  in  the  north  of  Meru  ;  2,  A 
serpent,  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru  ;  3,  Originally  the  Cobra- 
capella,  or  Colubernaga. 

Nagadwipa — A  division  of  Bharata  Varsha. 

Nagas — The  '  Snake  gods,'  children  of  Kadru.  In  mythology 
these  beings  have  human  heads  and  the  bodies  of  serpents  :  they 
are  one  thousand  in  number  and  bear  jewels  in  their  heads.  They 
are  the  sons  of  Kasyapa  and  Kadru,  subject  to  Vishnu's  bird, 
Garuda,  and  inhabiting  part  of  Patala,  called  Naga-loka,  the 
capital  of  which  is  Bhogavati.  When  they  were  deprived  of  their 
power  by  the  Gandharbas,  they  despatched  their  sister,  Narmada, 
to  solicit  the  aid  of  Purukutsa,  and  she  conducted  him  to  the 
regions  below  the  earth  where  being  filled  with  the  might  of  the 
deity  he  destroyed  the  Gandharbas.  The  snake  gods,  in  acknow- 
ledgment of  Narmada's  services,  conferred  upon  her  as  a  blessing, 
that  whoever  should  think  of  her  and  invoke  her  name,  should 
never  have  any  dread  of  the  venom  of  snakes. 

Nagas — "  The  Saiva  Sanmjasis  who  go  naked  are  distinguished 
by  this  term.  They  smear  their  bodies  with  ashes,  allow  their 
hair,  beards,  and  whiskers  to  grow,  and  wear  the  projecting  braid 
of  hair,  called  the  Jdtd  ;  like  the  Vairdji  Ndgas,  they  carry  arms, 
and  wander  about  in  troops,  soliciting  alms,  or  levying  contribu- 
tions.    The  Saiva  Ndgas  are  chiefly  the  refuse  of  the  Dandi  aud 

*  Bibliotheca  Indica,  Vol.  XV,  p.  91. 
t  A.  and  M.  I.,  Vol.  I,  p.  136. 

52 


410  NAG— NAI  ^ 

JtU  orders,  or  men  who  have  uo  inclination  for  a  life  of  study  or 
business  :  when  weary  of  the  vagrant  and  violent  habits  of  the 
Ndffa,  they  re-enter  the  better  disposed  classes,  which  they  had 
first  quitted.  The  Saiva  Ndgas  are  very  numerous  in  many  parts 
of  India." —  Wilson. 

Nagas — The  designation  of  nine  kings  who  reigned  in  Pad- 
mavati. 

Nagavithi — l,  A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions  in  the  Northern 
Avashthana  ;  2,  The  milky  way,  daughter  of  Yarai  (night). 

Nagna — A  Jain  mendicant  ;  a  naked  ascetic. 

Nagnas — Apostates.  The  Rig,  Yajur,  and  Sama  Vedas, 
constitute  the  triple  covering  of  the  several  castes,  and  the  sinner 
who  throws  this  oif  is  said  to  be  naked  or  apostate.  The  three 
Vedas  are  the  raiment  of  all  orders  of  men,  and  when  that  is 
discarded  they  are  left  bare.  (V.  P.)  Wilson  in  his  notes,  adds, 
ascetics  whether  of  the  Buddha  or  Digambara  order  of  Jains,  are 
literally  Nagnas,  "going  naked."  The  qualified  application  of 
it,  however,  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  same  practice  being 
familiar  to  ascetics  of  the  orthodox  faith.  To  go  naked  was  not 
necessarily  the  sign  of  a  heretic,  and  therefore  his  nudity  was 
understood  to  be  rejecting  the  raiment  of  holy  writ.  Thus  the 
Vayu  Purana  extends  the  word  to  all  ascetics,  including  naked 
brahmaus,  who  practice  austerities  fruitlessly,  that  is  heretically 
or  hypocritically. 

Nagnajiti — One  of  the  wives  of  Krishna,  termed  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana  the  virtuous  Nagnajiti. 

Nahusha  — 1,  The  son  of  Ambarisha  ;  2,  The  eldest  of  the  five 
sons  of  Ayus,  who  having  attained  the  rank  of  Indra,  compelled 
the  Rishis  to  bear  his  litter,  and  was  cursed  by  them  to  fall  from 
his  state  and  re-appear  upon  earth  as  a  serpent.  From  this  form 
he  was  set  free  by  philosophical  discussions  with  Yudhishtira,  and 
received  final  liberation  ;  3,  The  name  of  one  of  the  progeny  of 
Ivadru,  a  powerful  many-headed  serpent. 

Naigama — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  a  pupil  of  Sakapurni. 

Naigameya— One  of  the  sons  of  Kumara. 


NAI— NAK  411 

Naikaprishtas— An  aboriginal  tribe  mentioned  in  the  Purauas, 
so  termed  probably  in  derision  ;  it  means  having  more  than  one  back. 

Naishadha— A  tract  of  country  near  the  Vindhya  mountains. 

Nakhis — Religious  mendicants  who  practice  various  austerities, 
never  cut  their  finger  nails,  and  wear  the  Saivn  marks. 

Nakshatra-Yoginis — The  cliief  stars  of  the  lunar  mansions,  or 
asterisms  in  the  moon's  path  :  these  are  fabled  to  have  been  the 
twenty-seven  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  became  the  virtuous  wives 
of  the  moon. 

There  are  twenty-seven  divisions  of  the  lunar  orbit ;  each 
marking  the  motion  of  the  moon  in  one  lunar  day.  Such  is  their 
simple  reference,  astronomically  ;  but  the  Hindu  astrologers  make 
them  of  great  practical  consequence,  from  their  assumed  good  or 
evil  influence.  They  reckon  from  the  first  degree  of  Aries,  in  the 
old  Astronomy. 

1.  Asvini,  the  ram's  head good. 

2.  Bharini bad. 

3.  Critica,  Pleiades very  bad. 

4.  Kohini,  hyades good. 

5.  Mrigasiras,  a  triple  star good. 

6.  Ardra,  one  star bad. 

7.  Punar  vasu,  four  stars.., good. 

8.  Pushya,  nebula  in  Cancer good. 

9.  Aslesha,  five  stars bad. 

10.  Magha,  cor  leonis good. 

11.  Purvap'halguui,  two  stars medium. 

12.  Uttara  P'halguni,  two  stars medium. 

13.  Hasta,  five  stars good. 

1 4.  Chitra,  one  star bad. 

15.  Swati,  one  star good. 

16.  Visaka,  four  stars bad. 

17.  Anuradha,  four  stars good. 

18.  Jyeshta,  three  stars bad. 

19.  Mula,  eleven  stars,  cor  scorpionis very  bad. 

20.  Purvashadha,  four  stars medium. 

21.  Uttara  shadha,  three  stars good. 


412  NAK— NAL 


22.  Sravaua,  three  stars good. 

23.  Dhanishta,  four  stars bad. 

24.  Satabhisha,  a  hundred  stars bad. 

25.  Purva  bhadrapada,  two  stars medium. 

26.  Uttara  bhadrapada,  two  stars medium. 

27.  Revati,  thirty-two  stars good. 

These  influences  refer  principally  to  marriages.  The  Nakshatras 
are  classified  as  deva,  divine ;  7naniishi/a,humaii ;  rakshasa^  savage ; 
if  the  two  parties  to  be  married  are  born  in  the  same  class,  it  is 
■well :  if  one  asterism  be  divine,  the  other  human,  it  may  pass  ;  but 
divine  and  savage  is  a  cross  that  may  not  be  permitted. 

An  intercalary  abliijit,  one-fourth  of  a  Naksliatra,  is  sometimes 
introduced  between  21  and  22  for  astrological  purposes,  or  to 
make  up  a  complete  cycle  of  the  moon's  motion. —  Taylor, 

Nakta — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prithu,  who  reigned  over  one  of 
the  divisions  of  Bliaratavarsha  in  the  first  or  Swayambhuva 
Manwantara . 


Nakula— One  of  the  sons  of  Pandu  by  his  wife  Madri,  though 
really  begotten  by  the  elder  of  the  two  Asvinan  (see  Pandu). 
He  is  half-brother  to  Sahadeva,  the  son  of  Dasra,  by  the  same 
mother,  and  nominally  brother  to  the  three  other  Pandavas,  He 
is  always  referred  to  as  one  of  the  wisest  of  mortals. 

Nala — The  king  of  Nishada,  whose  history  forms  part  of  the 
third  book  of  the  Mahabharata  and  is  called  the  Nalopakhyanam. 
Nala  possessed  all  the  noble  qualities  and  acquirements  that  could 
distinguish  an  Indian  monarch.  The  king  of  Berar  had  an  only 
daughter,  the  most  beautiful  and  accomplished  of  her  sex — the 
gentle  Damayauti.  Nala  and  Damayanti  became  mutually 
enamoured  of  each  other  from  the  mere  fame  of  each  other's 
virtues.  Damayanti  preferred  Nala  to  Indra,  Sani,  and  two  other 
demi-gods  who  became  incarnate  for  the  purpose  of  attending  the 
Swayainvara  of  the  princess.  Incensed  at  Damayanti's  refusal  to 
marry  him,  Sani,  a  malevolent  being,  persecuted  the  royal  couple 
with  great  hatred,  and  caused  Nala  to  lose  his  kingdom  by 
gambling,  and  to  be  banished  to  the  wilderness  ;  and  as  his  faithful 


NAL— NAM  413 


cousort  could  not  be  persuaded  to  return  to  lier  father,  he  took  her 
with  him  into  the  forest  ;  but  not  being  willing  to  cause  her  so 
much  suffering  as  a  life  in  the  woods  involves,  he  resolved  to  leave 
her  alone  when  she  Avas  sleeping  under  a  tree,  thinking  she  would 
then  return  to  her  father's  house.  But  this  she  did  not  do  ; 
lamenting,  she  sought  her  husband,  and  when  she  could  not  find 
him  she  went  to  a  certain  king  and  became  maid  of  honour  to  the 
queen  ;  whilst  Nala  wandered  about  and  became  so  black  he  could 
no  longer  be  recognised  as  king  Nala.  Finally  he  became  cook  to 
the  king  at  whose  court  Damayanti  lived  ;  and  was  such  a  skilful 
cook  that  his  skill  in  cooking  has  become  a  proverb  ;  and  after  all 
he  was  recognised  hy  his  faithful  spouse  as  king  N'ala  ;  and  having 
soon  recovered  his  former  pleasing  appearance  he  also  regained  his 
throne.  See  Damayanti  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  prince,  the  sou  of 
Yadu  ;  3,  The  name  of  a  river  that  falls  into  the  Gauges. 

Nalakanakas — A  people  mentioned  in  the  Puranic  lists  but 
not  identified. 

Nalini — The  name  of  one  of  the  five  streams  formed  by  the 
Gauges  after  it  escaped  from  Siva. 

Nama — Literally  name  :  the  term  applied  to  the  tridental  mark 
which  the  Vaishnavas  wear  on  their  forehead,  the  mark,  or  figure, 
is  called  Tirunama,  '  holy  name'  it  is  an  imitation  of  Vishnu's 
trident  almost  like  the  Hebrew  character  shin.  It  consists  of 
two  white  lines,  extending  from  the  hair  to  the  eyebrows,  and  then 
leading  to  the  nose  where  they  meet,  and  a  red  perpendicular  line 
between  them  fi-om  the  nose  to  the  hair. 

Namasivaya — The  principal  Mantra  of  the  Saivas,  called 
Panchakshara  five  characters,  and  means  '  O  Sivn,  be  praised  :' 
or  '  Adoration  to  Siva.' 

Namuchi — A  powerful  Danava,  one  of  the  sons  of  Viprachitti. 
This  Asura  was  a  friend  of  India  ;  and  taking  advantage  of  his 
friend's  confidence,  he  drank  up  ludra's  strength  along  with  a 
draught  of  wine  and  soma.  Indra  then  told  the  Asvins  and 
Sarasvati  that  Namuchi  had  drunk  up  his  strength.  The  Asvins 
and  Sarasvati,   in  consequence  gave   Indra  a  thunderbolt  in  the 


414  NAN 


form  of  a  foam,  Avitli  which  he  smote  off  the  head  of  Namuchi. 
The  Asvins  then  drauk  the  soma  mixed  with  blood  and  wiue, 
from  the  belly  of  Namuchi  aud  transferred  it  pure  to  ludra  ;  and 
by  transferring  it  they  delivered  Indra.     O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  94. 

Nanda — l,  The  chief  of  the  cowherds,  and  brother  of  Radha. 
He  was  the  foster  father  of  Krishna,  as  it  was  to  his  care  the 
infant  Krishiia  was  committed  when  Kausa  sought  to  destroy 
the  child  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva  ;  3,  The  sou  of 
Mahananda,  and  sometimes  called  Mahapadma,  because  ho  was 
avaricious.  He  brought  the  whole  earth  under  one  umbrella,  and 
had  eight  sons,  or  descendants  rather,  according  to  Professor 
Wilson,  Avho  governed  for  a  hundred  years  ;  when  the  brahmau 
Kautilya  overthrew  the  dynasty  and  placed  Chandragupta  on  the 
throne.     The  Mudra  Rakshasa  illustrates  this  affair. 

Nandana — The  grove  of  Indra,  situated  to  the  north  of  Mount 
Meru. 

Nandayania— A  pupil  of  Bdshkali  and  teacher  of  the  Rig 
Veda. 

Nandi — The  snow  white  bull,  the  attendant  and  favourite 
vehicle  of  Siva.  It  is  represented  on  a  pedestal  crouching  in 
front  of  Saiva  fanes  ;  the  head  turned  toAvards  the  small  door  of 
the  shrine.  On  one  occasion  Nandi,  by  assuming  the  likeness  of 
Siva,  caused  a  blush  on  the  cheeks  of  Parvati,  and  for  this  offence, 
Siva  sent  his  vehicle  down  to  earth  to  do  penance  ;  hence  the 
mountain  Nandi-durga — (Nandidroog.)  Another  mission  to  earth 
was  in  the  person  of  the  elder  Basava. 

Nandi — '  Delight,'  the  wife  of  Dharma  and  mother  of  Hersha 

(joy.) 

Nandimukhas — A  class  of  Pitris  :  there  seems  to  be  some 
uncertainty  about  the  character  of  the  Nandimukhas  ;  and  they 
are  addressed  both  as  Pitris  and  gods  ;  being  in  the  former  case 
either  the  ancestors  prior  to  the  great  grand-father,  ancestors 
collectively,  or  a  certain  class  of  them  ;  and  in  the  latter  being 
identified  with  the  Viswadevas.  The  term  Nandimukha  is  also 
applied   to  the  rite  itself,   or  to  the  Vriddhi  Srddda,   and   to  cue 


]^AN— NAR  415 


addressed  to  maternal  ancestors.  See  Wilson's  Notes  to  Vishnu 
Purana,  p.  315. 

Nandivardhana— 1,  The  sou  of  Urdavasu,  king  of  Mithila  ; 
2,  The  sou  of  Jauaka,  king  of  Magadha  ;  The  sou  of  Udayaswa, 
king  of  Magadha. 

Nara — Paramatma  :  the  waters  it  is  said  were  the  progeny  of 
Nara  ;  that  is  they  were  the  first  productions  of  God  in  creation. 

Nara — l,  A  pious  sage,  the  sou  of  Dharma  by  Murtti  ;  2,  A 
prince,  the  son  of  Gaya  ;  3,  A  prince,  the  sou  of  Sudhriti  ;  4, 
One  of  the  sous  of  Bhavanmanyas  of  the  royal  family  of  Bharata. 

Nara — '  Bodily  forms'  in  which  spirit  is  enshrined  ;  and  of 
which  the  waters,  with  Vishnu  resting  upon  them,  are  a  type. 
Waters,  the  first  product  of  Nara.     Vishnu  Purana,  p.  28. 

Narada — A  Prajapati  or  divine  Rishi,  born  from  the  hip  of 
Brahmd  ;  the  invention  of  the  vena,  or  Indian  lyre,  is  attributed 
to  Narada  ;  also  a  code  of  laws,  and  one  of  the  eighteen  Puranas 
entitled  Naradiya  Purana.  In  the  Brahma  Purina  he  is  called 
the  smooth-speakiug  ISTarada,  and  his  likeness  to  Orpheus  is  carried 
still  further  by  a  descent  which  he  made  from  heaven  to  visit 
Patala,  the  nether  regions.  In  Manu  and  in  the  Vishnu  Purana 
he  is  called  a  Prajapati,  in  the  Mahabharata  he  is  one  of  the 
Gandharbhas.  It  was  he  who  dissuaded  the  sous  of  Daksha  from 
multiplying  their  race  ;  they  accordingly  scattered  themselves 
through  the  regions  of  the  universe  to  ascertain  its  extent,  &c., 
and  the  patriarch  Daksha  finding  that  all  his  sons  had  vanished 
was  incensed  and  denounced  an  imprecation  on  Narada.  It  was 
Narada  who  informed  Kansa  that  the  supporter  of  the  earth 
Vishnu,  was  going  to  become  incarnate  as  the  eighth  child  of 
Devaki.  When  Narada  visited  Krishna  he  presented  him  with 
the  flower  Parijata  from  the  world  of  the  gods.  Krishna  gave  it 
to  Rukmiui,  which  so  excited  the  jealousy  of  one  of  his  favourite 
mistresses  Satyabhama,  that  in  order  to  appease  her,  Krishna  went 
to  the  heaven  of  the  gods  and  brought  away  the  tree  itself  that 
bore  the  flower.  In  mythology  Narada  is  often  described  as 
bearing  a  resemblance  to  Hermes  or  Mercury,   being  engaged  in 


416  '  NAR 

conveying  messages  and  causing  discord  among  the  gods  and  men. 
He  is  usually  represented  as  sitting  in  a  fire,  having  his  hands 
folded  over  his  head,  and  stretching  his  legs  also  towards  his 
head,  his  arms  and  legs  beiog  tied  together  with  a  girdle. 

Narada  Purana — This  Purana  is  related  by  Narada  and  gives 
an  account  of  the  Vrihas  Kalpa.  It  is  communicated  to  theRishis 
at  Naimisharanya,  on  the  Gamati  river.  Professor  Wilson  regards 
it  as  a  sectarial  and  modern  compilation  intended  to  support  the 
doctrine  of  Bhakti,  or  faith  in  Vishnu.  It  contains  a  number  of 
prayers  addressed  to  one  or  other  form  of  that  divinity  ;  a  variety 
of  observances  and  holidays  connected  with  his  adoration  ;  and 
different  legends,  some  perhaps  of  an  early,  others  of  a  more  recent 
date,  illustrative  of  the  efficacy  of  devotion  to  Hari.  There  are 
the  stories  of  Dhruva  and  Prahlada,  the  latter  told  in  the  words  of 
the  Vishnu  Parana  ;  whilst  the  second  portion  of  it  is  occupied 
with  a  legend  of  Mohini,  the  will-born  daughter  of  a  king  called 
Rukmangada  ;  beguiled  by  whom  the  king  offers  to  perform  for 
her  whatever  she  may  desire.  She  calls  upon  him  either  to  violate 
the  rule  of  fasting  on  the  eleventh  day  of  the  fortnight,  a  day 
sacred  to  Vishnu,  or  to  put  his  son  to  death  ;  and  he  kills  his  son, 
as  the  lesser  sin  of  the  two.  This  shews  the  spirit  of  the  work. 
Its  date  may  also  be  inferred  from  its  tenor,  as  such  monstrous 
extravagancies  in  praise  of  Bhakti  are  certainly  of  modern  origin. 
One  limit  it  furnishes  itself^  for  it  refers  to  Suka  and  Parikshit, 
the  interlocutors  of  the  Bhagavata,  and  it  is  consequently 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  that  Purana :  it  is  probably  considerably 
later,  for  it  affords  evidence  that  it  was  written  after  India  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  In  the  concluding  passage  it  is 
said,  "Let  not  this  Purana  be  repeated  in  the  presence  of  the 
*  killers  of  cows'  and  contemners  of  the  gods."  It  is  possibly  a 
compilation  of  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  century.  Vishnu 
Purana.  Preface. 

Naraka — Hell  ;  of  which  twenty-eight  different  divisions  are 
enumerated,  said  to  be  situated  beneath  the  earth,  below  Patala 
and  to  be  terrific  regions  of  darkness,  of  deep  gloom,  of  fear,  and 
of  great  terror.     In  the  Vishnu   Purana,  Vol.  II,   c.  6.  they   are 


NAR  417 

particularly  described,  witli  the  crimes  punished  in  them  respec- 
tively. The  gods  iu  heaveu  are  beheld  by  the  inhabitants  of  hell  aa 
they  move  with  their  heads  inverted  ;  whilst  the  gods,  as  they  cast 
their  eyes  downwards,  behold  the  sufferings  of  those  in  hell  ;  the 
commentator  observes  that  the  sight  of  heavenly  bliss  is  given  to 
the  lost  to  exacerbate  their  sufferings  ;  whilst  the  inflictions  of  hell 
are  exhibited  to  the  gods,  to  teach  them  disregard  of  even  heavenly 
enjoyments,  as  they  are  but  of  temporary  duration.  Heaven  is  that 
which  delights  the  mind  ;  hell  is  that  which  gives  it  pain  ;  hence 
vice  is  called  hell  ;   virtue  is  called  heaven.     V.  P. 

Naraka  — 1,  A  son  of  Aurita  (falsehood)  and  Nikriti 
(immorality)  ;  2,  A  Danava,  one  of  the  sons  of  Viprachitti  ;  3,  A 
son  of  the  Earth  who  ruled  over  the  city  of  Prdgjyotisha.  Indra 
went  to  Dw^raka  and  reported  to  Krishna  the  tyranny  of  Naraka* 
Having  heard  this  account,  the  divine  Hari,  mounting  Garuda, 
flew  to  Pragjyotisha  ;  there  a  fierce  conflict  took  place  with  the 
troops  of  Naraka,  in  which  Govinda  destroyed  thousands  of 
demons  ;  and  when  Naraka  came  into  the  field,  showering  upon 
the  deity  all  sorts  of  weapons,  the  wiekler  of  the  discus  cut  him  in 
two  with  his  celestial  missile.  Naraka  being  slain,  Earth  bearing 
the  two  earrings  of  Aditi,  approached  the  lord  of  the  world  and 
said,  "  When  I  was  upheld  by  thee  in  the  form  of  a  boar,  thy  contact 
then  engendered  this  my  son.  He  whom  thou  gavest  me  has  now 
been  killed  by  thee  ;  take  therefore  these  two  earrings  and 
cherish  his  progeny.  Forgive  the  sins  which  Naraka  has 
committed."  Krishna  then  proceeded  to  redeem  the  various  gems 
from  the  dwelling  of  Naraka.  In  the  apartments  of  the  women 
he  found  sixteen  thousand  and  one  hundred  damsels,  who  became 
Krishna's  wives  ;  in  the  palace  w^ere  six  thousand  large  elephants 
each  having  four  tasks  ;  twenty-one  lakhs  of  horses  of  Kamboja 
and  other  excellent  breeds  ;  these  Govinda  dispatched  to  Dwaraka, 
in  charge  of  the  servants  of  Naraka.  The  umbrella  of  Varuua,  the 
jewel  mountain  which  he  also  recovered,  he  placed  upon  Garuda  ; 
and  mounting  himself,  and  talcing  Satyabhama  with  him,  he  set  off 
to  the  heaven  of  the  gods  to  restore  the  earrings  of  Aditi.     V.  P. 

Narantaka — One  of  the  sons  of  the  giant  Ruvana  who  was 
killed  at  t)ic  scigc  of  Lanka. 


418  NAK 


Naras — '  Centaurs,'  or  beings  with  the  limbs  of  horses  and 
human  bodies,  created  by  Brahma  along  with  Kinnaras,  Eakshasas, 
&c.     V.  P.,  p.  42. 

Narasinha  Avatara  —The  fourth  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  in  the 
form  of  a  man-lion  {nara  a  man,  and  Siiiha  a  lion.)  One  of  the 
two  doorkeepers  of  Vishnu's  paradise,  (see  Varaha)  came  down  to 
earth  as  a  monarch,  named  Hiranyakasipu.  He  was  cruel, 
tyrannical,  unjust  ;  particularly  so  towards  his  son  named 
Prahlada.  But  he  had  obtained  from  Bramha,  by  severe  penance, 
the  boon  that  he  should  not  be  slain  by  any  created  being  ; 
in  consequence  of  which  he  became  very  proud,  and  required  all 
persons  to  honor  him  by  saying.  "  Om  Hiranya"  (Adoration  to 
Hirauya)  ;  and  those  who  would  not  say  so  he  ordered  to  be 
punished.  His  son  PrahUda,  who  was  a  devout  worshipper  of 
Vishnu,  would  not  obey  his  father's  order,  but  continued  to  say 
*'  Om  namah"  (meaning  by  Om  Vishnu).  Hiranya  remonstrated 
with  him  because  of  this,  but  in  vain.  Then  he  attempted  to 
punish  and  kill  him,  but  in  vain  :  Prahlada  was  struck  heavily  but 
did  not  feel  the  strokes  ;  he  was  cast  into  the  fire,  but  was  not 
burnt  ;  he  was  trampled  on  by  elephants,  but  continuing  to  think 
of  Vishnu  he  was  not  hurt :  he  was  thrown  fettered  into  the  sea, 
but  a  fish  carried  him  safely  to  shore.  At  last,  when  Prahlada  did 
not  cease  praising  Vishnu,  and  asserted  that  he  was  everywhere 
and  in  everything,  Hiranya  retorted.  "  If  so  why  dost  thou  not 
show  him  unto  me  ?"  Upon  this  Prahlada  rose  and  struck  a 
column  of  the  hall  in  which  they  were  assembled  ;  and  behold, 
there  issued  from  it  Vishnu,  in  a  form  which  was  half-man  and 
half-lion,  and  tore  Hiranya  to  pieces.     V.  P. 

Narayana — l,  A  name  of  Vishnu,  meaning  *he  whose  place 
of  abiding  was  the  deep.'  The  waters  are  called  Nara,  because 
they  were  the  offspring  of  Nara  (the  supreme  spirit)  ;  and  as  in 
them  his  first  ( Ayana)  progress  (in  the  character  of  Brahma)  took 
place,  he  is  thence  named  Narayana  ;  2,  A  sage,  the  son  of 
Dharma  by  Murtti  ;  3,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Bhumimitra,  of  the 
Kanwa  dynasty. 

Narishyanta — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Vaivaswata  ; 
2,  The  son  of  Murufta,  the  fourteenth  of  the  posterity  ofDishta. 


NAR— NID  419 


Narika — A  measure  of  time,  fifteen  Laghus. 
Narikavacha— A  name  of  Mulaka,  q.  V. 

Narmada — The  river  Narbadda,  the  Namadus  of  Ptolemy.  It 
rises  in  the  Viudhya,  or  in  the  Riksha  mountains,  taking  its  origin 
in  Gondwaua.  Mythologically  the  personified  Narmada  was  the 
sister  of  the  Nagas,  and  had  a  son  named  Trasadasya. 

Narttaka — A  dancer,  who  also  performs  extraordinary  feats 
of  strength  and  agility. 

Nata — An  actor  ;  in  popular  acceptation  it  comprehends 
jugglers,  buflfoons,  and  persons  practising  sleight  of  hand,  and 
exhibiting  feats  of  agility. —  Wihon, 

Navala— The  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Vairaja,  and  wife  of 
theManu  Chakshusha. 

Navaratha — A  prince,  the  son  of  Bhimaratha. 

Naya — (Polity)  a  son  of  Dharma  by  Kriya. 

Nedishta — One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Vaivaswata. 

Nichakra— A  prince,  the  son  of  Asima  Krishna,  who  when 
Hastinipura  w^as  washed  away  by  the  Ganges,  removed  the  capital 
to  Kausambi. 

Nidagha — A  son  of  Pulastya  and  disciple  of  Ribhu  ;  to  him 
Ribhu  willingly  communicated  perfect  knowledge.  The  residence 
of  Pulastya  was  at  Viranagara,  on  the  banks  of  the  Devika  river. 
"In  a  beautiful  grove  adjoining  to  the  stream,  the  pupil  of  Ribhu, 
Nidagha,  conversant  with  devotional  practices,  abode.  When  a 
thousand  divine  years  had  elapsed,  Ribhu  went  to  the  city  of 
Pulastya,  to  visit  his  disciple.  Standing  at  the  doorway,  at  the 
end  of  a  sacrifice  to  the  Viswadevas,  he  was  seen  by  his  scholar, 
who  hastened  to  present  him  the  usual  offering,  or  Arghya,  and 
conducted  him  into  the  house  ;  and  when  his  hands  and  feet  were 
washed,  and  he  was  seated,  Nidagha  invited  him  respectfully  to 
eat,  (when  the  following  dialogue  ensued)  : — 

"  Ribhu.  *  Tell  me,  illustrious  Brahman,  what  food  there  is  in 
in  your  house  5  for  I  am  not  fond  of  indifferent  vtands.' 


420  ^         NID 

"  Niddgha.  '  There  are  cakes  of  meal,  rice,  barley,  and  pulse 
in  the  house  ;  partake,  venerable  sir,  of  whichever  best  pleases  you.' 

*'  Bibhu.  '  None  of  these  do  I  like  ;  give  me  rice  boiled  with 
sugar,  wheaten  cakes,  and  milk  with  curds  and  molasses.' 

"  Niddgha.  '  Ho  dame,  be  quick,  and  prepare  whatever  is 
most  delicate  and  sweet  in  the  house,  to  feed  our  guest.' 

"  Having  thus  spoken,  the  wife  of  Nidagha,  in  obedience  to  her 
husband's  commands,  prepared  sweet  and  savoury  food,  and  set  it 
before  the  Brahman  ;  and  Nidagha,  having  stood  before  him  until 
he  had  eaten  of  the  meal  which  he  had  desired,  thus  reverentially 
addressed  him  : — 

"  Jjfiddgha.  Have  you  eaten  sufficiently,  and  with  pleasure, 
great  Brahman  ?  and  has  your  mind  received  contentment  from 
your  food  ?  Where  is  your  present  residence  ?  Whither  do  you 
purpose  going  ?  and  whence,  holy  sir,  have  you  now  come  ? 

"  Ribhu.  '  A  hungry  man.  Brahman,  must  needs  be  satisfied 
when  he  has  finished  his  meal.  Why  should  you  inquire  if  my 
huuo-er  has  been  appeased  ?  When  the  earthly  element  is  parched 
by  fire,  then  hunger  is  engendered  :  and  thirst  is  produced  when 
the  moisture  of  the  body  has  been  absorbed  (by  internal  or 
digestive  heat.)  Hunger  and  thirst  are  the  functions  of  the  body, 
and  satisfaction  must  always  be  afforded  me  by  that  by  which  they 
are  removed  ;  for  when  hunger  is  no  longer  sensible,  pleasure  and 
contentment  of  mind  are  faculties  of  the  intellect :  ask  their  condi- 
tion of  the  mind  then,  for  man  is  not  affected  by  them.  For  your 
three  other  questions.  Where  I  dv/ell  ?  Whither  I  go  ?  and  whence 
I  come  ?  hear  this  reply.  Man,  (the  soul  of  man)  goes  every- 
where, and  penetrates  ever3^where,  like  the  ether  ;  and  is  it 
rational  to  inquire  where  it  is  ?  or  whence  or  whither  thou  goest  ? 
I  neither  am  going  nor  coming,  nor  is  my  dwelling  in  any  one 
jDlace  ;  nor  art  thou,  thou  ;  nor  are  others,  others  ;  nor  am 
I,  I.  If  you  wonder  what  reply  I  should  make  to  your  inquiry 
why  I  made  any  distinction  between  sweetened  and  unsweetened 
food,  you  shall  hear  my  explanation.  What  is  there  that  is 
really  sweet  or  not  sweet  to  one  eatijig  a  meal  ?  That  which 
Is    sweet,    is    no     longer    so     when    it    occasions   the     sense    of 


NID— NIL  421 


repletion  ;  aud  that  Avhicli  is  not  swoot,  becomes  sweet  when  a 
man  (being  very  hungry)  fancies  that  it  is  so.  What  food  is  there 
that  first,  middle,  and  hist  is  equally  grateful.  As  a  house  built 
of  clay  is  strengthened  by  fresh  plaster,  so  is  this  earthly  body 
supported  by  earthly  particles  ;  and  barley,  wheat,  pulse,  butter, 
oil,  milk,  curd?,  treacle,  fruits,  and  the  like,  are  composed  of  atoms 
of  earth.  This  therefore  is  to  be  understood  by  you,  that  the 
mind  which  properly  judges  of  what  is  or  is  not  sweet  is  impressed 
with  the  notion  of  identity,  and  that  this  etTect  of  identity  tends  to 
liberation,' 

"  Having  heard  these  words,  conveying  the  substance  of  ultimate 
truth,  Nidagha  fell  at  the  feet  of  his  visitor,  and  said,  '  Shew 
favour  unto  me,  illustrious  Brahman,  and  tell  me  who  it  is  that 
for  my  good  has  come  hither,  and  by  whose  words  the  infatuation 
of  my  mind  is  dissipated.'  To  thi?,  Ribhu  answered,  *  I  am  Ribhu, 
your  preceptor,  come  hither  to  communicate  to  you  true  wisdom  ; 
aud  having  declared  to  you  what  that  is,  I  shall  depart.  Know 
this  whole  universe  to  be  the  one  undivided  nature  of  the  supreme 
spirit,  entitled  Vasudeva.'  Thus  having  spoken,  and  receiving  the 
prostrate  homage  of  Nidagha,  rendered  with  fervent  faith,  Ribhu 
went  his  way."     V.  P.,  p.  53-55. 

Nidra — Sleep  ;  a  form  of  Brahma.  In  the  Uttara  Khauda  of 
the  Padma  Puraua,  Nidra  is  entered  as  one  of  the  products  of 
the  churning  of  the  ocean. 

Nighna— The  son  of  Anamitra,  and  father  of  Satrajit,  to  whom 
the  divine  Aditya,  the  sun,  presented  the  Syamautaka  gem. 

Nikriti— (Immorality.)     A  daughter  of  Adharma  (vice.) 
Nikumbha — A  prince,  the  son  of  Haryyasva. 

Nila— Blue.  1,  A  range  of  mountains  in  Orissa  ;  2,  A  central 
range  to  the  north  of  Meru,  running  east  and  west  ;  3,  A  sou  of 
Yadu  ;  4,  A  son  of  Ajamidha. 

Nilalohita — A  name  of  Rudra,  from  the  Vaishnava  Puiinas, 
which  give  only  one  original  form,  instead  of  eight  as  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana,  and  to  which  the  name  of  Nilalohita,  the  blue  and  red  or 
purple  complexioned,  is  as^siornrd. 


422  NIL— NIM 


Nilini — The  wife  of  Ajamidha. 

Nimisha — A  measure  of  time — -a  twinkle  of  the  eye — a  second  ; 
according  to  the  Bhagavata,  three  Lavas. 

Nimi — One  of  the  three  distinguished  sous  of  Ikshvaku.  He 
instituted  a  sacrifice  that  was  to  endure  a  thousand  years,  and 
applied  to  Vasishtha  to  offer  the  oblations.  Vasishtha  in  answer 
said,  that  he  had  been  pre-engaged  by  Indra  for  five  hundred 
years,  but  that  if  the  Raja  would  wait  for  some  time,  he  would 
come  and  officiate  as  superintending  priest.  The  king  made  no 
answer,  and  Vasishtha  went  away,  supposing  that  he  had  assented. 
When  the  sage  had  completed  the  performance  of  the  ceremonies 
he  had  conducted  for  Indra,  he  returned  with  all  speed  to  Nimi, 
purposing  to  render  him  the  like  office.  When  he  arrived, 
however,  and  found  that  Nimi  had  retained  Gautama  and  other 
priests  to  minister  at  his  sacrifice,  he  was  much  displeased  and 
pronounced  upon  the  king,  who  was  theu  asleep,  a  curse  to  this 
effect,  that  since  he  had  not  intimated  his  intention,  but  transferred 
to  Gautama  the  duty  he  had  first  entrusted  to  himself,  Vasishtha, 
Kimi  should  thenceforth  cease  to  exist  in  a  corporeal  form.  When 
Nimi  woke,  and  knew  what  had  happened,  he  in  return  denounced 
as  an  imprecation  upon  his  unjust  preceptor,  that  he  also  should 
lose  his  bodily  existence,  as  the  punishment  of  uttering  a  curse 
upon  him  without  previously  communicating  with  him.  Nimi 
then  abandoned  his  bodily  condition.  The  spirit  of  Vasishtha  also 
leaving  his  body,  was  united  with  the  spirits  of  Mitra  and  Varuna 
for  a  season,  until,  through  their  passion  for  the  nymph  Urvasi, 
the  sage  was  born  again  in  a  different  shape.  The  corpse  of  Nimi 
was  preserved  from  decay  by  being  embalmed  with  fragrant  oils 
and  resins,  and  it  remained  as  entire  as  if  it  were  immortal.  When 
the  sacrifice  was  concluded,  the  priests  applied  to  the  gods,  who 
had  come  to  receive  their  portions,  that  they  would  confer  a  blessing 
upon  the  author  of  the  sacrifice.  The  gods  were  willing  to  restore 
him  to  bodily  life,  but  Nimi  declined  its  acceptance,  saying,  "  O 
deities,  who  are  the  alleviators  of  all  worldly  suffering,  there  is  not 
in  the  world  a  deeper  cause  of  distress  than  the  separation  of  soul 
and  body  :  it  is  therefore  mv  wish  to  dwell  in   the  eyes  of  all 


NIP— NIR  423 


beings,  but  never  more  to  resume  a  corporeal  shape  !"  To  this 
desire  the  gods  assented,  and  Nimi  was  placed  by  them  in  the  eyes 
of  all  living  creatures  ;  in  consequence  of  which  their  eyelids  are 
ever  opening  and  shutting.     V.  P. 

Nipa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Para,  a  descendant  of  Hastin. 

Niramitra — 1,  One  of  the  Pandavas,  the  son  of  Nakula  ;  2, 
The  son  of  Khandapaui  ;  3,  The  sou  of  Ayutayus. 

Nirmalas — One  of  the  divisions  of  the  Sjkiis  who  profess 
to  dedicate  themselves  exclusively  to  a  religious  life.  They 
lead  a  life  of  celibacy,  and  disregard  their  personal  appearance, 
often  going  nearly  naked.  They  do  not  assemble  together  in 
colleges,  nor  do  they  observe  any  particular  form  of  Divine  service, 
but  confine  their  devotion  to  speculative  meditation  on  the  perusal 
of  the  writings  of  Nanak,  Kabir,  and  other  unitarian  teachers. 
They  are  always  solitary,  supported  by  their  disciples,  or  wealthy 
persons  who  may  happen  to  favour  the  sect.  The  Nirmalas  are 
known  as  able  expounders  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  in  which 
Brahmans  do  not  disdain  to.  accept  of  their  instructions.  They 
are  not  a  very  numerous  body  on  the  whole  ;  but  a  few  are  almost 
always  to  be  found  at  the  principal  seats  of  Hindu  wealth,  and 
particularly  at  Benares. —  Wilsoii's  fVorhs,  Vol.  I. 

Nirmanaratis — A  class  of  deities  who  belong  to  the  eleventh 
Manwantara. 

Nirrita — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  according  to  the  Vayu  list. 

Nirukta — An  Anga  of  the  Vedas,  containing  a  glossarial 
comment. 

Niruktakrit— The  name  of  the  pupil  to  whom  Sakapurni 
gave  his  glossary  (Nirukta)  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Niruta — A  giant ;  a  regent  or  guardian  of  the  south-west  point 
of  the  world.  He  is  represented  as  of  a  green  colour,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  raised  to  the  dignity  he  enjoys  in  consequence  of  his 
severe  penance.  On  his  head  he  wears  a  crown,  and  on  his 
forehead  Siva's  sign  of  sacred  ashes.  Of  his  four  hands  one  is 
empty,  and  in  the  other  three  he  holds  respectively  a  banner  with 
the  sign  of  a  fish,  a  ring,  and  a  wine  jug  :  his  vehicle  is  a  crocodile 


424  NIR 

Nirvritti — A  prince,  the  son  of  Vri&lmi,  a  descendant  of 
Jyamagha. 

Nirwana — The  blowing  out.  Extinction,  The  eummum- 
bonum  of  Buddhism.  It  was  long  thought  that  Nirwana  simply 
meant  final  beatitude,  the  emancipation  of  the  soul  from  the  body  : 
its  exemption  from  further  transmigration,  and  re-union  with  the 
deity.  Some  still  maintain  this  view,  and  regard  Nirwana  as 
synonymous  with  Moksha  ;  the  absorption  of  the  individual  soul 
into  the  divine  essence  ;  which  the  Hindus  represent  as  the 
highest  goal  of  their  religion  and  philosophy.  But  it  has  been 
shown  by  Mr.  Speuce  Hardy,  Mr.  Max  Miiller,  and  other  high 
authorities,  that  Nirwdua  means  utter  annihilation,  or  the 
destruction  of  all  elements  which  constitute  existence.  There  are 
four  paths,  an  entrance  into  any  of  which  secures  either 
immediately,  or  more  remotely,  the  attainment  of  Nirwana.  They 
are  ;  (1,)  Sowdn,  which  is  divided  into  twenty-four  sections,  and 
after  it  has  been  entered  there  can  be  only  seven  more  births 
between  that  period  and  the  attainment  of  Nirivdiia,  which  may  be 
in  any  world  but  the  four  hells  ;  (2,)  Sakraddgdmi,  into  which  he 
who  enters  will  receive  one  more  birth.  He  may  enter  this  path 
in  the  world  of  men,  and  afterwards  be  born  in  dtva-lbka ;  or. he 
may  enter  it  in  a  dtva-lbka,  and  afterwards  be  born  in  the  %vorld 
of  men.  It  is  divided  into  twelve  sections  ;  (3,)  AtiSigdmi,  into 
which  he  who  enters  will  not  again  be  born  in  a  kdma-lbka  ;  he 
may,  by  the  apparitional  birth,  enter  into  a  brahma-lbkay  and  from 
that  world  attain  Nirwdiia.  This  path  is  divided  into  forty-eight 
sections  ;  (4,)  Arya  or  Aryahat,  into  which  he  who  enters  has 
overcome  or  destroyed  all  evil  desire.  It  is  divided  into  twelve 
sections. 

Those  who  have  entered  into  any  of  the  paths  can  discern  the 
thoughts  of  all  in  the  same,  or  preceding  paths.  Each  path  is 
divided  into  two  grades  ;  1,  The  perception  of  the  path  ;  2,  Its 
fruition  or  enjoyment.  The  mode  in  which  Nirwana,  or  the 
destruction  of  aL  the  elements  of  existence,  may  be  reached,  is  thus 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Spence  Hardy,  in  his  '  Eastern  Monachism  :' 
"  The  unwise  being  who  has  not  yet  arriv^ed  at  a  state  of  inirily, 
or  w4io  is  subject  to  future  birth,  overcome  by  the   excess  of  evil 


NIS-NIT  4''25 


(icsire,  rejoices  iu  the  oiguiis  of  sense,  Ayataiia,  ami  Ihcir  relative 
objeels,  and  commends  tliem.  The  Ayatauas  therefore  hecome  to 
liim  likj  a  rapid  stream  to  carry  him  ouwaid  toward  the  sea  of 
repeated  existence  ;  (hey  are  not  released  from  old  age,  decay, 
death,  sonow,  &c.  But  the  being  who  is  purified,  perceiving  (ho 
evils  arising  from  the  sensual  organs  and  (heir  relative  objects, 
does  not  rejoice  therein,  nor  does  he  commend  them,  or  allow 
liimself  to  be  swallowed  up  Ity  them.  By  the  destrucdon  of  the 
108  modes  of  evil  desire  he  has  released  himself  from  birth,  as 
from  the  jaws  of  an  alligator  ;  he  has  overcome  all  attachment  to 
outward  objects  ;  he  does  not  regard  the  unauthorized  precepts, 
nor  is  he  a  sceptic  ;  and  he  knows  that  there  is  no  ego,  no  self. 
By  overcoming  these  four  errors,  he  has  released  himself  from  the 
cleaving  to  existing  objects.  By  the  destruction  of  the  cleaving  to 
existing  objects  he  is  released  from  birth,  whether  as  a  brahma, 
man,  or  any  other  being.  By  the  destruction  of  birth  he  is 
released  from  old  age,  decay,  death,  sorrow,  &c.  All  the  afflictions 
connected  with  the  repetition  of  existence  are  ovei'come.  Thus 
all  the  principles  of  existence  are  annihilated,  and  that  annihilation 
is  Nirwana." 

Nisatha — A  son  of  Balarama  by  his  wife  Revati. 

Nischara — One  of  the  seven  Rishis  iu  the  second  Manwantara. 

Nishadas— Inhabitants  of  the  Vindhya  mountains — barbarians. 
Nishadha  was  the  country  of  Nala,  and  has  consequently  attained 
celebrity,  but  its  situation  has  not  been  certainly  determined  ;  it 
was  not  far  from  Vidarbha  (Berar)  as  that  was  the  country  of 
Damayanti. 

Nishadha — l,  A  range  of  mountains  to  the  south  of  Meru  ; 
one  of  the  central  ranges,  next  to  Meru,  running  east  and  west, 
and  extending  one  hundred  thousand  Yojanas  ;  2,  A  prince,  the 
son  of  Atithi,  and  grandson  of  Kusa. 

Nisitha — A  son  of  Kalpa  :  (he  name  means  'the  middle  of  night.* 

Nisunda — A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Illada. 

Nitala— One  of  the  seven  regions  of  Patala. 


426  NIV— NYA 


Nivata-kavachas— Danavas,  to  the  number  of  thirty  millions, 
residing  in  the  depths  of  the  sea.  The  Mahabharata  describes 
their  destruction  as  oue  of  the  exploits  of  Arjuna.  The  Vishnu 
Parana  says  they  were  born  in  the  family  of  the  Daitya  Prahlada. 

Niyama — The  second  stage  of  Yoga,  being  self-restraint,  of 
-which  five  kinds  are  specified  : — 

1.  Purity  of  mind  and  body 

2.  Cheerfulness  under  all  circumstances 

3.  Religious  austerity 

4.  The  repetition  of  incantations 

5.  The  association    of    all    religious   ceremonies   with   the 

Supreme  Being. 

These  are  also  designated  five  duties  or  obligations,  namely 
purity,  contentment,  devotion,  study  of  the  Vedas,  and  adoration  of 
the  Supreme. 

Niyama — Precept.  A  son  of  Dharma  by  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha. 

Niyati — The  daughter  of  Meru  who  was  married  to  Yidhatri. 

Niyat — The  wife  of  Mahiiu  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Niyodhaka — A  prize-fighter,  either  as  a  wrestler  or  boxer  or  a 
swordsman — in  some  parts  of  India  he  also  fights  with  gauntlets 
armed  with  steel  spikes, —  PfiIso7i. 

Nrichaksha— A  prince,  the  son  of  Richa,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Nriga — A  son  of  the  Manu  Yaivaswata  ;  the  Linga  Purana 
relates  his  transformation  to  a  lizard  by  the  curse  of  a  brahman. 

Nripanjaya — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Suvira  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Medhavin  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Nriyajna — One  of  the  five  great  obligations  or  sacrifices,  viz., 
that  of  hospitality  ;  a  duty  on  which  great  stress  is  laid. 

Nyagrodha — One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena. 

Nyaya — Logic.  One  of  the  six  schools  or  systems  of  Philo- 
sophy of  the  Hindus. 

The  Nyaya  system  was  originally  taught  by  Gautama,  of  whose 
personal  history,  however,  but  little  is  known.     From  the  Runia- 


NYA  427 

yaua  and  the  Piiianas,  wc  learn  that  he  was  born  at  Himalaya, 
about  (he  same  time  as  Ruma,  i.  e.,  at  the  commcucemeut  of  the 
Treta  Yiiga  (or  second  age  of  the  workl) ;  that  he  married 
Ahalya,  the  daughter  of  Brahmi  (q.  v.)  Ho  is  said  to  liave  lived 
as  a  very  austere  ascetic,  first  at  Prydga  (now  AHahabad),  then  in 
a  forest  at  Mithihi  (Muttra),  and  latterly  (after  the  repudiation  of 
of  his  wife)  in  the  Himalayan  mountains.  His  son,  Satananda, 
WAS  priest  to  Janaka,  king  of  JNIithiia  the  father  of  Sita,  the  wife 
of  Rama.  From  the  above  statements  we  may  see  how  little 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  iiistorical  veracity  of  the  Purauas. 
These  works  assure  us  that  Gautama,  though  he  lived  in  the 
second  or  silver  age,  married  a  daughter  of  Brahmd  ;  but  they 
meet  the  anachronism  by  affirming  that  all  the  sages  live 
through  the  four  Yugas  (the  Satya,  Treta,  Dwapas,  and  Kali,) 
into  which  the  Hindus  divide  the  whole  course  of  the  world's 
existence. 

"  The  Nydya  offers  the  sensational  aspect  of  Hindu  Philosophy. 
In  saying  this,  it  is  not  meant  that  the  Nyaya  confines  itself  to 
sensation,  excluding  emotion  and  intellection  ;  nor  that  the  other 
systems  ignore  the  fiict  of  sensation  ;  but  that  the  arrangement  of 
this  system  has  a  more  pointed  regard  to  the  fact  of  the  five  senses 
than  the  others  have,  and  treats  the  external  more  frankly  as  a 
solid  reality. 

"  The  word  Nydya  means  '  propriety  or  fitness,'  and  the  system 
undertakes  to  declare  the  proper  method  of  arriving  at  that  know- 
ledge of  the  truth,  the  fruit  of  which,  it  promises,  is  the  chief  end 
of  man.  The  name  is  also  used,  in  a  more  limited  application,  to 
denominate  the  proper  method  of  setting  forth  argument.  This 
has  led  to  the  practice  of  calling  the  Nyaya  the  '  Hindu  Logic,'  a 
name  which  suggests  a  very  inad(?quate  conception  of  the  scope  of 
the  system.  The  Nyaya  system  Avas  delivered  by  Gautama  in  a 
set  of  aphorisms,  so  very  concise,  that  they  must,  from  the  first, 
have  been  accompanied  by  a  commentary,  oral  or  written.  The 
aphorisms  of  the  several  Hindu  systems,  in  fact,  appear  designed, 
not  so  much  to  communicate  the  doctrine  of  the  particular  schools, 
as  to  aid,  by  the  briefest  possible  suggestions,  the  memory  of  him 
to  whom  the  doctrine  shall  have  becji  nfread//  communicated.    To 


428  NYA 

this  end  they  are  iu  general  admirably  adapted.  The  sixty 
aphorisms,  for  example,  which  constitute  the  first  of  Gautama's 
Five  Lectures,  present  a  melhodicaJ  summary  of  the  whole  system, 
while  the  first  apliorism,  again,  of  the  sixty,  presents  a  summary 
of  these  sixty.  The  first  aphorism  is  as  folloAvs  : — From  know- 
ledge of  the  truth  in  regard  to  evidence,  the  ascertainable,  doubt, 
motive,  example,  dogma,  confutation,  ascertainment,  disquisition, 
controversy,  cavil,  fallacy,  perversion,  futility,  and  occasion  for 
rebuke, — there  is  the  attainment  of  the  Sununum  Boimm. 

''  In  the  next  aphorism,  it  is  declared  how  knowledge  operates 
mediately  in  producing  this  result.  '  Pain,  birth,  activity,  fault, 
false  notions, — since,  on  the  successive  departure  of  these  in  turn, 
there  is  the  departure  of  the  antecedent  one,  there  is  Beatitude.' 
That  is  to  say,  when  k?iotvledge  of  the  truth  is  attained  to,  'false 
7iotio?is'  depart  ;  on  their  departure,  the  *  fault'  of  concerning 
one's-self  about  any  external  object  ceases  ;  thereupon  the  enlight- 
ened sage  ceases  to  '  act  ;'  then,  there  being  no  actions  that  call 
for  either  reward  or  punishment,  there  is  no  occasion,  after  his 
death,  for  his  beiug  born  again  to  receive  reward  or  punishment  ; 
then,  not  being  born  again,  so  as  to  be  liable  to  pain,  there  is 
no  room  for  '  pain,'  and  the  absence  of  pain  is  the  Nyaya  concep- 
tion of  the  Sum  mum  Bo  num.''' 

As  to  the  instruments  adapted  to  the  acquisition  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  truth,  Gautama  teaches  that  ''  proofs"  i.  e.,  (instruments 
of  right  knowledge,)  •'  are  the  senses,  the  recognition  of  signs,  the 
recognition  of  likenesses,  and  speech  (or  testimony.") 

The  objects  in  regard  to  which  we  have  to  obtain  right  know- 
ledge, by  means  of  the  appropriate  instruments,  he  enumerates  as 
follows  : — "  Soul,  body,  sense,  sense-object,  knowledge,  the  mind, 
activity,  fault,  transmigration,  fruit,  pain,  and  beatitude, — these 
are  the  objects  regarding  which  we  are  to  seek  for  right  know- 
ledge." Here  it  is  to  be  carefully  observed  that  the  soul  is  spoken 
of  as  an  entirely  diHerent  entity  from  the  mind.  Dugald  Stewart 
tells  us  that  the  mind  can  attend  to  only  one  thought  at  a  time, 
(iautama,  recognising  the  same  fact,  Init  speaking  of  the  knowfi 
invariably  as  tlic  soul,  accounts  for  the  fact  in  question  by 
assuming  that    there  is  an    instrument,    or  internal   organ,   ternic'' 


NYA  429 

the  mind,  through  wliich  alone  knowledge  can  reach  the  !?oul,  and 
which,  admitting  only  one  thought  at  a  time,  the  Naiyayika 
inferred  must  be  no  larger  than  an  atom. 

"  Pleasure,  pain,  desire,  aversion,  volition,  and  knowledge," 
says  Gautama,  "  are  that  whereby  we  recognise  the  {dtman)  ;" 
and,  again,  "  the  sign"  (whereby  we  infer  the  existence)  "  of  the 
mind"  (man as)  '*  is  the  not  arising  of  cognitions"  (ia  the  soul) 
"  simultaneously."  Thus  the  soul  may  be  practically  regarded  as 
corresponding  to  the  thinking  principle,  and  the  mind  (raanas) 
to  the  faculty  of  attending  to  one,  and  only  one,  thing  at  a  time  ; 
it  being  further  kept  in  remembrance  that  the  Naiyayika  leckous 
the  mind  to  be  a  substance  and  not  a  faculty. 

"  In  the  list  of  the  objects  regarding  which  right  knowledge  is 
to  be  obtained,  the  next  after  mind,  is  activity.  This  is  defined 
as  '  that  which  originates  the  [utterance  of  the]  voice,  the  [cogni- 
tions of  the]  understanding,  and  the  [gestures  of  the]  body.'  This 
activity,  we  have  seen  under  Aph.  IT.,  Gautama  regards  with  an 
evil  eye,  as  the  cause  of  birth,  which  is  the  cause  of  pain,  Avhich  it 
is  the  summum  bonum  to  get  permanently  rid  of. 

He  further  holds  that  it  is  through  our  own  '  fault'  that  we  arc 
active  ;  and  he  tells  us  that  faults  (or  failings)  have  this  charac- 
teristic, that  they  cause  '  activity.'  These  faults  are  classed  under 
the  heads  of  affection,  aversion,  and  stolidity  or  delusion,  each  of 
which  he  regards  as  a  fault  or  defect,  inasmuch  as  it  leads  to 
actions,  the  recompense  of  which,  whether  good  or  evil,  must  bo 
received  in  some  birth,  or  state  of  mundane  existence,  to  the 
postponement  of  the  great  end  of  entire  emancipation." 

The  immediate  obstacle  to  "  emancipation"  ?nokshd,  or  apacarga^ 
namely,  "  transmigration"  pretyabhava,  he  next  defines  as  "  the 
arising  agam^'  jnmarutpatli.  '  "Pain,"  dnhka,  he  dclincs  as  "  that 
which  is  characterised  by  uneasiness,"  and  absolute  deliverance 
therefrom  is  ''  emancipation."  Tins  sumtnuni  bonani  is  to  be 
ol)taincd  by  an  al)ncgation  of  all  action,  good  or  bad." — ^mall, 
H.  S.  L. 


Oblations — The  householder  after  pouring  Hbatious  to  the 
gods,  sages,  and  progeultors,  is  to  offer  oblations  with  fire,  not 
preceded  by  any  other  rite,  to  Brahma.  Oblations  are  made  with 
such  ceremonies,  and  m  such  form,  as  are  adapted  to  the  religious 
rite  which  is  iuteuded  to  be  subsequently  performed.  The  residue 
of  oblations  to  be  offered  to  ludra,  Yama,  Varuna,  and  Soma,  at  the 
four  cardinal  parts  of  his  dwelling  ;  and  in  the  north-east  quarter 
it  is  to  be  presented  to  Dhanwantari.     See  Y.  P.,  p.  304. 

Obsequies— See  Sraddha. 

Ocean — Chunimg  of.     See  Amrita. 

Odra — The  ancient  name  of  Orissa. 

Oghavati — The  name  of  a  river  in  the  Puriiuas,  that  has  not 
been  identified. 

Om  or  Omkara — A  combination  of  letters  invested  by  Hindu 
mysticism  with  peculiar  sanctity.  In  the  Vedas  it  is  said  to 
comprehend  all  the  gods  ;  and  in  the  Puranas  it  is  directed  to  be 
prefixed  to  many  sacred  formulas.  The  syllable  Om,  says  the 
Padma  Puraua  is  the  leader  of  all  prayers  ;  and  to  be  employed  in 
the  beginning  of  all  prayers.  According  to  the  same  authority  one 
of  the  mystical  imports  of  the  term  is  the  collective  enunciation  of 
Yislmu  expressed  by  A,  of  Sri,  his  bride,  intimated  by  U,  and  of 
their  joint  worshipper  designated  by  M.  A  Avholo  chapter  of  the 
Vayu  Purana  is  devoted  to  this  iQ\*m.  It  is  said  to  typify  the 
three  spheres  of  the  world,  the  three  holy  fires,  the  three  steps  of 
Vishnu,  &c.  It  is  identified  with  the  supreme  undefiuable  deity, 
or  Brahma.  In  the  Bhagavat  Gita  it  is  said  "Repeating  Om,  the 
monosyllable,  which  is  Brahma,  and  calling  me  to  mind  ;"  The 
form  or  sensible  type  of  Vasudeva,  is  considered  to  be  the 
monosyllable  Om.  Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson  says,  a  more  probable 
origin  of  the  word  is  that  it  is  composed  of  the  initials  of  the  three' 


OSH— OXY  431 


persouifications  of  the  triad  of  elements,  which  is  a  much  more 
ancient  trinity  tlian  that  of  Brahma,  Vislmu  and  Siva.  The  A 
woukl  then  represent  Agni,  or  fire  ;  the  U  Varuna,  water  ;  and  the 
M  Marut,  wind  or  air.  The  reverence  attached  to  this  monosyllable 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  some  transcribers  of  MSS. 
have  been  afraid  to  write  the  awful  word  itself,  and  have 
substituted  some  other. 

Oshta-karnakas — A  nickname  or  term  of  derision,  or  derived 
from  some  exaggeration  of  national  ugliness,  applied  to  some  of  the 
aborigines  of  India.     It  means  liaving  lips  extending  to  their  ears. 

Oxydracae — The  Sudra  people  of  ill  the  west,  or  north-west, 
towards  the  Indus.  Pliny  has  Sudraci  for  the  people  who  formed 
the  limit  of  Alexander's  eastern  conquests,  or  those  hitherto 
inaccurately  called  Oxydraca3. 


Padmakalpa — A  Malm  Kalpa— a  day  of  Bralima  already 
expired. 

Padmanabha — Lotus-navel  ;  Avitli  the  addition  of  Svami,  a 
name  of  Narayaua  in  the  Malayalam  country.  One  of  the  titles  of 
the  Travaucore  rajah  was  '  the  slave  of  Padmaniibha.* 

Padmapurana — A  very  voluminous  -work  containing  fifty-five 
thousand  slokas.  These  are  divided  amongst  five  books  or 
Khaudas  ;  1,  The  Srishti  Khanda,  or  section  on  Creation  ;  the 
Bhumi  Khanda,  a  description  of  the  Earth  ;  the  Swarga  Khanda, 
a  chapter  on  Heaven  ;  Patala  Khanda,  a  chapter  on  the  regions 
below  the  earth  ;  and  5,  Uttara  Khanda,  the  last  or  supplementary 
chapter  There  is  also  current  a  sixth  division,  the  Kriya  Yoga 
Sara,  a  treatise  on  the  practice  of  devotion. 

The  denominations  of  these  divisions  of  the  Padma  Purana 
convey  but  an  imperfect  and  partial  notion  of  their  contents.  In 
the  first,  or  section  which  treats  of  creation,  the  narrator  is  Ugras- 
ravas  the  Suta,  the  son  of  Lomaharshana,  who  is  sent  by  his  father 
to  the  Rishis  at  Naimisharanya  to  communicate  to  them  the 
Purana,  which,  from  its  containing  an  account  of  the  lotus  (padma), 
in  which  Brahma  appeared  at  creation,  is  termed  the  Padma  or 
Padma  Purana.  The  Suta  repeats  what  was  originally  communi- 
cated by  Brahma  to  Pulastya,  and  by  him  to  Bhishma.  The 
early  chapters  narrate  the  cosmogony,  and  the  genealogy  of  the 
patriarchal  families,  much  in  the  same  style,  and  often  in  the  same 
words,  as  the  Vishnu  ;  and  short  accounts  of  the  Manwantaras 
and  regal  dynasties  :  but  these,  which  are  legitimate  Pauranik 
matters,  soon  make  way  for  new  and  unauthentic  inventions, 
illustrative  of  the  virtues  of  the  lake  of  Pushkara,  or  Pokher  in 
Ajmir,  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage. 

The  Bhumi  Khanda,  or  section  of  the  earth,  defers  any  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth  until  near  its  close,   filling  up  one   linndred   and 


PAD  433 

twcnty-seveu  chapters  with  legends  of  a  very  mixed  description, 
some  ancient  and  common  to  other  Puranas,  but  the  greater  part 
peculiar  to  itself,  illustrative  of  Tirthas,  either  figuratively  so 
termed — as  a  wife,  a  parent,  or  a  guru,  considered  as  a  sacred 
object — or  places  to  which  actual  pilgrimage  should  be  performed. 

The  Swarga  Khauda  describes  in  the  first  chapters  the  relative 
positions  of  the  Lokas  or  spheres  above  the  earth,  placing  above  all 
Vaikuntha,  the  sphere  of  Vishnu  ;  an  addition  which  is  not 
warranted  by  what  appears  to  be  the  oldest  cosmology.  Miscella- 
neous notices  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  princes  then  succeed, 
conformably  to  the  usual  narratives  ;  and  these  are  followed  by 
rules  of  conduct  for  the  several  castes,  and  at  different  stages  of 
life.  The  rest  of  the  book  is  occupied  by  legends  of  a  diversified 
description,  introduced  without  much  method  or  contrivance  ;  a 
few  of  which,  as  Daksha's  sacrifice,  are  of  ancient  date,  but  of 
which  the  most  are  original  and  modern. 

The  Patala  Khanda  devotes  a  brief  introduction  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  Patala,  the  regions  of  the  snake-gods  ;  but  the  name  of 
Rama  having  been  mentioned,  Sesha,  who  has  succeeded  Pulastya 
as  spokesman,  proceeds  to  narrate  the  history  of  Rama,  his  descent 
and  his  posterity  ;  in  which  the  compiler  seems  to  have  taken  the 
poem  of  Kalidasa,  the  Raghu  Vansa,  for  his  chief  authority.  An 
originality  of  addition  may  be  suspected,  however,  in  the  adven- 
tures of  the  horse  destined  by  Rama  for  an  Aswamedha,  which 
form  the  subject  of  a  great  many  chapters.  When  about  to  be 
sacrificed,  the  horse  turns  out  to  be  a  Brahman,  condemned  by  an 
imprecation  of  Durvasas,  a  sage,  to  assume  the  equine  nature,  and 
who,  by  having  been  sanctified  by  connexion  with  Rama,  is 
released  from  his  metamorphosis,  and  despatched  as  a  spirit  of 
light  to  heaven.  This  piece  of  Vaishnava  fiction  is  followed  by 
praises  of  the  Sri  Bhdgavata,  an  account  of  Krishna's  juvenilities, 
and  the  merits  of  worshipping  Vishnu.  These  accounts  are 
communicated  through  a  machinery  borrowed  from  the  Tantras  : 
they  are  told  by  Sadasiva  to  Parvati,  the  ordinary  interlocutors  of 
Tantrika  compositions. 

The  Uttara  Khanda  is  a  most  voluminous  aggregation  of  very 
heterogeneous  matters,  but  it  is  consistent  in  adopting  a  decidedly 


434  PAD 

Vaishnava  tone,  and  admitting  no  compromise  with  any  other 
form  of  faith.  The  chief  subjects  are  first  discussed  in  a  dialogue 
between  king  Dilipa  and  the  Muni  Vasishtha  ;  such  as  the  merits 
of  bathing  in  the  month  of  Magha,  and  the  potency  of  the  Mantra 
or  prayer  addressed  to  Lakshmi  Narayana.  But  the  nature  of 
Bhakti,  faith  in  Vishnu — the  use  of  Vaishnava  marks  on  the  body 
— tlie  legends  of  Vishnu's  Avataras,  and  especially  of  Rama — and 
the  construction  of  images  of  Vishnu — are  too  important  to  be  left 
to  mortal  discretion  :  they  are  explained  by  Siva  to  Parvati,  and 
wound  up  by  the  adoration  of  Vishnu  by  those  divinities.  The 
dialogue  then  reverts  to  the  king  and  the  sage  ;  and  the  latter 
states  why  Vishnu  is  the  only  one  of  the  triad  entitled  to  respect ; 
Siva  being  licentious,  Brahma  arrogant,  and  Vishnu  alone  pure. 
Vasishtha  then  repeats,  after  Siva,  the  Mahatmya  of  the  Bhagavat 
Gita  ;  the  merit  of  each  book  of  which  is  illustrated  by  legends  of 
the  good  consequences  to  individuals  from  perusing  or  hearing  it. 
Other  Vaishnava  Mahatmyas  occupy  considerable  portions  of  this 
Khanda,  especially  the  Kartika  Mahatmya,  or  holiness  of  the 
month  Kartika,  illustrated  as  usual  by  stories,  a  few  of  which  are 
of  an  early  origin,  but  the  greater  part  modern,  and  peculiar  to 
this  Purana, 

The  Kriya  Yoga  Sara  is  repeated  by  Suta  to  the  Rishis,  after 
Vyasa's  communication  of  it  to  Jaimini,  in  answer  to  an  inquiry 
how  religious  merit  might  be  secured  in  the  Kali  age,  in  which 
men  have  become  incapable  of  the  penances  and  abstraction  by 
which  final  liberation  was  formerly  to  be  attained.  The  answer 
is,  of  course,  that  which  is  intimated  in  the  last  book  of  the  Vishnu 
Purana — personal  devotion  to  Vishnu  :  thinking  of  him,  repeating 
his  names,  wearing  his  marks,  worshipping  in  his  temples,  are  a 
full  substitute  for  all  other  acts  of  moral  or  devotional  or  contem- 
plative merit. 

The  different  portions  of  the  Padma  Purana  are  in  all  proba- 
bility as  many  different  works,  neither  of  which  approaches  to  the 
original  definition  of  a  Purana.  There  may  be  some  connexion 
between  the  three  first  portions,  at  least  as  to  time  ;  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  consider  them  as  of  high  antiquity.  They  specify 
the  Jains  both  by  name  and    practices  ;  they  talk  of  Mlechchhas, 


PAD— PAI  435 


*  barbarians,'  flourishing  in  India  ;  they  commend  the  use  of  the 
frontal  and  other  Vaishnava  marks  ;  and  they  notice  other  subjects 
which,  like  these,  are  of  no  remote  origin.  The  Patala  Khanda 
dwells  copiously  upon  the  Bhagavata,  and  is  consequently  posterior 
to  it.  The  Uttara  Khanda  is  intolerantly  Vaishnava,  and  is  there- 
fore unquestionably  modern.  It  enjoins  the  veneration  of  the 
Salagrara  stone  and  Tulasi  plant,  the  use  of  the  Tapta-mudra,  or 
stamping  with  a  hot  iron  the  name  of  Vishnu  on  the  skin,  and  a 
variety  of  practices  and  observances  undoubtedly  no  part  of  the 
original  system.  It  speaks  of  the  shrines  of  Sri-rangam  and 
Venkatadri  in  the  Dekhin,  temples  that  have  no  pretension  to 
remote  antiquity  ;  and  it  names  Haripur  on  the  Tungabhadra, 
which  is  in  all  likelihood  the  city  of  Vijayanagar,  founded  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Kriya  Yoga  Sara  is 
equally  a  modern,  and  apparently  a  Bengali  composition.  No 
portion  of  the  Padma  Purana  is  probably  older  than  the  twelfth 
century,  and  the  last  parts  may  be  as  recent  as  the  fifteenth  or 
sixteenth. —  Wilsoii, 

Padmavati — A  titular  name  which  may  be  understood  of 
Lakshnii,  as  seated  on  a  lotus-flower  (padma)  it  is  commonly  used 
to  designate  a  goddess  of  the  Jainas  ;  especially  at  some  shrines  of 
the  eastern  and  western  Chalukyas  ;  corresponding  with  the 
northern  part  of  Telingana  and  the  southern  Mahratta  provinces. 

Padmavati— A  city  amongst  the  Viudhya  hills. 

Pahlavas — A  northern  or  north-western  nation,  often  men- 
tioned in  Hindu  writings,  in  Manu,  the  Ramayana,  the  Purduas, 
&c.  They  were  not  a  Hindu  people,  and  may  have  been  some  of 
the  tribes  between  India  and  Persia. 

Pahnavas — Probably  the  same  as  the  Pahlavas.  Border  tribes 
on  the  confines  of  Persia.  They  were  conquered  by  Sagara,  but 
spared  on  the  intercession  of  Vasishtha,  the  family  priest  of  Sagara. 

Paila— The  compiler  of  the  Rig  Veda  ;  a  disciple  or  co-adjutor 
of  Vyasa  in  arranging  the  Vedas.  Professor  Wilson  thinks  the 
tradition  records  the  first  establishment  of  a  school,  of  which  the 
Vyasa  was  the  head,  and  Paila  and  the  other  persons  named  were 
the  teachers. 


436  PAK— PAN 


Pakayajna — A  sacrifice,  in  which  food  is  offered  ;  one  that 
may  be  made  by  a  Sudra.  It  implies  either  the  worship  of  the 
Viswadevas,  the  rites  of  hosj^itality,  or  occasional  oblations,  as 
building  a  house,  the  birth  of  a  child,  or  any  occasion  of  rejoicing. 

Paksha — A  lunar  fortnight ;  fifteen  days  of  thirty  Muhurttas 
each. 

Pakshaja— -One  of  the  three  classes  of  clouds  ;  those  which 
were  originally  the  wings  of  the  mountains,  and  which  were  cut 
off  by  Indra. 

Palaka — A  protector  or  ruler  ;  loka  palaka  is  an  epithet 
applied  to  a  king.  Dik-palaka  is  a  regent  of  one  of  the  eight 
points  of  the  heavens  ;  each  point  being  supported  by  one  of  the 
ashta  dik  gajas,  or  elephant  caryatides.  The  names  of  the  dik- 
palakas  are  Indra,  E.,  Varuua,  W.,  Kuvera,  N.,  Yama,  S.,  Isani, 
N.E.,  Niruta,  S.W.,  Vayu,  N.W.,  Agui,  S.E. 

Palaka— The  sou  of  Pradyota,  king  of  Magadha.  There  were 
five  kings  of  the  house  of  Pradyota,  who  reigned  for  a  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  years. 

Palasini — A  river  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Himalaya,  a 
feeder  of  the  Mahanada. 

Palin — One  of  the  sons  of  Prithu. 

Palita — A  prince,  the  son  of  Paravrit  :  he  was  the  brother  of 
Jyamagha,  and  ruled  over  Videha. 

Pampa— A  river,  that  rises  in  Rishyamuka  in  the  Dekkin. 

Panchadasa  hymns — A  collection  of  hymns,  created  along 
with  the  Yajur  Veda  from  the  southern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Panchajana— A  demon  in  the  form  of  a  couch  shell,  who  lived 
in  the  sea  of  Prabhasa,  and  was  killed  by  Krishna,  in  order  that 
the  son  of  Sandipani  might  be  rescued. 

Panchajanya — The  name  of  Krishna's  conch.  It  was  made 
of  the  bones  of  the  giant  Panchajana.  When  Krishna  was  getting 
up  his  military  acquirements,  the  sou  of  his  acharya,  or  tutor, 
Sandipani,  Avas  drowned  in  the  sea  of  Prabhasa,  and  carried  down 


PAN  437 

to  the  bottom  by  the  said  giant.  Krishna  plunged  iu,  dived  down, 
slew  the  giant,  brought  up  his  bones  to  make  a  conch  of,  and 
restored  his  sou  to  the  grieving  tutor. 

Panchanga— The  Hindu  Calendar,  Panchdnga  means  five 
members.  It  contains  five  principal  heads,  namely,  the  days  of  the 
month,  the  sign  in  which  the  moon  is  each  day  to  be  found,  the 
day  of  the  week,  the  eclipses,  and  the  place  of  the  planets.  It 
likewise  marks  the  good  days  and  the  evil  ;  those  ou  which  one 
may  journey  towards  any  of  the  four  cardinal  points  ;  for  each 
point  of  the  compass  has  its  lucky  and  unlucky  days  ;  and  a  person 
who  might  to-day  travel  very  successfully  towards  the  north, 
would  expose  himself  to  some  grievous  danger  if  he  took  a  south- 
ward course.  It  farther  contains  a  vast  number  of  predictions  of 
all  sorts  which  would  be  too  tedious  for  this  place. 

Panchala — The  country  north  and  west  of  Delhi,  between  the 
foot  of  the  Himalaya  and  the  Chambal.  It  was  afterwards  divided 
into  northern  and  southern  Panchala  separated  by  the  Ganges. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  five  (pducha)  sons  of  Hariyaswa, 
who  were  able  (alam)  to  protect  the  countries  ;  and  hence  they 
were  termed  the  Panchalas. 

Pancha-lakshana — An  epithet  applied  to  the  Purauas,  mean- 
ing *  that  which  has  five  characteristic  topics  ;'  these  are  primary 
creation,  or  cosmogony  ;  secondary  creation,  or  the  destruction  and 
renovation  of  worlds  ;  including  chronology  ;  3,  Genealogy  of 
gods  and  patriarchs  ;  4,  Reigns  of  the  Manus,  or  periods  called 
Manwantaras  ;  and,  5,  History,  or  such  particulars  as  have  been 
preserved  of  the  princes  of  the  solar  and  lunar  races,  and  of  their 
descendants  to  modern  times. 

Pancha  Tantra— The  collection  of  Fables  and  stories  termed 
Pancha  Tantra  or  Panchopakhyaua,  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
world.  It  was  translated  from  Sanskrit  into  Persian  iu  the  sixth 
century  ;  and  from  Persian  into  Arabic  in  the  ninth  century  ;  it 
was  afterwards  rendered  into  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin  and  Syriac  ; 
from  these  versions  successive  translations  were  made  into  all  the 
languages  of  modern  Europe,  until  it  became  universally  known 
as  Pil pay's  Fables. 


438  PAN 

The  narrator  of  the  stories  is  in  the  Arabic  version  called  Bidpai  5 
in  the  Sanscrit  original  no  name  similar  to  this  occurs  ;  but  it  is. 
certain  that  the  name  Pilpay,  by  which  the  work  is  known  in 
Europe,  is  a  corruption  of  Bidpai. 

The  Arabic  translation  of  the  Pancha  Tantra  is  called  Kalila 
wa  Damua  ;  it  is  thus  designated  in  allusion  to  two  jackals  which 
act  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  first  story  of  the  Arabic  version,  and 
which  we  recognise  in  the  Sanskrit  and  Canarese  under  the  forms 
Karataka  and  Damauaka. 

The  most  admired  Persian  translation  is  not  that  which  was 
first  made,  but  the  one  written  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  known  under  the  title  of  Anwar-i-soheili ;  which  was 
afterwards  rendered  into  Turkish  with  the  designation  of  Humayun 
Nameh. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Bible  and  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  there 
is  probably  no  work  that  has  been  translated  into  so  many  lan- 
guages as  the  Pancha  Tantra.  In  India  it  has  retained  its  popu- 
larity to  the  present  time,  and  is  found  in  some  form  in  all  the 
spoken  dialects  of  the  country. 

The  Sanskrit  epitome  of  the  Pancha  Tantra  is  termed  the 
"  Hitopadesa,"  or  "  Salutary  Instruction."  This  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Sir  William  Jones  and  by  Sir  Charles  Wilkins. 

"  Its  popularity"  says  Professor  Johnson,  "  through  so  many 
ages,  amidst  such  various  nations,  is  evidence  of  intrinsic  merit ; 
and  the  pictures  of  domestic  manners  and  human  nature  which  it 
presents,  however  tinctured  by  national  peculiarities,  must  have 
been  recognised  as  universally  true,  as  well  as  diverting  ;  or  they 
would  not  have  been  naturalized  in  the  west  as  well  as  in  the  east. 
In  the  maxims  also  which  the  tales  serve  to  illustrate,  there  must 
have  been  much  which  secured  the  acquiescence  of  all  mankind, 
or  the  remarks  would  have  been  left  to  enlighten  the  moralists  of 
India  alone.  These  merits,  however,  were  such  as  admitted  of 
transfusion  into  other  languages  ;  the  merits  of  its  composition  are 
those  which  have  chiefly  recommended  its  preservation  by  the 
Press,  and  its  circulation  amougst  the  cultivators  of  Sanskrit 
literature." 


PAN  439 

There  is  a  great  divcr^iity  in  the  manuscript  copies  of  thePancha 
Tautra.  Many  differences  occur  in  the  various  stories.  In  some 
versions  the  residence  of  the  king  is  in  Mahilaropya,  a  city  in  the 
south  of  India,  wliicli  Professor  Wilson  identifies  with  St.  Thome, 
The  Canarese  version  of  the  Pancha  Tantra  follows  the  Hitopadesa 
in  making  the  residence  of  the  king  inPdtaliputra  on  the  Ganges. 

The  king  had  three  sons  who  were  deficient  in  ability  and 
application.  He  made  this  known  to  his  counsellors  and  sought 
their  advice  ;  asking  them  "  of  what  use  is  a  sou  who  has  neither 
knowledge  nor  virtue  ?  of  what  use  is  a  cow  who  has  no  milk  with 
her  calf,  &c.  ?  A  learned  brahman  who  was  present  offered  to 
relieve  the  king  of  his  anxiety  by  taking  the  princes  to  his  house 
and  instructing  them  perfectly.  He  then  composed  in  their  benefit 
these  five  chapters  ;  Mitra  Bheda,  Dissension  of  friends  ;  Mitra 
Prapti,  acquisition  of  friends  ;  Kakolukiya,  inveterate  enmity  ; 
Labda  iKTashta,  loss  of  advantage  ;  Asamprekshya  karitwa,  incon- 
siderateness.  Through  reading  these  the  princes  became  in  six 
months  highly  accomplished,  and  the  five  tantras  were  famous 
throughout  the  world . 

An  analytical  account  of  the  Pancha  Tautra  is  contained  in  the 
Works  of  H.  H.  Wilson,  Vol.  IV. 

Pandava — Patronymic  from  Pandu,  applied  first  to  his  five 
sous,  and  then  generally  to  their  party  or  army.  Also  to  Aijuna 
in  particular. 

Pandavas — The  five  sons  of  the  Raja  Pandu.  After  their 
father's  death  they  returned  to  Ilastiuapur,  and  were  kindly 
received  by  their  uncle  Dritarashtra  ;  they  were  brought  up  with 
their  cousins  the  Kauravas,  in  the  old  palace  of  Hastinapur  ;  but 
from  the  days  of  their  early  youth  the  sons  of  Dritarashtra  were 
ever  jealous  of  the  sons  of  Pandu.  Duryodhana,  the  eldest  of  the 
Kauravas,  attempted  to  take  the  life  of  Bhima.  Soon  after,  a 
famous  Brahman  preceptor,  named  Drona,  arrived  at  the  city  of 
Hastinapur.  Their  Uncle  Bhishma  engaged  him  to  instruct  the 
Kauravas  and  Pandavas  in  arms  and  sciences.  Drona  took  great 
pains  in  teaching  all  the  young  men,  but  especially  in  teaching  the 
Pandavas.    To  Yudhishthira  he  imparted  the  use  of  the  spear,  but 


440  PAN 

that  young  prince  became  more  renowned  for  wisdom  and  good- 
ness than  for  deeds  of  arms.  To  Arjuna  he  taught  the  use  of  the 
bow,  and  Arjuna  became  the  most  ftimous  archer  of  his  time.  To 
Bhima  he  taught  the  use  of  the  club,  for  Bhima  was  a  young  man 
of  great  appetite  and  enormous  strength,  and  could  wield  the  club 
right  lustily.  To  Nakula  he  taught  the  whole  art  of  taming  and 
managing  horses,  and  to  Sahadeva  Astronomy  and  the  use  of  the 
sword.  Drona  instructed  the  Kauravas  in  like  manner,  as  well  as 
his  own  sou  Aswatthama.  But  of  all  his  pupils  the  most  beloved 
was  Arjuna,  for  he  was  the  most  perfect  of  all  ;  and  thus,  while 
Duryodhana,  the  eldest  of  the  Kauravas  was  jealous  of  all  the 
Pandavas,  he  was  the  most  jealous  of  Arjuna. 

This  feeling  increased  and  led  to  many  quarrels  ;  ultimately  to 
the  exile  of  the  Pandavas,  who  were  sent  by  Dritarashtra  to  the 
city  of  Varanavata.  Here  Duryodhana  plotted  their  destruction 
by  having  them  invited  to  a  house  built  of  combustible  materials, 
with  the  intention  of  setting  it  on  fire  at  night  when  they  were 
all  asleep.  A  retainer  of  his,  Purochaua,  was  the  agent  sent  to 
effect  this.  The  plot  was  discovered  ;  an  underground  passage 
was  dug  through  which  they  might  escape  ;  and  Bhima  set  on 
fire  the  house  of  Purochaua  ;  the  flames  reached  the  house  of  the 
Pandavas,  who  were  conducted  by  Bhima  through  the  passage 
underground,  and  went  into  the  jungle  with  their  mother  Kunti. 
They  afterwards  lived  as  mendicant  brahmans  in  the  city  of 
Ekachakra  (q.  v.)  Their  subsequent  history  embraces  the  events 
which  led  to  the  Great  War  in  the  plain  of  Kurukshetra  ;  the 
details  of  which  will  be  found  under  the  names  of  the  various 
actors  in  it.  The  brothers  at  last  assumed  the  garb  of  devotees, 
and  after  passing  through  many  lands,  they  reached  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  and  there  died  one  after  the  other,  and  were  transported 
to  the  heaven  of  Indra.  The  fine  description  of  the  renunciation 
of  their  kingdom  by  the  five  brothers,  and  their  journey  towards 
ludra's  heaven,  has  been  well   translated  by  Monier  Williams  :— 

When  the  four  brothers  knew  the  high  resolve  of  king  Yudhishthira, 
Forthwith  with  Draupadi  they  issued  forth,  and  after  them  a  dog 
Followed  ;  the  king  himself  went  out  the  seventh  from  the  royal  city, 
And  all  the  citizens  and  women  of  the  palace  walked  behind  ; 


PAN  441 

But  none  could  find  it  in  thoir  heart  to  say  unto  the  king,  'Return.' 

And  so  at  length  the  train  of  citizens  went  back,  bidding  adieu 

Then  the  high-minded  sons  of  PJindu  and  the  noble  Draupadi 

Roamed  onwards,  fasting  with  their  faces  towards  the  east ;  their  hearts 

Yearning  for  union  with  the  Infinite  ;  bent  on  abandonment 

Of  worldly  things.     They  wandered  on  to  many  countries,  many  a  sea 

And  river.    Yudhishthira  walked  in  front,  and  next  to  him  came  Bhlma, 

And  Arjuna  came  after  him,  and  then,  in  order,  the  twin  brothers. 

And  last  of  all  oame  Draupadi,  with  her  dark  skin  and  lotus-eyes  — 

The  faithful  Draupadi,  loveliest  of  woman,  best  of  wives— 

Behind  them  walked  the  only  living  thing  that  shared  their  pilgrimage, 

The  dog— And  by  degrees  they  reached  the  briny  sea.     There  Arjuna 

Cast  in  the  waves  his  bow  and  quivers.     Then  with  souls  well-disciplined 

They  reached  the  northern  region,  and  beheld  with  heaven-aspiring  hearts 

The  mighty  mountain  Himavat.    Beyond  its  lofty  peak  they  passed 

Towards  the  sea  of  sand,  and  saw  at  last  the  rocky  Meru,  king 

Of  mountains.     As  with  eager  steps  they  hastened  on,  their  souls  intent 

On  union  with  the  Eternal,  Draupadi  lost  hold  of  her  high  hope, 

And  faltering  fell  upon  the  earth. 

"  One  by  cue  the  others  also  drop,  till  only  Bhima,  Yudhishthira, 
and  the  dog  are  left.  Still  Yudhishthira  walks  steadily  in  front, 
calm  and  unmoved,  looking  neither  to  the  right  hand  nor  to  the 
left,  and  gathering  up  his  soul  in  inflexible  resolution.  Bhima, 
shocked  at  the  fall  of  his  companions,  and  unable  to  understand 
how  beings  so  apparently  guileless  should  be  struck  down  by  fate, 
appeals  to  his  brother,  who  without  looking  back  explains  that 
death  is  the  consequence  of  sinful  thoughts  and  too  great  attach- 
ment to  worldly  objects  ;  and  that  Draupadi's  fall  was  owing  to 
her  excessive  affection  for  Arjuna  ;  Sahadeva's  (who  is  supposed  to 
be  the  most  humble-minded  of  the  five  brothers)  to  his  pride  in  his 
own  knowledge  ;  Nakula's  (who  is  very  handsome)  to  feelings  of 
personal  vanity  ;  and  Arjuna's  to  a  boastful  confidence  in  his 
power  to  destroy  his  foes.  Bhima  then  feels  himself  falling,  and 
is  told  that  he  suffers  death  for  his  selfishness,  pride,  and  too  great 
love  of  enjoyment.  The  sole  survivor  is  now  Yudhishthira,  who 
still  walks  steadily  forward,  followed  only  by  the  dog. 

When  with  a  sudden  sound  that  rang  through  earth  and  heaven,  came  the  god 
Towards  him  in  a  chariot,  and  he  cried,  "Ascend,  O  resolute  prince." 
Then  did  the  king  look  back  upon  his  fellen  brothers,  and  addrcss'd 
These  words  unto  the  Thousand-cycd,  in  anguish—"  Let  my  brothers  here 
Come  with  me.     Without  them,  0  God  of  Gods,  I  would  not  wish  to  enter 
E'en  heaven  ;  and  yonder  tender  princess  Draupadi,  the  faithful  wife, 
AVorthy  of  happiness,  let  her  too  come.     In  mercy  hear  my  prayer." 

Upon  thi?5  Indra  inform;:  him  that  the  spiritt^  of  Uiaupadi  and  his 


442  PAN 

brothers  are  already  iu  lieaveD,  and  that  he  alone  is  permitted  to 
ascend  there  in  bodily  form.  Yudhishthira  now  stipulates  that  his 
dog  shall  be  admitted  with  him.  Indra  says  sternly,  "  Heaven  has 
no  place  for  those  who  are  accompanied  by  dogs  (Swavatam)  ;" 
but  Yudhishthira  is  unshaken  in  his  resolution,  and  declines 
abandoniug  the  faithful  animal.  Indra  remonstrates — "  You  have 
abandoned  your  brothers  and  Draupadi  ;  why  not  forsake  the  dog  ?" 
To  this  Yudhishthira  haughtily  replies,  "  I  had  no  power  to  bring 
them  back  to  life  ;  how  can  there  be  abandonment  of  those  who  no 
longer  live  ?" 

The  dog,  it  appears,  was  his  own  father  Dharma  in  disguise 
(Mahaprasthauika-parva.)  Reassuming  now  his  proper  form  he 
praises  Yudhishthira  for  his  constancy,  and  they  enter  heaven 
together.  There,  to  his  surprise,  he  finds  Duryodhana  and  his 
cousins,  but  not  his  brothers  or  Draupadi.  Hereupon  he  declines 
remaining  in  heaven  without  them.  An  angel  is  then  sent  to 
conduct  him  across  the  Indian  Styx  (Vaitarini)  to  the  hell  where 
they  are  supposed  to  be.  The  scene  which  now  follows  may  be 
compared  to  the  Necyomanteia  in  the  eleventh  book  of  the  Odyssey, 
or  to  parts  of  Dante. 

"  The  particular  hell  to  which  Yudhishthira  is  taken  is  a  dense 
wood,  wliose  leaves  are  sharp  swords,  and  its  ground  paved  w^ith 
razors.  The  Avay  to  it  is  strewed  with  foul  and  mutilated  corpses. 
Hideous  shapes  flit  across  the  air  and  hover  over  him.  Here  there 
is  a  horror  of  palpable  darkness.  There  the  wicked  are  burning  in 
flames  of  blazing  fire.  Suddenly  he  hears  the  voices  of  his  brothers 
and  companions  imploring  him  to  assuage  their  torments,  and  not 
desert  them.  His  resolution  is  taken.  Deeply  affected,  he  bids 
the  angel  leave  him  to  share  their  miseries.  This  is  his  last  trial. 
The  whole  scene  now  vanishes.  It  was  a  mere  illusion,  to  test  his 
constancy  to  the  utmost.  He  is  now  directed  to  bathe  in  the 
licavculy  Ganges  ;  and  having  plunged  into  the  sacred  stream,  he 
enters  the  real  heaven,  where  at  length,  in  company  with  Draupadi 
nnd  his  brothers,  he  finds  (ha(  rest  and  happiness  which  were 
unattainable  on  earth."* 


^  Indian  PJpic  Poetry,  p,  20  to  31. 


PAN  443 

Pandu — Tho  second  son  of  the  Vyasa,  Krislina  Dwaipayaua 
and  Ambalika  one  of  the  widows  of  Raja  Vichitravirya, — the  Pale, 
was  the  half-brother  of  Dhritarashtra  who  was  blind.  "  The 
reason  given  for  these  defects  is  curions.  Ambika,  (the  mother  of 
Dliritarashtra)  was  so  terrified  by  the  swarthy  complexion  an<l 
shaggy  aspect  of  the  sage  Vyasa,  that  when  he  visited  her  she 
closed  her  eyes,  and  did  not  venture  to  open  them  while  he  was 
with  her.  In  consequence  of  this  assumed  blindness  her  child  was 
born  blind.  Ambalika,  on  the  other  hand,  tliough  she  kept  her 
eyes  open,  became  so  colourless  witli  friglit,  that  her  son  was  born 
with  a  pale  complexion,  Pandu  seems  in  other  respects  to  have 
been  good  looking."*  lie  was  (he  father  of  the  five  Paiidava  princes 
Yudhishthira,  Bhima,  Arjuna,  Nakula,  and  Sahadeva.  lie  married 
Kunti,  or  Pritha,  and  sometime  afterwards  his  uncle  Bhishma, 
wishing  him  to  take  a  second  wife,  "  made  an  expedition  to 
Salya,  king  of  Madra,  and  prevailed  upon  him  to  bestow  his  sister 
Madri  upon  Pandu,  in  exchange  for  vast  sums  of  money  and 
jewels."!  But  as  Pandu  had  incurred  a  curse  from  a  deer  which 
he  shot,  he  was  prevented  from  having  progeny  himself,  and  the 
Pandava  princes  were  therefore  begotten  respectively  by  the  gods 
Dharma,  Vayu,  Indra,  and  the  twin  Aswinau. 

Pandu  was  carefully  educated  by  his  uncle  Bhishma,  who 
afterwards  installed  him  as  Raja  of  Bharata.  The  RajaPaiidu  was 
a  great  warrior,  and  is  said  to  have  undertaken  a  campaign  which 
would  have  extended  his  empire  over  all  Hindustan,  from  the 
Punjab  to  Bengal,  and  from  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  to  the 
Vindhya  mountains.  But  he  was  addicted  to  hunting,  and  he  went 
with  his  two  wives  to  the  Himalaya  mountains  ;  but  his  life  there 
is  filled  with  mythical  details  which  may  be  passed  over.  While 
the  five  princes  were  still  children,  Pandu,  forgetting  the  curse  of 
the  sage  whom  he  had  killed  in  the  form  of  a  deer,  ventured  one 
day  to  embrace  his  wife  Madri,  and  died  in  her  arms.  She  and 
Kunti  then  had  a  dispute  for  the  honour  of  becoming  a  sati  (suttee) 
which  ended  with  Madri  burning  herself  with  her  husband's  corpse.^ 
Pandu    or  Prana— A    son   of  Dhatri   and   Ayati,   who   was 

•  Indian  Epic  Poetry,  p.  02,  -Ubid.  tibid. 


444  PAN 

married   to    Pimdarika,   and   was   the    ancestor   of    Usanas   the 
preceptor  of  the  Daityas. 

Fanini — "  The  greatest  known  grammarian  of  ancient  India, 
whose  work  on  the  Sanskrit  language  has  up  to  the  present  day 
remained  the  standard  of  Sanskrit  grammar.  Its  merits  are  so 
great,  that  Panini  was  ranked  among  the  Rishis,  or  inspired  seers, 
and  at  a  later  period  of  Sanskrit  literature,  was  supposed  to  have 
received  the  fundamental  rules  of  his  work  from  the  god  Siva 
himself.  Of  the  personal  history  of  Panini  nothing  positive  is 
known,  except  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  village  Salatura, 
situated  north-west  of  Attock,  on  the  Indus — whence  he  is  also 
surnamed  Salaturiya — and  that  his  mother  was  called  Dakshi, 
wherefore,  on  his  mother's  side,  he  must  have  been  a  descendant 
of  the  celebrated  family  of  Daksha,  A  tale-book,  the  Kathasa- 
ritsdgara  (2.  e.^  the  ocean  for  the  rivers  of  tales,)  gives,  indeed, 
some  circumstantial  account  of  the  life  and  death  of  Panini  ;  but 
its  narrative  is  so  absurd,  aud  the  work  itself  of  so  modern  a  date 
— it  was  written  in  Cashmere,  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century — that  no  credit  whatever  can  be  attached  to  the  facts 
related  by  it,  or  to  the  inferences  which  modern  scholars  have 
drawn  from  them.  According  to  the  views  expressed  by  Gold- 
stiicker  {Fdninif  his  place  in  Sanskrit  Literattire :  London, 
1861,)  it  is  probable  that  Panini  lived  before  Sakyamuni,  the 
founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion,  whose  death  took  place  about 
543  B.  c,  but  that  a  more  definite  date  of  the  great  grammarian 
has  but  little  chance  of  ascertainment  in  the  actual  condition  of 
Sanskrit  philosophy.  The  grammar  of  Panini  consists  of  eight 
Adhyayas,  or  books,  each  book  comprising  four  Padas,  or  chapters, 
and  each  chapter  a  number  of  Slitras  (q.  v.,)  or  aphoristical  rules. 
The  latter  amount  in  the  whole  to  3996  ;  but  three,  perhaps  four, 
of  them  did  not  originally  belong  to  the  work  of  Pdnini.  The 
arrangement  of  these  rules  differs  completely  from  what  a  European 
would  expect  m  a  grammatical  work,  for  it  is  based  on  the 
principle  of  tracing  linguistic  phenomena,  and  not  concerned  in 
the  classification  of  the  linguistic  material^  according  to  the 
so-called  parts  of  speech.  A  chapter,  for  instance,  treating  of  a 
prolongation  of  vowols,  will  deal  with  such  a  fact  whenever  it 


PAN  445 

occurs,  be  it  in  the  fovmatiou  of  bases,  or  iu  conjugation, 
declension,  composition,  &c.  The  rules  of  conjugation,  declension, 
&c  ,  are,  for  the  same  reason,  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  same 
chapter  or  iu  the  same  order  iu  which  European  gramioars  would 
teach  them  ;  nor  would  any  single  book  or  chapter,  however 
apparently  more  systematically  arranged — from  a  European  point 
of  view — such  as  the  chapters  on  affixes  or  composition,  suffice  by 
itself  to  convey  the  full  linguistic  material  concerned  in  it,  apart 
from  the  rest  of  the  work.  In  a  general  manner,  Panini's  work 
may  therefore  be  called  a  natural  history  of  the  Sanskrit  language, 
in  the  sense  that  it  has  the  strict  tendency  of  giving  an  accurate 
description  of  facts,  instead  of  making  such  a  description  subser- 
vient to  the  theories  according  to  which  the  linguistic  material 
is  usually  distributed  by  European  grammarians.  Whatever 
objections  may  be  raised  against  such  an  arrangement,  the 
very  fact  of  its  differing  from  that  in  our  grammars  makes  it 
peculiarly  instructive  to  the  European  student,  as  it  accustoms  his 
mind  to  survey  language  from  another  point  of  view  than  that 
usually  presented  to  him,  and  as  it  must  iuduce  him,  too,  to 
question  the  soundness  of  many  linguistic  theories  now  looked 
upon  as  axiomatic  truths.  As  the  method  of  Pdnini  requires  in  a 
student  the  power  of  combining  many  rules  scattered  all  over  the 
work,  and  of  combining,  also,  many  inferences  to  be  drawn  from 
these  rules,  it  exercises,  moreover,  on  the  mind  of  the  student  an 
effect  analogous  to  that  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar 
advantage  of  the  study  of  mathematics.  The  rules  of  Panini  were 
criticised  and  completed  by  Katydyana,  who,  according  to  all 
probability,  was  the  teacher,  and  therefore  the  contemporary  of 
Patanjali  ;  and  he,  in  his  turn,  was  criticised  by  Patanjali,  (q.  v.,) 
who  sides  frequently  with  Panini.  These  three  authors  are  the 
canonical  triad  of  the  grammarians  of  India  ;  and  their  works  are, 
iu  truth,  so  remarkable  in  their  own  department,  that  they  exceed 
in  literary  merit  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  grammatical  productions  of 
other  nations,  so  far  as  the  two  classes  are  comparable.  The  rules 
of  Panini  were  commented  on  by  many  authors.  The  best  existing 
commentary  on  them  is  that  called  the  Kasikavrittif  by  Vamana 
Jayaditya,  which  follows  these  rules  in  their  original  order.     At 


446  PAN— PAR 


a  later  period,  attempts  v;ere  made  to  arrange  the  rules  of  Panini 
in  a  maimer  which  approaches  more  to  the  European  method  ;  the 
chief  work  of  this  category  is  the  Siddhd?iia  Kaumuti,  by  Bhattoji- 
dikshita.  Panini  mentions,  in  his  vStitras,  several  grammarians 
who  preceded  him,  amongst  others,  Sakatayana.  Manuscripts  of 
a  grammar  ascribed  to  a  grammarian  of  this  name  exist  in  the 
Library  of  the  India  Office  in  London,  and  in  the  Library  of  the 
Board  of  Examiners  at  Madras.  On  the  ground  of  a  few  pages 
only  of  the  latter  an  attempt  has  been  very  recently  made  to 
prove  that  this  grammar  is  the  one  referred  to  by  Panini,  and 
therefore  older  than  the  work  of  the  latter.  But  the  facts  adduced 
in  proof  of  this  hypothesis  are  so  ludicrously  weak,  and  the 
reasoning  upon  them  so  feeble  and  inconclusive,  whereas  the 
evidence  in  favour  of  the  comparatively  recent  date  of  this  work 
is  so  strong,  that  no  value  whatever  can  be  attached  to  this  hasty 
hypothesis.  For  the  present,  therefore,  Panini's  work  still  remains 
the  oldest  existing  grammatical  work  of  India,  and  probably  of 
the  human  race.  The  Sutras  of  Panini  with  a  modern  commentary 
by  two  native  pandits,  and  with  extracts  from  the  Varttikas  of 
Katyayana  and  the  Mahabhashya  of  Patanjali,  were  edited  at 
Calcutta  in  1809.  This  edition,  together  Avith  the  modern  com- 
mentary, but  with  garbled  extracts  from  the  extracts  mentioned, 
was  re-printed  at  Bonn  in  1839-1840  by  Dr.  O.  Bochtlingk,  who 
added  to  it  remarks  of  his  own  and  some  indices.  For  the 
literature  connected  with  Panini,  see  Colebrooke's  preface  to  his 
Grammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Language  (Calc.  1805,)  and  Gold- 
stiicker's  Fd?iini,  &c.,  as  mentioned  above." — Chambers'  Ency- 
clopcedia,  VII,  231. 

Pannagari — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  who  was  previously 
a  pupil  of  Bashkali. 

Papa — The  name  of  one  of  the  Narakas. 

Para— The  son  of  Anga,  a  descendant  of  Anu  ;  also  a  sou  of 
Prithusena,  a  descendant  of  Hastin  ;  and  of  Samara,  iu  the  same 
line. 

Para  or  Para —A  river  in  Malwa,  the  Par  vat  i. 


PAR  447 

Para — Supreme,  infinite  ;  aud  Pam,  the  farther  bank  or  limif, 
the  point  that  is  to  be  attained  by  crossing  a  river  or  sea,  or 
figuratively  the  world  or  existence.  Vishnu,  then,  is  Para,  that 
which  nothing  surpasses  ;  and  Para,  the  end  or  object  of  existence  ; 
he  is  Apara  para,  the  farthest  bound  of  that  which  is  illimitable, 
or  space  and  time  :  he  is  Param  parabhyah,  above  or  beyond  the 
highest  being,  beyond  or  superior  to  all  the  elements  :  he  is 
Paramartha  rupi,  or  identical  with  final  truth,  or  knowledge  of 
soul  :  he  is  Brahma  para,  the  object  or  essence  of  spiritual  wisdom. 
Paraparabhuta  is  said  to  imply  the  farther  limit  (Para)  of  rudi- 
mental  matter.     See  Wilson's  Notes  to  Vishnu  Purina,  113. 

Paradas— See  Pahlavas. 

Paramanu^A  measure  of  time,  equal  to  one  Anu. 

Param— The  duration  of  Brahma's  life,  consisting  of  a  hundred 
of  his  years. 

Paramatma — A  name  of  Vishnu,  meaning  '  supreme  spirit.' 
Parameshthin— The    sou    of  Indrayumna,    a    descendant   of 
Bharata. 

Paramiksha— A  son  of  Anu. 

Paran — The  heavenly  one,  in  Tamil.  It  corresponds  with 
Brahm,  or  Para  Brahm  of  the  Upanishads.  In  the  South  there 
lias  been  a  controversy  whether  Vishnu  or  Siva  is  Paran,  or  the 
supreme  Being. 

Pararddham— I,  Half  of  the  duration  of  Brahma's  life  ;  2, 
That  number  which  occurs  in  the  eighteenth  place  of  figures, 
enumerated  according  to  the  rule  of  decimal  notation. 

Paras — A  class  of  deities,  consisting  of  twelve,  to  appear  in  the 
ninth  Mauwautara. 

Parasara — A  great  sage,  the  son  of  Sakti,  and  grandson  of 
Vasishtha.  In  order  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  father,  who  had 
been  devoured  by  a  Rakshas,  he  commenced  a  sacrifice  to  effect 
the  destruction  of  all  the  Rakshasas,  but  was  dissuaded  from  it  by 
his  grandbirc  ;  who  showed  him  that  his  father's  death  was  the 
work  ordc!:tiiiv,     Pulaslyn.  taught  him  the  Vielinu  Purdna,  which 


us  PAR 

he  related  to  Maitareya,  to  convey  the  truths  thai  the  world  was 
produced  from  Vishnu  ;  that  it  exists  iu  him  ;  that  he  is  the  cause 
of  its  continuance  and  cessation  ;  that  he  is  the  world.  Par^sara 
was  also  the  Vydsa  of  the  twenty-sixth  Dwapara,  and  a  teacher  of 
a  branch  of  the  Rig  Veda,  and  of  the  Saraa  Veda. 

Buchanan  has  noticed  the  incompatibility  of  Parasara's  genealogy 
with  his  being,  as  it  is  stated,  cotemporary  with  S^ntanu,  king  of 
Hastindpur,  that  prince  being  the  44th  in  descent  from  Atri,  who 
is  cotemporary  with  Vasishtha,  who  again  is  but  three  generations 
anterior  toParasara  ;  he  supposes  therefore  that  many  generations 
in  the  line  of  Vasishtha  must  have  been  omitted.  It  is  not 
necessary,  however,  to  attempt  to  reconcile  these  incongruities,  for 
the  coetaneous  existence  of  Atri  and  Vasishtha  is  less  chronological 
than  mythological,  or  perhaps,  as  they  are  both  enumerated 
amongst  the  stars  of  the  great  bear,  astronomical  ;  it  extends 
throughout  the  Manwantara  ;  their  immediate  successors,  who 
hold  a  sacred  character,  enjoy  a  like  longevity,  and  are  similarly 
cotemporary,  at  any  period,  w^ith  their  ancestry  and  posterity  ;  if 
we  consider  them  as  mere  mortals  we  must  suppose  that  Parasara 
preceded  the  great  war  by  three  generations,  Krishna  Dwaipayana 
Vyasa,  his  son,  being  the  father  of  Dhritarashtra,  Pandu,  and 
Vidura,  by  the  widows  of  Vichitravirya.  Vyasa  was,  however, 
cotemporary  with  his  grandson  and  their  descendants,  agreeably  to 
the  above  system  of  saintly  immortality.  Mr.  Bentley  places 
Parasara,  about  575,  b.  c,  (Hindu  Astronomy)  ;  Buchanan,  about 
1300,  B.C.,  (Genealogies  of  the  Hindus)  ;  and  Wilford,  1391,  B.C., 
(As.  Res.  IX,  87) ;  Wilson's  Works,  III,  123. 

2,  A  second  Parasara  is  the  author  of  a  celebrated  code  of  laws  ; 
he  is  mentioned  by  Yajnavalka  in  his  standard  work,  and  often 
quoted  by  the  commentaries  ;  3,  There  is  a  third  of  the  same  name 
the  reputed  author  of  a  Tantra  ;  and,  4,  A  fourth,  the  author  of 
an  astronomical  work. 

Parasikas — The  people  of  Pais,  or  Persians. 

Parasarama  or  Rama — of  the  axe  (Parusa).     See  Rama. 

Paravatas  -A  elas;;  of  deities  of  the  Second  Manwautara. 


PAR  449 

Paravrij — An  outcast  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  who  was 
blind  and  lame,  but  restored  to  sight  and  the  power  of  walking  by 
the  Asvius.     O.  S.  T.,  V,  246, 

Paravrit — A  prince,  the  son  of  Rukmakavacha,  and  father  of 
Jyamagha. 

Parijata  tree— A  celestial  tree,  produced  at  the  churning  of 
the  ocean,  from  the  wdiirlpool  of  the  deep,  the  delight  of  the 
nymphs  of  heaven,  perfuming  the  world  with  its  blossoms. 
Krishna,  at  the  desire  of  his  wife  Satyabhama  carried  oflf  this  tree 
from  the  gardens  of  Indra.  Sachi  excited  Indra  to  prevent  its 
removal.  A  conflict  ensued  between  the  gods  and  Krishna,  which 
is  narrated  at  great  length  in  the  Hari  V.,  and  with  some 
variations  in  the  Vishnu  Purana.  Krishna  was  victorious,  and 
took  the  tree  to  Dwaraka  where  it  was  planted  in  Satyabhjlma's 
garden.  When  Krishna  abandoned  his  mortal  body  the  tree 
proceeded  to  heaven  again  along  with  the  Sudharman  palace. 

Parikshit — The  son  of  Abhimanyu  and  grandson  of  Arjuna. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Kurus  the  child  (Parikshit)  was 
killed  m  the  womb  of  his  mother  Uttara,  by  the  magic  Brahma 
w^eapon  hurled  by  Aswatthamau,  but  restored  to  life  again  by 
Krishna.  When  the  Pandava  princes  determined  to  renounce  the 
w^orld  and  retire  into  the  forest,  the  Rajah  Yudhishthira  gave  the 
Raj  of  Hasduapur  to  Parikshit.  The  commencement  of  the  Kali 
age  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Parikshit,  though 
according  to  the  usual  notions  it  commenced  from  the  death  of 
Krishna.  The  Vyasa  who  arranged  or  compiled  the  Puranas 
flourished  during  the  reign  of  Parikshit.  The  prince  himself  died 
of  the  bite  of  a  snake,  according  to  the  Maha  Bharata,  and  it  is 
said  the  Bhagavata  Purana  was  related  to  him  between  the  bite  and 
its  fatal  effect.  The  king  had  incurred  the  imprecation  of  a  hermit 
by  which  he  was  sentenced  to  die  of  the  bite  of  a  venomous  snake, 
at  the  expiration  of  seven  days  ;  and  in  preparation  for  this  event, 
he  repaired  to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  ;  thither  also  went  the 
gods  and  sages  to  witness  his  death.  Amongst  the  latter  was 
Suka  the  son  of  Vyasa  ;  and  it  was  in  reply  to  Parikshit's  question 
''  what  should  a  man  do  who  is  about  to  die"  that  he  narrated  the 

^7 


450  PAR 

Bhagavata,  as  he  had  heard  it  from  Vydsa  ;  believing  that  uothiug 
secures  final  happiness  bo  certainly  as  to  die  while  the  thoughts  are 
wholly  engrossed  by  Vishnu.     V.  P. 

Parinamin — That  which  may  be  modified,  one  of  the  defini- 
tions of  Pradhana,  q.  v. 

Paripatra — l,  A.  range  of  mountains  the  northern  portion  of 
the  Vindhya  chain  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Ahinagu,  a  descendant 
of  Kusa. 

Pariplava — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Sukhibala,  or  Sukhiuala,  of 
the  race  of  Puru. 

Pariyatra — A  mountain  range,  to  the  west  of  Meru,  called  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana  the  limitative  mountains  in  the  w^est.  It  is 
said  in  Wilson's  notes  to  be  the  same  as  Paripatra,  the  northern 
and  western  portion  of  the  Viudhya. 

Parivatsara — One  of  the  five  Cyclic  years,  or  Yugas,  q.  v. 

Parjanya — The  thundering  rain  god.  There  are  several  hymns 
in  the  Rig  Veda  which  celebrate  Parjanya,  as  the  procreative  and 
stimulating  fructifier.  "  The  winds  blow,  the  lightnings  fall,  the 
plants  shoot  up  ;  the  heaven  fructifies  ;  food  is  produced  for  all 
created  things,  when  Parjanya,  thundering,  replenishes  the  earth 
with  moisture."  Parjanya  forms  the  subject  of  two  papers  by 
Dr.  G.  Biihler,  containing  a  comparison  of  Parjanya  with  the 
Lithuanian  god  Perkunas,  the  god  of  thunder.  Dr.  Biihler  holds 
Parjanya  to  have  been  decidedly  distinct  from  Indra.  "  Taking  a 
review  of  the  whole,  we  find  that  Parjanya  is  a  god  w^ho  presides 
over  the  lightning,  the  thunder,  the  rain,  and  the  procreation  of 
plants  and  living  creatures.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  whether 
he  is  originally  a  god  of  the  rain  or  a  god  of  the  thunder."  He 
inclines,  however,  to  think  that  from  the  etymology  of  his  name,  and 
the  analogy  between  him  and  Perkunas,  he  was  originally  the 
thunder  god.  In  his  German  essay,  his  conclusion  is  that  Parjanya 
is  "  the  god  of  thunderstorms  and  rain",  the  generator  and  nourisher 
of  plants  and  living  creatures."— /It/wir,  0.  S.  J".,  V,  142. 

Parjanya  is  also  represented  as  the  brother  of  Aditi,  and  husband 
of  Prithivi,  the  Earth.  He  is  also  described  as  the  father  of  Soma, 
and  the  protector  of  Ihe  Soma  i)1nnt. 


PAR— PAT  451 


2,  A  Lokapala,  the  regent  of  the  north"and  king  of  clouds  j  4, 
The  wife  of  Marichi,  whose  son  became  a  Lokapdla. 

Parna — One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  Wliite  Yajush. 

Parswanatha— The  twenty-third  of  the  Tirthankaras,  or 
deified  saints  of  the  Jainas  in  the  present  era.  He  and  Mahavira, 
the  twenty-fourth,  are  regarded  with  the  greatest  veneration 
throughout  Hindustan.  At  Behipura,  near  Benares,  there  is  a 
temple  honoured  as  the  birth-place  of  Pdraswanatha. 

Parvana  Sraddhas— Ancesti-al  oblations,  or  the  worship  of 
progenitors,  at  certain  lunar  periods. 

Parvas — Days  of  periodical  impurity  when  a  wise  man  must 
desist  from  the  study  of  the  Vedas. 

Parvasa — Called  also  Sarvagas  the  son  of  Paurnamasa,  and 
brother  of  Kasyapa. 

Parvasi — The  wife  of  Parvasa,  and  mother  of  Yajnavama  and 
Kasyata,  who  were  both  founders  of  Gotras  or  families. 

Parvati — The  daughter  of  Himalaya  and  spouse  of  Mahadeva. 
Her  name  was  changed  to  Durga  (q.  v.)  ;  she  is  also  called  Devi, 
Uma,  &c.  Dr.  Muir  quotes  various  passages  to  show  the  dignity 
to  which  this  goddess  has  eventually  been  elevated  in  the  estima- 
tion of  her  worshippers  ;  and  that  she  has  now  attained  a  far 
higher  rank  in  the  Indian  pantheon  than  was  originally  enjoyed  by 
the  daughter  of  Daksha  and  Himavat.     O.  S.  T.,  IV,  372. 

Parvatiyas — A  designation  of  many  of  the  aboriginal  tribes 
of  India,  meaning  "  dwellers  in  mountains,"  from  Parvati,  a 
mountain. 

Pasupati — A  name  of  Siva.  There  is  a  treatise  on  the 
Pasupata  worship,  or  worship  of  Siva  by  Pasupati. 

Pasupati — One  of  the  eight  Rudras,  the  one  who  has  the  place 
of  fire. 

Pasuyajna— One  of  the  tive  great  sacrificial  ceremonies  ;  the 
sacrifice  of  a  horse  or  animal.     See  Aswamedha. 

Patala — The  lowest  of  the  seven  regions  in  the  interior  of  the 
earth,  extending  downwards  ten  thousand  yojanns.     These  seven 


452  PAT— PAU 


are  Atala,  Vitala,  Nitala,  Gabhastimat,  Mabitala,  Sutala,  and 
Patila.  Their  soil  is  severally  Avhite,  black,  purple,  yellow,  saudy, 
stony,  and  of  gold.  They  are  embellished  with  magnificent 
palaces,  in  which  dwell  numerous  Dauavas,  Daityas,  Yakshas, 
and  great  snake  gods.  The  Muni  Narada,  after  his  return  from 
those  regions  to  the  skies,  declared  amongst  the  celestials  that 
Patala  was  much  more  delightful  than  Indra's  heaven.  '  What' 
exclaimed  the  sage,  '  can  be  compared  to  Patala,  where  the  N^gas 
are  decorated  with  brilliant  and  beautiful  and  pleasure-shedding 
jewels  ;'  and  who  will  not  delight  in  Patala  where  the  lovely 
daughters  of  the  Daityas  and  Danavas  Avander  about,  fascinating 
even  the  most  austere  ;  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  diffuse  light,  and 
not  heat,  by  day  ;  and  where  the  moon  shines  by  night  for  illumina- 
tion, not  for  cold  ;  where  the  sons  of  Danu,  happy  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  delicious  viands  and  strong  wines,  know  not  how  the  time 
passes  ?  There  are  beautiful  groves  and  streams  and  lakes  where 
the  lotus  blows  ;  and  the  skies  are  resonant  with  Koil's  song. 
Splendid  ornaments,  fragrant  perfumes,  rich  unguents,  the  blended 
music  of  the  lute  and  pipe  and  tabor  ;  these  and  many  other  enjoy- 
ments are  the  common  portion  of  the  Danavas,  Daityas,  and  snake- 
gods,  who  inhabit  the  regions  of  Patala. 

Below  the  seven  Pat^las  is  the  form  of  Vishnu,  from  the  quality 
of  darkness,  which  is  called  Sesha.     Vishnu  Purana,  ^t.  205*. 

Patala,  Patanga — The  names  of  two  of  the  seven  suns  into 
which  the  solar  rays  dilate  at  the  great  Pralaya,  when  Vishnu 
assumes  the  character  of  Rudra  the  destroyer,  and  descends  to  re- 
unite all  his  creatures  with  himself. 

Pataliputra  or  Palibothra— The  metropolis  of  Magadha. 

Pathya — A  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda. 

Patumat— One  of  the  Andhra  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of 
Meghaswati. 

Patumitra — One  of  the  kings  of  Mekala,  a  country  in  the 
Narbada.     Vishnu  Purioa,  p.  479. 

Paulomi — The  wife  ofBrighu,  a  descendant  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha. 


PAU— PAV  453 


Paulomas  — Distiuguished  Danavas  ;  powerful,  ferocious  and 
cruel.  The  Vishnu  Puraua  states  that  Puloma,  who  was  married 
to  Kasyapa,  bore  him  thirty  thousand  of  them. 

Paundraka  — A  Vasudeva,  who  assumed  the  insignia  and  style 
of  Krishna,  and  was  supported  by  his  frieud  and  ally  the  king  of 
Kasi.  Krishna  marched  against  them  and  destroyed  them  both. 
The  son  of  the  king  of  Kasi  then  sent  a  magical  beiug  against 
Krishna  ;  but  the  discus,  Sudarsana,  speedily  destroyed  it,  with  the 
army  of  Kdsi,  and  the  demi-gods  attendant  upon  Siva  :  the  discus 
afterwards  set  on  fire  the  city  of  Benares  consuming  it  and  its 
inhabitants.  In  this  legend,  says  Professor  Wilson,  we  have  a 
contest  between  the  followers  of  Vishnu  and  Siva  intimated,  as, 
besides  the  assistance  given  by  the  latter  to  Paandraka,  Benares 
has  been  from  all  time,  as  it  is  at  present,  the  high  place  of  the 
Saiva  worship. 

Paundras — The  inhabitants  of  Pundra,  a  western  province  of 
Bengal.     , 

Pauras— Arace  of  kings  whose  dynasty  continued  three  hun- 
dred years.     Vishnu  Puriua,  p.  477. 

Puravas— Descendants  of  Puru. 

Pauravi— A  title,  attached  to  the  second  Rohini,  wife  of 
Vasudeva,  to  distinguish  her  from  the  first,  the  mother  of  Balarama. 

Paurnamasa — The  son  of  Marlchi  and  Sambhuti. 

Paurnamasi — The  day  of  full  moon  one  of  the  seasons  when 
gifts  are  meritorious. 

Pausha — The  name  of  one  of  the  lunar  months,  corresponding 
to  December. 

Paushinji—A  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda. 

Pavaka,  Pavamana— Two  of  the  brilliant  sons  of  Ao-ni. 
According  to  the  Vdyu  Purana  Pauvamdua  is  the  fire  produced  by 
friction,  or  Nirmathaya  ;  and  Pivaka  is  electric  or  Vaidyata  fire. 
The  Bhagavata  makes  these  two  fires  the  sons  of  Antarddhana. 
When  dominion  over  different  provinces  of  creation  was  assigned 
to  different  beings,  Pavaka  was  made  chief  of  tlie  Vasus. 


454  PAY— PIN 


Pavitras — Oue  of  the  five  classes  of  deities  of  the  fourteenth 
Manwautara. 

Payoshni — A  river  which  the  Vishnu  Purana  says  rises  from 
the  Riksha  mountains  ;  but  the  Vayu  and  Ktirma  bring  it  from 
tlie  Vindhya  range.  There  are  several  indications  of  its  position 
in  the  Mahabharata,  but  none  very  precise.  Its  source  appears  to 
be  near  that  of  the  Krishna  ;  it  flows  near  the  beginning  of  the 
Dandaka  forest,  which  should  place  it  rather  near  to  the  sources 
of  the  Godaveri  ;  it  passes  through  Vidarbha  or  Berar,  and 
Yudhishthira  having  bathed  in  it,  comes  to  the  Vaidurya  mountain 
and  the  Narbada  river.  These  circumstances  make  it  likely  that 
the  Payin  Ganga  is  the  river  in  question. 

Phalguna — A  lunar  month  corresponding  nearly  to  January. 

Pindaraka— A  Tirtha.  A  village  in  Guzerat,  still  held  in 
reverence  from  the  following  legend  connected  with  it.  The  three 
sages  Yiswamitra,  Kanwa,  and  Ntirada  were  here  observed  by 
some  boys  who  determined  to  play  a  trick  upon  them.  They 
accordingly  took  a  boy  named  Samba,  and  having  dressed  him  as 
a  damsel,  conducted  him  to  the  sages,  and  with  deep  respect 
enquired,  what  child  will  this  female,  the  wife  of  Babhra,  who  is 
anxious  to  have  a  son  give  birth  to.  The  sages,  knowing  what 
was  done,  replied,  "  She  will  bring  forth  a  club  that  shall  crush 
the  whole  of  the  Yadava  race."  The  boys  related  all  that  had 
occurred  to  Ugrasena  ;  and  as  foretold  a  club  was  produced  from 
the  belly  of  Samba.  Ugrasena  had  the  club  which  was  of  iron, 
ground  to  dust,  and  thrown  into  the  sea  ;  but  the  particles  of  dust 
there  became  rushes  ;  one  part,  which  could  not  be  broken,  was 
swallowed  by  a  fish  ;  the  fish  was  caught,  the  ii'ou  spike  was 
extracted  from  its  belly,  and  was  taken  by  a  hunter  named  Jara. 
This  hunter  afterwards  shot  Krishna  with  an  arrow  tipped  with 
the  iron  spike.     So  was  it  determined  by  fate.     V.  P. 

Pindas — Balls  of  food,  offered  at  Sraddas.  They  are  made  of 
boiled  rice,  sesamum  seeds,  honey  and  butter  ;  various  kinds  of 
fruit  of  pulse,  and  of  grain,  water,  frankincense,  sugar  and  milk, 
nre  also  mixed  up  in  them  at  time.=!  ;  the  '^ize  differs  from  that  of  a 


PIN— PIS  455 


fowl's  egg  to  that  of  a  cocoauut ;  but  the  Pinda  is  usually  of  such 
a  magnitude  as  to  be  couvcniently  held  iu  the  hand. 

Pingala — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  according  to  the  enumer- 
ation in  the  Matsya  Purana. 

Pipal  Tree — Ficus  religiosa  :  the  one  in  Vipula  mountain,  on 
the  west  of  Meru,  is  said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  spread  over 
eleven  hundred  yojanas. 

Pippala— The  name  of  one  portion  of  Jambu-dwipa,  according 
to  the  Mahabharata  ;  the  other  portion  is  called  Sasa  ;  the  two 
are  reflected  in  the  lunar  orb  as  iu  a  mirror. 

Pippalada — A  disciple  of  Devadarsa  and  teacher  of  the 
Atharva  Veda. 

Pipru— One  of  the  demons  of  drought,  represented  in  the 
Rig  Veda  as  one  of  the  malevolent  powers  iu  the  atmosphere,  to 
encounter  whom  Indra  marches  forth  accompanied  by  the  Maruts, 
and  sometimes  attended  by  Vishnu.  The  dreadful  battles  which 
are  described  are  evidently  personifications  of  the  storms  which 
occur  at  the  bursting  of  the  monsoons  in  India. 

Pisacha — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  and  wife  of  Kasyapa. 

Pisacha  Marriage — A  marriage  in  which  a  damsel  is  neither 
purchased,  nor  seduced,  nor  carried  away  captive,  but  simply 
taken  at  a  disadvantage  ;  an  outi-age,  says  Mr.  Wheeler,  "  far 
more  likely  to  be  committed  amongst  a  peaceful  community  than 
amongst  a  race  of  chivalrous  warriors,  like  the  Kshatriyas."  "  If 
a  damsel  found  herself  likely  to  become  a  mother,  without  being 
able  to  furnish  a  satisfactory  reason  for  her  maternity,  she  would 
naturally  plead  that  she  had  been  victimised  by  a  Pisacha  ;  and 
probably  from  this  circumstance  the  term  came  to  be  applied  to 
all  cases  in  which  a  damsel  had  been  taken  at  a  disadvantage  by  a 
mortal  lover."  In  modern  times  the  belief  is  still  common  in  the 
rural  districts  of  India  that  such  events  occur. 

Pisachas — Evil  spirits  or  demons,  supposed  to  haunt  the  earth 
and  inhabit  trees  and  forests.  The  term  is  constantly  applied  to 
the  wild   mouDtaiu   tribes,  the  aborigines.     One  of  the   hvmns  of 


456  PIS— PIV 


the  Rig  Veda  calls  upon  Indra  to  destroy  the   tawny  coloured 
fearfully  roariug  Pisachas,  aud  to  annihilate  the  Rakshasas. 

Pisachika— A  river  that  has  its  rise  on  the  Riksha  mountains. 

Pithastanas — Fifty-one  places  where,  according  to  the 
Tantras,  the  limbs  of  Sati  fell,  when  scattered  by  her  husband  Siva, 
as  he  bore  her  dead  body  about,  and  tore  it  to  pieces,  after 
she  had  put  an  end  to  her  existence  at  Daksha's  sacrifice.  This 
part  of  the  legend  seems  to  be  an  addition  to  the  original  fable, 
and  bears  some  analogy  to  the  Egyptian  fable  of  Isis  and 
Osiris.  At  the  Pitha  stanas  of  Jivalakmukhi,  Vindhyavasiui, 
Kalighat,  and  others,  temples  are  erected  to  the  different  forms  of 
Devi  or  Sati,  not  to  the  phallic  emblem  of  Siva,  which  if  present, 
is  there  as  an  accessory  and  embellishment,  not  as  a  principal,  and 
the  chief  object  of  worship  is  a  figure  of  the  goddess  ;  a  circum- 
stance in  which  there  is  an  essential  difference  between  the  temples 
of  Diirga  and  shrines  of  Osiris. —  Wilson's  Notes  to  Vish?iu 
.JPurdna. 

Pitri-loka — One  of  the  seven  spheres  above  the  earth,  the 
heaven  of  Pitris  and  Brahmans. 

Pitris — Progenitors  ;  born  from  the  side  of  Brahm^  ;  they  are 
also  called  the  sons  of  Angiras.  In  the  divisions  of  the  celestial 
sphere  the  path  of  the  Pitris  is  said  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua  to  be 
in  the  north  of  Agastya,  and  south  of  the  line  of  the  Goat  ; 
exterior  to  the  Vaiswanara  path.  The  Pitris  derive  satisfaction 
from  ancestral  offerings  in  the  day  of  the  new  moon,  A  Sradda 
at  certain  seasons  will  content  them  for  a  thousand  years.  The 
songs  of  the  Pitris  are  said  to  confer  purity  of  heart,  integrity  of 
wealth,  prosperous  seasons,  perfect  rites,  and  devout  faith  ;  all 
that  men  can  desire.  The  various  descriptions  of  food,  &c.,  that 
should  be  offered  to  deceased  ancestors,  are  mentioned  in  the 
Vishnu  Puraua. 

Pitrayajna — Obsequial  rites  ;  or  libations  to  the  manes  ;  one 
of  the  great  obligations  or  sacrifices. 

Pivari — The  wife  of  Vedasiras  ;  they  had  many  children,  who 
constituted  the  family,  or  Brahmauical  tribe  of  Bhargavas,  sons  of 
Bhrigu. 


PIY_PON  457 


Piyadasi,  or  Piyadasano— An  Indian  king  identified  both 
by  name  and  circumstances,  with  Asoka.  There  are  rnauy  inscrip- 
tions on  columns  and  rocks,  by  a  Buddhist  prince,  in  an  ancient 
form  of  letter  and  the  Pali  language,  found  in  India  ;  and  many 
of  these  are  attributed  to  Asoka.  Their  purport  agrees  with  his 
character,  and  their  wide  diffusion  with  the  traditionary  report  of 
the  number  of  his  monuments.  His  date  is  near  that  of  Antiochus 
the  Great.     See  Wilson's  Notes  to  Vishnu  Purana,  p.  470. 

Plaksha — One  of  the  seven  Dwipas,  or  great  insular  continents  ; 
surrounded  with  a  sea  of  sugar  cane  juice  or  Ikshu  ;  the  king  was 
named  Midhatithe  ;  the  Dwipa  was  divided  amongst  his  seven 
sons,  and  each  division  was  named  after  the  prince  to  whom  it  was 
subject.  The  several  kingdoms  were  bounded  by  as  many  ranges 
of  mountains,  in  which  the  sinless  inhabitants  ever  dwell,  along 
with  celestial  spirits  and  gods  ;  in  them  are  many  holy  places  ; 
and  the  people  there  live  for  a  long  period,  exempt  from  care  and 
pain,  and  enjoying  uninterrupted  felicity.  There  are  also  in  the 
seven  divisions  of  Plaksha  seven  rivers  flowing  to  the  sea,  whose 
names  alone  are  sufficient  to  take  away  sin  ;  the  people  who  drink 
of  their  waters  are  always  contented  and  happy  ;  and  there  is 
neither  decrease  nor  increase  amongst  them.  Vishnu  Purdna, 
p.  197. 

Pongal,  or  Sankranti— The  Pongal  is  the  greatest  of  the 
unsectarian  festivals  of  the  Hindus.  It  is  celebrated  at  their 
astronomical  new  year  when  the  sun  enters  Capricorn  about  the 
11th  of  January  ;  and  lasts  three  days  ;  during  which  the  Hindus 
employ  themselves  in  mutual  visits  and  compliments,  something  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  Europeans  do  on  the  first  day  of  the  year. 
The  feast  of  the  Pongal  is  a  season  of  rejoicing  for  two  special 
reasons.  The  first  is,  that  the  month  of  Magha,  i.  e.,  December 
— January,  every  day  in  which  is  unlucky,  is  now  over  ;  and  the 
other,  that  it  is  succeeded  by  a  month,  each  day  of  which  is  lucky. 

For  the  purpose  of  averting  the  evil  eflfect  of  the  baleful  month 
of  Magha,  about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  a  sort  of  Sanuyasis, 
t.  c,  penitents,  go  from  door  to  door  of  every  house,  beating  on  a 
plate  of  iron  or  copper,   which  produces  a  piercing  sound.     All 

58 


458  PON 

who  sleep,  being  thus  roused,  are  counselled  to  take  wise  precau- 
tions, and  to  guard  against  the  evil  presages  of  the  month,  by 
expiatory  offerings,  and  sacrifices  to  Siva,  who  presides  over  it. 
With  this  view,  every  morning,  the  women  scour  a  space  of  about 
two  feet  square  before  the  door  of  the  house,  upon  which  they 
draw  several  white  lines  with  flowers  ;  and  upon  these  they  place 
several  little  balls  of  cow-dung,  sticking  in  each  a  citron  blossom. 
These  little  balls  are  probably  designed  to  represent  Vighnesvara, 
the  remover  of  obstacles,  whom  they  desire  to  propitiate  with  the 
flower.  Each  day  these  little  lumps  of  cow-dung,  with  their 
flowers,  are  picked  up  and  preserved  in  a  private  place,  till  the 
last  day  of  the  month  Magha  ;  and  when  that  comes,  the  women, 
who  are  alone  charged  with  this  ceremony,  put  the  whole  in  a 
basket,  and  march  from  the  house,  with  musical  instruments  before 
them,  clapping  their  hands,  till  they  reach  some  waste  place  where 
they  dispose  of  the  relics. 

Then,  with  the  first  day  of  the  new  month  begins  the  festival, 
the  first  day  of  which  is  called  Bhogi  Pongal,  i.  e,,  Indra's  Pongal, 
and  it  is  kept  by  inviting  the  near  relations  to  an  entertainment, 
which  passes  off  with  hilarity  and  mirth. 

The  second  day  is  called  Surya  Pongal,  i.  e.  Pongal  of  the  sun, 
because  it  is  set  apart  in  honour  of  the  sun.  Married  women,  after 
purifying  themselves  by  bathing,  which  they  perform  by  plunging 
into  the  water  without  taking  off  their  clothes,  and  coming  out  all 
wet,  set  about  boiling  rice  with  milk,  in  the  open  air,  and  not 
under  any  cover  ;  and  when  it  begins  to  simmer,  they  make  a  loud 
cry,  all  at  once,  repeating  the  words  :  Pongal,  Pongal !  The 
A^essel  is  then  lifted  off  the  fire,  and  set  before  the  idol  of  Vighnes- 
vara, which  is  placed  close  by,  and  after  having  been  offered  to  the 
image,  part  of  the  rice  is  given  to  the  cow  ;  and  the  remainder 
distributed  among  the  people. 

This  is  the  great  day  of  visits  among  the  Hindus.  The  saluta- 
tion begins  with  the  question,  "  has  the  milk  boiled  ?"  to  which  the 
answer  is,  "  it  has  boiled  ;"  and  from  this  the  festival  takes  its 
name  "Pongal"  t.  e.  "boihng-" 

The  third  day  is  called  the  Pongal  of  cows.  On  it  they  mix  in 
a  great  vessel  filled  with   water,  some   saffron,  cotton  seeds,  and 


PRA  459 

leaves  of  the  Margosa  tree  ;  and  then  going  several  times  round  all 
the  cows  and  oxen  belonging  to  the  house,  they  springle  them  with 
the  water,  as  they  turn  to  the  four  cardinal  points  ;  and  make  the 
Sashtanga,  or  prostration  of  the  eight  members,  before  them  four 
times.  This  ceremony  is  performed  by  the  men  only.  Next  the 
cows  are  all  dressed  out,  their  horns  being  painted  with  various 
colours,  and  garlands  of  flowers  and  foliage  put  round  their  necks 
and  over  their  backs.  They  likewise  add  strings  of  cocoanuts 
and  other  fruits,  which  are  soon  shaken  off  by  the  brisk  motion  of 
the  animals,  which  these  trappings  occasion,  and  are  picked  up  by 
children  and  others,  who  follow  the  cattle  on  purpose,  and  greedily 
eat  what  they  gather,  as  something  sacred.  The  cattle  then,  being 
driven  in  herds  through  the  villages,  and  made  to  scamper  about 
from  side  to  side  by  the  jarring  noise  of  many  sounding  instru- 
ments, are,  during  the  remainder  of  the  day,  allowed  to  feed  at 
large  without  a  keeper  ;  and  whatever  trespasses  they  commit  are 
suffered  to  pass  without  notice  or  restraint. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  festival  they  take  the  idols  from  the 
temples,  and  carry  them  in  pomp  to  the  place  where  the  cattle 
have  been  again  collected.  The  girls  of  pleasure,  named  Devada- 
sis,  who  are  found  at  all  ceremonies,  are  also  not  wanting  here. 
Abbe  Dubois. 

Prabha — The  daughter  of  Swarbhana,  and  wife  of  Namuchi  ; 
according  to  the  Matsya  Purana  she  was  the  wife  of  the  sun,  by 
whom  he  had  Prabhata  ;  according  to  the  Bh^gavata  she  was  the 
wife  ofKalpa,  who  had  by  her  Pratah,  (dawn)  Madhyadina,  (noon) 
and  Saya,  (evening.) 

Prabhakara — A  Rishi  of  the  house  of  Atri,  who  married  the 
ten  daughters  of  Raudr^swa,  a  descendant  of  Puru. 

Prabhasa— (Light.)  l,  One  of  the  deities  called  Vasus,  because 
they  are  always  present  in  light,  or  luminous  irradiation  ;  2,  A 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  west  of  India  on  the  coast  of  Guzerat, 
near  the  temple  of  Somanath,  and  town  of  Pattau  Somanath.  In 
the  Mahabharata  it  is  placed  near  Dwaraka.  It  was  visited  by 
Arjuna,  and  afterwards  by  Balar^ma  during  the  great  war.  Before 
the  destruction  of  Dwaraka  Krishna  issued  a  proclamation  that  all 


460  PRA 

the  people  of  the  city  should  go  to  the  sea-shore  at  Prabhdsa  aud 
pay  their  devotions  to  the  deity  of  Dwdraka. 

Prabhata — A  son  of  Vivaswat,  the  Sun,  by  his  wife  Prabha. 
Prachetas — l,  A  deity  who  presides  over  the  tongue  ;  2,  A  son 
of  Duryamau,  a  descendant  of  Druhya  ;  3, 

Prachetasas — The  ten  sons  of  Prachinaverhis,  who,  instructed 
by  their  father,  plunged  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  with 
minds  wholly  devoted  to  Narayana,  the  sovereign  of  the  universe, 
were  engrossed  by  religious  austerity  for  ten  thousand  years  :  on 
which,  Vishnu,  being  pleased  with  them,  appeared  to  them  amidst 
the  waters,  of  the  complexion  of  the  full-blown  lotus  leaf.  Behold- 
ing him  mounted  on  the  king  of  birds,  Garuda,  the  Prachetasas 
bowed  down  their  heads  in  devout  homage  ;  when  Vishnu  said  to 
them,  "  Receive  the  boon  you  have  desired  ;  for  I,  the  giver  of 
good,  am  content  with  you,  and  am  present."  The  Prachetasas 
replied  to  him  with  reverence,  aud  told  him  that  the  cause  of  their 
devotions  was  the  command  of  their  father  to  effect  the  multiplica- 
tion of  mankind.  The  god,  having  accordingly  granted  to  them 
the  object  of  their  prayers,  disappeared,  and  they  came  up  from 
the  water. 

The  Prachetasas  took  to  wife  Marisha  (q.  v.)  and  from  her  was 
born  the  eminent  patriarch  Daksha,  who  had  in  a  former  life  been 
born  as  a  son  of  Brahma.     Vishnu  Purana. 

Prachinaverhis — The  eldest  of  the  six  sons  of  Havirdhana  ;  he 
was  a  great  prince  and  patriarch  by  whom  mankind  was  multiplied 
after  the  death  of  Havir,dhana  ;  he  was  called  Prachinaverhis  from 
his  placing  upon  the  earth  the  sacred  grass,  pointing  to  the  east. 
He  married  Savarna,  the  daughter  of  the  ocean,  who  was  the 
mother  of  ten  sous,  styled  Prachetasas,  who  were  in  the  sea  for  ten 
thousand  years.     Vishnu  Purina. 

Prachinvat— A  prince,  the  son  of  Janamejaya,  and  grandson  of 
Puru. 

Pradarsanas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  third  Manwantara. 
Pradhana — Primary  or  crude  matter  ;  a  form  of  Vishnu  ;  it  is 
also  designated  Prakriti,  Nature  ;  it  comprehends  both  causes  and 


PR  A  461 

effects  ;  it  is  durable,  self-sustained,  uudecaying  ;  the  mother  of 
the  world  ;  without  beginning  ;  and  that  into  which  all  that  is 
produced  is  resolved.  Pradhana,  when  unmodified,  is  according  to 
the  Sankhyasand  Pauranics,  nothing  more  than  the  three  qualities 
in  equilibrio,  or  goodness,  foulness,  and  darkness  neutralising  each 
other.     Sankhya  Karika,  p.   52. 

Pradhanatma — A  name  of  Vishnu,  meaning,  one  with  crude 
nature,  or  Viswabhavana. 

Pradosha — A  son  of  Kalpa,  and  Dosha.  Pradosha  had  two 
brothers  Nisitha  and  Vyushta  ;  the  three  names  mean  the  begin- 
ning, middle  and  end  of  night. 

Pradyota — A  king  of  Magadha,  son  of  the  minister  Simika, 
Avho  having  killed  his  sovereign  placed  his  son  Pradyota  on  the 
throne  ;  the  dynasty  lasted  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  years. 

Pradyumna— The  son  of  Krishna  and  Rukmini — the  incarnate 
Indian  Cupid.  He  is  called  in  the  South  Manmatha  (the  con- 
founder  of  the  mind)  and  in  the  North  of  India,  Kama  (Desire.) 
He  is  said  to  be  the  mental  son  of  Vishnu,  and  to  have  become 
incarnate  in  Pradyumna,  the  first  born  of  the  108,000  sons  of 
Krishna.     His  history  is  thus  related  iu  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

*'  When  Pradyumna  was  but  six  days  old,  he  was  stolen  from 
the  lying-in  chamber  by  Sambara,  terrible  as  death  ;  for  the  demon 
foreknew  that  Pradyumna,  if  he  lived,  would  be  his  destroyer. 
Taking  away  the  boy,  Sambara  cast  him  into  the  ocean,  swarming 
with  monsters,  into  a  whirlpool  of  roaring  waves,  the  haunt  of  the 
huge  creatures  of  the  deep.  A  large  fish  swallowed  the  child,  but 
he  died  not,  and  was  born  anew  from  its  belly  :  for  that  fish,  with 
others,  was  caught  by  the  fishermen,  and  delivered  by  them  to  the 
great  Asura  Sambara.  His  wife  Mayadevi,  the  mistress  of  his 
household,  superintended  the  operations  of  the  cooks,  and  saw, 
when  the  fish  was  cut  open,  a  beautiful  child,  looking  like  a  new 
shoot  of  the  blighted  tree  of  love.  Whilst  wondering  who  this 
should  be,  and  how  he  could  have  got  into  the  belly  of  the  fish, 
N^rada  came  to  satisfy  her  curiosity,  and  said  to  the  graceful 
dame,  "  This  is  the  son  of  him  by  whom  the  whole  world  is 
created  and  destroyed,  the  son  of  Vishnu,  who  was  stolen  by 


462  PRA 

Sambara  from  the  lying-iu  chamber,  and  tossed  by  him  into  the 
sea,  where  he  was  swallowed  by  the  fish.  He  is  now  in  thy  power  ; 
do  thou,  beautiful  woman,  tenderly  rear  this  jewel  of  mankind." 
Thus  counselled  by  Narada,  May^devi  took  charge  of  the  boy,  and 
carefully  reared  him  from  childhood,  being  fascinated  by  the 
beauty  of  his  person.  Her  affection  became  still  more  impassioned 
when  he  was  decorated  with  the  bloom  of  adolescence.  The  grace- 
fully moving  Mayavati  then,  fixing  her  heart  and  eyes  upon  the 
light-minded  Pradyumna,  gave  him,  whom  she  regarded  as  her- 
self, all  her  magic  (and  illusive)  powers. 

Observing  these  marks  of  passionate  affection,  the  sou  of 
Krishna  said  to  the  lotus-eyed  Mayadevi,  "  Why  do  you  indulge 
in  feelings  so  unbecoming  the  character  of  a  mother  ?"  To  which 
she  replied,  "  Thou  art  not  a  sou  of  mine  ;  thou  art  the  son  of 
Vishnu,  whom  Kala  Sambara  carried  away,  and  threw  into  the 
sea  :  thou  wast  swallowed  by  a  fish,  but  wast  rescued  by  me  from 
its  belly.  Thy  fond  mother,  O  beloved,  is  still  weeping  for  thee." 
When  the  valiant  Pradyumna  heard  this  he  was  filled  with  wrath, 
and  defied  Sambara  to  battle.  In  the  conflict  that  ensued,  the 
son  of  Madhava  slew  the  whole  host  of  Sambara.  Seven  times 
he  foiled  the  delusions  of  the  enchanter,  and  making  himself 
master  of  the  eighth,  turned  it  against  Sambara,  and  killed  him. 
By  the  same  faculty  he  ascended  into  the  air,  and  proceeded  to  his 
father's  house,  where  he  alighted,  along  with  Mayavati,  in  the 
inner  apartments.  When  the  women  beheld  Pradyumna,  they 
thought  it  was  Krishna  himself.  Rukmini,  her  eyes  dimmed  with 
tears,  spoke  tenderly  to  him,  and  said,  "  Happy  is  she  who  has  a 
son  like  this,  in  the  bloom  of  youth.  Such  would  be  the  age  of  my 
son  Pradyumna,  if  he  was  alive.  Who  is  the  fortunate  mother 
adorned  by  thee  ?  and  yet  from  thy  appearance,  and  from  the 
affection  I  feel  for  thee,  thou  art  assuredly  the  son  of  Hari." 

At  this  moment  Krishna  accompanied  by  Narada,  arrived  ;  and 
the  latter  said  to  the  delighted  Rukmini,  "  This  is  thine  own  son, 
who  has  come  hither  after  killing  Sambara,  by  whom,  when  an 
infant,  he  was  stolen  from  the  lying-in  chamber.  This  is  the 
virtuous  Mayavati,  his  wife,  and  not  the  wife  of  Sambara.     Hear 


PRA  463 

the  reason.  When  Manraatha,  the  deity  of  love,  had  perished,* 
the  goddess  of  beauty,  desirous  to  secure  his  revival,  assumed  a 
delusive  form,  and  by  hvv  charms  fascinated  the  demon  Sambara, 
and  exhibited  herself  to  him  iu  various  illusory  enjoyments.  This 
thy  son  is  the  descended  Kama  ;  and  this  is  the  goddess  Rati,  his 
wife.  There  is  no  occasion  for  any  uncertainty  :  this  is  thy 
daugliter-in-law."  Tlien  Rukmini  was  glad,  and  Kesava  also  ; 
the  whole  city  resounded  with  exclamations  of  joy,  and  all  the 
people  of  Dwarakci  Avcre  surprised  at  Uukmini's  recovering  a  son 
who  had  so  long  been  lost. 

Pradyumna  is  represented  as  a  man,  with  a  crown  on  his  head  ; 
and  his  ears,  neck,  breast,  arms,  hands,  feet,  and  the  remaining 
part  of  his  body,  are  adorned  with  various  ornaments  of  pearls, 
precious  stones,  gold  and  silver.  On  his  shoulders  he  wears  a 
Bahupattai,  i.  e.,  a  shoulder-girdle.  In  one  of  his  hands  he  holds 
a  bow  of  sugar-cane,  with  a  string  of  insects  ;  and  in  the  other  an 
arrow,  ready  for  discharge.  On  his  back  he  carries  a  quiver, 
with  five  sorts  of  arrows,  consisting  of  five  kinds  of  flowers.  His 
standard  is  a  fish  ;  his  vehicle,  a  parrot  ;  and  the  color  of  his  body, 
yellow.  Rati  his  w^fe,  is  represented  as  a  female  with  long  black 
hair,  braided  into  a  pigtail  that  reaches  to  the  ground.  Like  her 
husband,  slie  wears  also  a  crown,  and  is  on  the  whole  adorned  and 
equipped  similar  to  him. 

Prahlada — The  son  of  Hiranyakasipu,  a  daitya,  but  from  the 
influence  of  a  prior  existence,  a  worshipper  of  Vishnu.  In  the 
war  between  the  gods  and  demons,  however,  he  takes  part  with  his 
family,  and  is  killed  by  the  discus  of  Vishnu.  He  is  again  born 
of  the  same  parents,  and  with  the  same  name,  and  is  then  the 
Prahlada  who  is  the  hero  of  the  usual  story,  the  pious  son  of  an 
impious  father,  the  latter  of  whom  was  destroyed  by  Vishnu  iu  the 
Narisinha  or  man-lion  avatara,  and  the  former  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  Indra  for  life,  and  finally  united  with  Vishnu.  The  V.  P., 
contains  a  full  account  of  the  cruelties  to  which  Prahlada  was 
subjected  by  his  father  in  order  to  compel  him  to  renounce  the 

•When  he  was  reduced  to  nshes  by  a  fiery  glance  from  Siva,  in  resentment 
of  his  inflaming  him  with  passion  for  Uma. 


464  PRA 

worship  of  Vishriu  ;  but  all  iu  vaiu  ;  he  remains  firm  throughout. 
It  is  said  iu  the  Bhagavata  that  Hiranyakasipu  at  last  asks  his  sou, 
why,  if  Vishriu  is  everywhere,  he  is  not  visible  in  a  pillar  in  the 
hall  where  they  are  assembled.  He  then  rises  and  strikes  the 
column  with  his  fist,  on  which  Vishnu,  in  a  form  which  is  neither 
wholly  a  lion  nor  a  man,  issues  from  it,  and  a  conflict  ensues,  which 
ends  in  Hiranyakasipu's  being  torn  to  pieces.  V.  P.,  Book  I, 
Chap.  XX.— Wilson's  Notes. 

Prajani — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prausa,  descendant  of  Nedishta. 

Prajapatis — Progenitors  of  mankind.  The  seven  mind-born 
sons  of  Brahmi,  viz  ;  Brighu,  Pulastya,  Angiras,  Marichi,  Daksha, 
Atri,  and  Vasishta.  Considerable  variety  prevails  in  this  list  ; 
"  but  the  variations  are  of  the  nature  of  additions  made  to  an 
apparently  original  enumeration  of  but  seven."  The  names  of 
Pulaka  and  Kratu,  occur  in  some.  The  Vishnu  Puraua  gives  nine 
names.  The  P^dma  Purana  substitutes  Kardama  for  Vasishtha. 
The  Matsya  agrees  with  Mann  in  adding  Narada  to  the  list. 
Others  include  Adhai'ma,  and  Ruchi,  and  Gautama.  "  Altogether 
therefore  we  have  seventeen  instead  of  seven.  The  simple 
statement  that  the  first  prajapatis  sprang  from  the  mind  or  will  of 
Brahma,  has  not  contented  the  depraved  taste  of  the  mystics  ;  and 
in  some  of  the  Puranas  they  are  derived  from  various  parts  of 
Brahma's  body. — See  Wilson's  Notes,  p.  50. 

Prajapati-yajna — Propagation  of  offspring  ;  a  recent  addition 
to  the  five  great  obligations  of  Manu. 

Prajapatya — l,  A  particular  sacrifice  performed  before 
appointing  a  daughter  to  raise  issue  in  default  of  male  heirs  ;  2, 
A  sort  of  penance,  eating  once  a  day  for  three  days  in  the 
mornings,  once  in  the  night  for  three  nights,  subsisting  three  days 
on  food  given  as  alms,  and  fasting  three  days  more. 

Prajna — A  synonymn  of  Maliat.  That  by  which  the  proper- 
ties of  things  are  known. 

Prakrita — Primary  Creation  :  Elemental  Dissolution  :  Nature. 
The  general  resolution  of  the  elements  into  their  primitive  source. 
Prakrita  is  generally  translated  Nature.     See  Piadhana. 


PRA  465 

Prakriti — The  goddess  uature  ;  the  female  principle  ;  the 
passive  agent  in  creation.  Vishnu  as  Purusha,  combines  with 
Prakriti,  and  engenders  creation. 

Pralaya — '*  Dissolution."  The  dissolution  of  all  things  is  of 
four  kinds  :  Naimittaka,  occasional  ;  Prakrittika,  elemental  ; 
Atyantika,  absolute  ;  Nitya,  perpetual.  1,  The  first  occurs  when 
the  sovereign  of  the  world  reclines  in  sleep  ;  2,  In  the  second  the 
mundane  egg  resolves  into  the  primary  element  from  whence  it 
was  derived  ;  3,  Absolute  non-existence  of  the  world  is  the 
absorption  of  the  sage  through  knowledge,  into  the  supreme  spirit  ; 
4,  Perpetual  destruction  is  the  constant  disappearance,  day  and 
night,  of  all  that  are  born.     Vishnu  Purdna. 

Professor  Wilson  states,  "  the  first  is  called  Naimittaka,  '  occa- 
sional' or  *  incidental,'  or  Br^hmya,  as  occasioned  by  the  intervals 
of  Brahma's  days  ;  the  destruction  of  creatures,  though  not  of  the 
substance  of  the  world,  occurring  during  his  night.  The  general 
resolution  of  the  elements  into  their  primitive  source,  or  Prakriti, 
is  the  Prakritika  destruction,  and  occurs  at  the  end  of  Brahma's 
life.  The  third,  the  Absolute  or  final,  is  individual  annihilation  ; 
M6ksha  ;  exemption  for  ever  from  future  existence.  The  Bh^ga- 
vata  here  notices  the  fourth  kind,  Nitya,  or  constant  dissolution  ; 
explaining  it  to  be  the  imperceptible  change  that  all  things  suffer, 
in  the  various  stages  of  growth  and  decay,  life  and  death.  The 
various  conditions  of  beings  subject  to  change  are  occasioned  by 
that  constant  dissolution  of  life  which  is  rapidly  produced  by  the 
resistless  stream  of  time,  taking  everything  perpetually  away." 

Pramlocha — A  celestial  nymph.  One  of  the  Apsarasas,  of 
the  Daivika,  or  divine  class,  of  whom  there  are  ten  enumerated. 
It  was  Pramlocha,  who  interrupted  the  penance  of  Kandu,  and 
remained  on  earth  with  him  for  so  many  years.     See  K^ndu. 

Pramoda — Pleasure.  A  son  of  Brahm^.  The  virtues  and 
vices  are  enumerated  as  the  progeny  of  Brahmd.. 

Prana — l,  A  measure  of  time  equal  to  a  respiration,  six  respi- 
rations make  one  vikala  ;  2,  A  sou  of  Dhatri  and  Ayati  ;  3,  One 
of  the  seven  Rishis  of  the  third  Manwautara. 

59 


466  PRA  J 

Pranayama — Suppression  of  breathing.  It  is  performed  by 
three  modifications  of  breathing  :  the  first  act  is  expiration,  which 
is  performed  through  the  right  nostril,  whilst  the  left  is  closed 
with  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  :  this  is  called  Rechakas,  the 
thumb  is  then  placed  upon  the  right  nostril,  and  the  fingers  raised 
from  the  left,  through  which  breath  is  inhaled  ;  this  is  called 
Puraka  :  in  the  third  act  both  nostrils  are  closed,  and  breathing 
suspended  ;  this  is  Kurabhaka  :  and  a  succession  of  these  operations 
is  the  practice  of  Pi-dnayaraa. 

Pransu— 1,  One  of  the  ten  sons  of  the  Manu  Yaivaswata  ;  2, 
The  son  of  Vatsapri. 

Prapti — One  of  the  wives  of  Kansa. 

Frasada — (Favour)  one  of  the  sons  of  Dharma. 

Prasena-The  son  of  Nighana  and  brother  of  Satrajit.  It  was 
to  Satrajit  the  Sun  presented  the  Syamantaka  gem  which  he  wore 
on  his  neck.  Satrajit,  fearing  that  Krishna  would  ask  him  for  the 
jewel  transferred  it  to  his  brother  Prasena.  But  though  the  jewel 
was  an  inexhaustible  source  of  good  to  a  virtuous  person,  if  it 
were  worn  by  a  man  of  bad  character  it  would  cause  his  death. 
Prasena  having  taken  the  gem,  and  hung  it  about  his  neck, 
mounted  his  horse  and  went  to  the  woods  to  hunt.  In  the  chase 
he  was  killed  by  a  lion.  The  precious  gem  afterwards  came  into 
the  possession  of  Akrura. 

Prasenajit— 1,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Kusaswa  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Susandhi,  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku. 

"  Susandhi  fortunate  and  wise. 
Two  noble  sons  had  he,  to  wit 
Dhruvasandhi  and  Prasenajit." 

Professor  Wilson  places  this  prince,  the  twenty-fourth  of  the 
line  of  Ikshvakn,  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ. 

Prasraya— (Affection.)  One  of  the  allegorical  sons  of  Dharma 
(moral  and  religious  duty.) 

Prastara — ^A  prince,  the  son  of  Udgitha,  a  descendant  of 
Bharata. 

PrastUtas— -  A  class  of  deities  of  the  sixth  Manwantara. 


PRA  467 

PraSUSraka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Maru,  a  descendant  of  Kusa. 
In  the  Vishnu  Puraua  it  is  said  that  Maru  is  still  living  in  the 
village  called  Kalapa. 

PraSUti — One  of  the  daughters  of  the  Manu  Swayambhuva, 
who  was  married  to  Daksha  ;  they  had  twenty-four  daughters,  all 
plainly  allegorical,  being  personifications  of  intelligence  and  virtues 
and  religious  rites. 

Pratah — (Dawn.)     The  son  of  Kalpa  and  Prabhah. 

Pratarddana — The  son  of  Divodasa,  (king  of  Benares)  so 
named  from  destroying  the  race  of  Bhadrasreuya.  He  had  various 
other  appellations,  as  Satrajit,  '  the  victor  over  his  foes,'  from 
having  vanquished  all  his  enemies  :  Vatsa,  or  '  child,'  from  his 
father's  frequently  calling  him  by  that  name  ;  Ritadhwaja,  '  he 
whose  emblem  is  truth,'  being  a  great  observer  of  veracity  ;  and 
Kuvalayaswa,  because  he  had  a  horse  called  Kuvalaya.  Vishnu 
Purana,  p.  408.  In  the  notes  it  is  said  that  from  the  scanty  and 
ill-digested  notices  in  other  Puranas  it  appears  that  Divodasa,  on 
being  expelled  from  Benares,  took  some  city  and  district  on  the 
Gomati,  from  the  family  of  Bhadrasrenya  ;  that  Durdama 
recovered  the  country  ;  and  that  Pratarddana  again  conquered  it 
from  his  descendants. 

Pratibandhaka — A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Maru,  of  the 
family  of  Janaka. 

Pratibimba — '  Reflection'  a  form  of  Brahma.  V.  P.,  p.  40, 
note  15. 

Pratihara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Purameshtin,  of  the  race  of 
Bharata. 

Pratihartta — The  son  of  Pratihara,  and  father  of  Bliava,  of 
the  race  of  Bharata. 

Pratikshatra — l,  A  king  of  Kasi,  the  son  of  Kshatravriddha  ; 
2,  A  son  of  Saima,  of  the  Yadava  race. 

Pratipa — The  son  of  Dilipa,  a  descendant  of  Kuru. 

Pratisarga — Secondary  creation— that  which  took  place  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  Kalpa  ;  water,   and  even  the  earth, 


468  PRA 

being  in  existence,  and  consequently  having  been  preceded  by  the 
creation  of  Mahat  and  the  elements. 

Pratisukya — A  short  section  of  the  Vedas  ;  or  more  strictly, 
a  collection  of  phonetic  rules,  peculiar  to  one  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  four  Vedas. — Mailer^  A.  S.  L.,  p.  119. 

Pratishthana — The  capital  city  of  Sudyumna  ;  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna  ;  the 
country  between  which  rivers  was  the  territory  of  the  direct  male 
descendants  of  Vaivaswata.  In  consequence  of  his  having  been  a 
female  formerly,  Sudyumna  was  excluded  from  any  share  in  his 
paternal  dominions  ;  but  his  father,  at  the  suggestion  of  Vasishtha, 
bestowed  upon  him  the  city  Pratishthana,  and  he  gave  it  to 
Purtiravas. 

Prativahu — The  youngest  son  of  Swaphalka. 

Prativindya — One  of  the  sons  of  Yudhishthira  by  Draupadi. 

Prativyoman — A  prince,  the  son  of  Vatsavyuha,  of  the  family 
of Ikshvaku. 

Pratyahara — Restraining  the  organs  of  sense  from  susceptibi- 
lity to  outward  impressions,  and  directing  them  entirely  to  mental 
perceptions.  This  is  one  of  the  means  for  effecting  the  entire 
subjugation  of  the  senses  ;  and  if  they  are  not  completely  control- 
led the  sage  cannot  accomplish  his  devotions. 

Pratyaya  Sarga — Intellectual  creation  of  the  Sankhya  phi- 
losophy ;  the  creation  of  which  we  have  a  notion,  or  to  which  we 
give  assent  ;  in  contradistinction  to  organic  creation,  or  that 
existence  of  which  we  have  no  sensible  perception.  In  its  specific 
sub-divisions  it  is  the  notion  of  certain  inseparable  properties  in  the 
four  different  orders  of  beings  :  obstruction,  or  solidity  in  inani- 
mate things  ;  inability  or  imperfection  in  animals  ;  perfectibility 
in  man  ;  and  acquiescence  or  tranquil  enjoyment  in  gods.  V.  P., 
Notes.  37. 

Pratyusha — (Daybreak.)  One  of  the  deities  called  Vasus. 

Prava— One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Kasyapa, 


PRA— PRI  469 


Pravaha — The  unme  of  one  of  the  winds  ;  so  termed  because 
it  bears  along  the  planets,  which  turn  round,  like  a  disc  of  fire, 
driven  by  the  aerial  wheel. 

Pravilasena — One  of  the  kings  of  Andhra,  the  sou  of  Talaka. 

Pravira — l,  The  son  of  Prachinvat,  or  according  to  the  Mahd- 
bharata  the  son  of  Puru  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Hariyaswa,  a 
descendant  of  Hastin. 

Prayag — The  Hindu  name  of  Allahabad. 

Prayaschitta — *  Expiation'  or  *  sacred  philosophy,'  created 
from  the  eastern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Prekshag'ara — House  of  seeing  ;  a  sort  of  theatre  ;  a  place 
made  for  seeing  the  sacrifice  ;  a  sort  of  stockade  used  as  a  place 
where  spectacles  could  be  witnessed. 

Preta-rat — The  Lord  of  the  dead  ;  a  name  of  Yama,  the 
Hindu  Pluto. 

Prishadaswa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Anaranya. 

Prishadhra — One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Vaivaswata,  who, 
in  consequence  of  the  crime  of  killing  a  cow  was  degraded  to  the 
condition  of  a  Sudra.  This  story,  says  Professor  Wilson,  has  been 
modified  apparently  at  different  periods,  according  to  a  progressive 
horror  of  the  crime.  The  Vishnu  Purana  simply  states  the  fact. 
The  Vayu  says  he  was  hungry,  and  not  only  killed,  but  ate  the 
cow  of  his  spiritual  preceptor  Chyavana.  In  the  Markandeya  he 
is  described  as  being  out  a  hunting,  and  killing  the  cow  of  the 
father  of  Babhravya,  mistaking  it  for  a  Gavaya  or  Gayal.  The 
Bh^gavata,  as  usual,  improves  upon  the  story,  and  says  that 
Prishadhra  was  appointed  by  his  Guru  Vasishtha  to  protect  his 
cattle.  In  the  night  a  tiger  made  his  way  into  the  fold,  and  the 
prince  in  his  haste,  and  in  the  dark,  killed  the  cow  upon  which  he 
had  fastened,  instead  of  the  tiger.  In  all  the  authorities  the  effect 
is  the  same,  and  the  imprecation  of  the  offended  sage  degraded 
Prishadhra  to  the  caste  of  a  Sudra.  According  to  the  Bh^gavata, 
the  prince  led  a  life  of  devotion,  and  perishing  in  the  flame  of  a 
forest,  obtained  final  liberation.  The  obvious  purport  of  this 
legend,  and  of  some  that  follow,  is  to  account  for  the  origin  of  the 
different  castes  from  one  common  ancestor. 


470  PRI 

Prishata — The  youngest  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Somaka. 

Prishtaja — One  of  the  SODS  of  Kumara. 

Prisni — A  prince,  the  son  of  Anamitra. 

Pritha,  or  Kunti — The  daughter  of  Siira,  and  wife  of  Pandu. 
For  her  history  see  Kunti  ;  also  Karna. 

Prithivi — Earth,  as  one  of  the  elements  in  Hindu  philosophy, 
where  it  is  said  to  be  produced  from  the  rudiment  of  smell.  The 
waters  becoming  productive,  engendered  the  rudiment  of  smell  ; 
whence  an  aggregate  (earth)  originates,  of  which  smell  is  the 
property.     V.  P.,  p.  16. 

Prithivi — Earth  personified  as  a  goddess.  The  Vishnu 
Purana  contains  a  hymn  of  adoration  addressed  by  the  goddess  to 
Narayana  when  he  was  incarnate  as  a  boar,  and  descended  to  the 
subterrene  regions.  When  Prithu  took  up  his  divine  bow  Ajagava, 
and  marched  forth  to  assail  the  Earth,  the  latter,  assuming  the 
figure  of  a  cow,  fled  hastily  from  him,  and  traversed,  through  fear 
of  the  king,  the  regions  of  Brahma  and  the  heavenly  spheres  ;  but 
wherever  went  the  supporter  of  living  things,  there  she  beheld 
Vainya  with  uplifted  weapons  ;  overcome  with  apprehension  the 
goddess  Earth  addressed  Prithu,  who  made  Swayambhuva  Manu, 
a  calf  to  milk  the  Earth  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  By  granting 
life  to  the  Earth,  Prithu  was  as  her  father,  and  she  thence  derived 
the  patronymic  Prithivi  (the  daughter  of  Prithu).  There  are 
many  mystifications  in  the  Puranas  of  the  original  simple  allegory, 
which  typified  the  Earth  as  a  cow  who  yielded  to  every  class  of 
beings  the  milk  they  desired,  or  the  object  of  their  wishes.  V.  P., 
Notes.     See  Dyaus. 

Prithu — I,  The  most  distinguished  individual  of  this  name  was 
the  son  of  Vena  (q.  v.)  engendered  by  friction  from  the  right  arm 
of  his  dead  father  (V.P.,  101.)  He  was  resplendent  in  person  as 
if  the  blazing  deity  of  Fire  had  been  manifested.  At  the  birth  of 
Prithu  all  living  creatures  rejoiced  :  and  Vena,  delivered  by  his 
birth  from  the  hell  named  Put,  ascended  to  the  realms  above.  The 
mighty  Prithu  was  invested  by  the  gods  with  universal  dominion, 
and  soon  removed  the  grievances  of  the  people  whom  his  father 
had  oppressed.     They  complained  of  the  want  of  edible  fruits  and 


PRI  471 

plants,  and  said  tliey  were  suffering  from  famine.  On  hearing  this 
Pritliu  took  up  his  divine  bow,  Ajagava,  and  soon  extorted  a'pro- 
mise  from  the  Earth  to  supply  mankind  with  all  that  was  neces- 
sary for  their  sustenance.  The  legend  of  Prithu  occurs  in  most  of 
the  Purdnas,  and  all  the  versions  are  essentially  the  same.  See 
Vishnu  Purana,  p.  104. 

2.  A  prince,  the  son  of  Prastara. 

3.  A  prince,   the  son    of  Anenas,  and  grandson  of  Kakutsha. 

4.  A  prince,  the  son  of  Para,  a  descendant  of  Hastin. 

5.  A  prince,  the  son  of  Anaranya,  and  father  of  Trisauku  of  the 
line  of  Ikshvaku. 

"  Anaranya,  strong  to  fight, 
His  son  was  Prithu,  glorious  name, 
From  him  the  wise  Trisanku  came." 

Prithudana,  Prithujaya,  Prithukarman,  Prithukirtti, 
Prithusravas,  Prithyasas  — Six  princes,  the  most  renowned  of 
the  million  sons  of  Sasavindu. 

Prithug'as — A  class  of  deities  of  the  sixth  Manwantara. 

Prithuloksha — A  prince,  the  son  of  Chaturanga,  a  descendant 
of  Anu. 

Prithurukman— 'J'he  brother  of  Jayamagha,  and  son  of 
Paravrit,  a  descendant  of  Sasavindu. 

Priti — '  Affection' — One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was 
married  to  the  sage  Pulastya. 

Priya — A  princess  in  the  city  of  Kapila,  who  was  seized  with 
white  leprosy  and  taken  to  a  distant  jungle,  and  placed  in  a  large 
cave  where  she  was  supplied  with  fire,  fuel,  and  all  kinds  of  food. 
At  the  same  time,  Rama,  Raja  of  Benares,  was  seized  with  the 
same  disorder,  and  abandoned  his  Raj,  retiring  to  the  same  jungle. 
Subsequently  he  found  a  remedy  in  the  root,  leaves,  fruit,  and 
bark  of  a  certain  tree,  and  his  body  became  pure  as  gold. 
Ultimately  he  fell  in  with  Priya,  cured  her  leprosy,  and  married 
her  ;  and  they  resided  in  the  city  of  Koli.  Wheeler's  Notes  to 
the  Mahabharata. 

Priyamitra— After  Triprishta,    (q.   v.),  had   been   born  as  a 


472  PRI— PUJ 


liou,  and  had  migrated  through  various  forms,  he  became  the 
Chakravartti  Priyamitra  in  the  division  of  the  world  Mahavideha. 
After  a  victorious  reign  of  eighty-four  lakhs  of  years  he  became 
an  ascetic  for  a  further  period  of  a  hundred  lakhs,  and  was  then 
translated  to  one  of  the  higher  heavens. —  Wilson,  /,  292. 

Priyavrata— The  eldest  son  of  the  divine  Manu  Swayambhuva. 
He  married  Kamya  the  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Kardama,  and 
had  by  her  two  daughters,  Samrat  and  Kukshi,  and  ten  sons,  wise, 
valiant,  modest  and  dutiful,  named  Agnidhra,  Agnibahu,  Vapush- 
mat,  Dyutimat,  Medha,  JVIedhatithi,  Bhavya,  Savala,  Putra,  and 
the  tenth  was  Jyotishmat,  illustrious  by  nature  as  by  name.  These 
were  the  sons  of  Priyavrata,  famous  for  strength  and  prowess.  Of 
these,  three,  or  Medha,  Putra,  and  Agnibahu,  adopted  a  religious 
life  :  remembering  the  occurrences  of  a  prior  existence,  they  did 
not  covet  dominion,  but  diligently  practised  the  rites  of  devotion  in 
due  season,  wholly  disinterested,  and  looking  for  no  reward.   V.  P. 

Priyavrata  having  divided  the  earth  into  seven  continents,  gave 
them  respectively  to  his  other  seven  sons.  According  to  the 
Bhagavata,  he  drove  his  chariot  seven  times  round  the  earth,  and 
the  ruts  left  by  the  wheels  became  the  beds  of  the  oceans, 
separating  it  into  seven  Dwipas.  To  Agnidhra  he  gave  Jambu- 
dwipa  ;  to  Medhatithi  he  gave  Plaksha-dwipa :  he  installed 
Vapushmat  in  the  sovereignty  over  the  Dwipa  of  Salmali  ;  and 
made  Jyotishmat  king  of  Kusa-dwipa  :  he  appointed  Dyutimat  to 
rule  over  Krauncha-dwipa  ;  Bhavya  to  reign  over  Saka-dwipa  : 
and  Savala  he  nominated  the  monarch  of  the  Dwipa  of  Pushkara. 

Proshakas,  Proshtas — Inhabiters  of  valleys,  a  designation  of 
some  aboriginal  tribes. 

Pudkalai — One  of  the  wives  of  Ayanas. 

Pujari — An  inferior  priest  who  oflSciates  in  the  pagodas, 
offering  sacrifices,  and  receiving  those  offerings  which  are  brought 
by  the  people  in  fulfilment  of  vows. 

Puje — Adoration  of  the  deity ;  worship  of  the  gods  with  various 
ceremonies  and  offerings  :  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  respect 
or  homage  paid  to  superiors. 


PUL  473 

Pulaka — A  Prajapati.  Oue  of  the  miiKl-born  sous  of  Eraliiiui  ; 
lie  ^vas  married  to  Kshama  (Patieuce)  one  of  the  daughters  of 
Daksha,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  Karmasa,  Arvarivat,  and 
Sahishna. 

Pulastya — Another  Prajapati  who  was  also  one  of  the  mind- 
boru  sons  of  Brahma.  It  was  he  who  appeared  to  Parasara,  and 
communicated  to  him  the  Vishnu  Purana,  as  a  summary  or 
compendium  of  Purauic  traditions.  Pulastya  was  married  to  Priti, 
(Aflection)  one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha.  In  the  Vishnu 
Purana  it  is  said  their  son,  now  known  as  the  sage  Agastya,  was 
called  in  a  former  birth,  or  in  the  Swayambliuva  Manwantara, 
Dattoli.  The  Vayu  specifies  three  sons  of  Pulastya  Dattoli, 
Vedabfihu,  and  Vinita  ;  also  a  daughter,  Sadwati,  married  to  Agui. 
Pulastya  is  considered  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Rakshasas,  as  he  is 
the  father  of  Visravas,  the  father  of  Havana  and  his  brethren. 

Pulimat — Oue  of  the  Andhra  kings,  the  son  of  Gomatiputra  : 
he  reigned  twenty-eight  years. 

Pulindaka — One  of  the  ten  Sungas,  who  reigned  at  Magadha 
for  a  hundred  and  ten  years  after  the  Mauryan  dynasty.  Pulindaka 
•was  the  sou  of  Ardraka,  and  only  reigned  three  years. 

Pulindas — A  name  applied  to  any  wild  or  barbarous  tribe  ;  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana  it  refers  to  the  people  of  the  deserts  along  the 
Indus  :  but  Pulindas  are  met  with  in  many  other  positions, 
especially  in  the  mountains  and  forests  across  Central  India,  the 
haunts  of  the  Bhils  and  Gouds,  Ptolemy  places  the  Pulindai  along 
the  banks  of  the  Narmada.     Notes  to  Vishnu  Purana,  186. 

Puloma — One  of  the  daughters  of  Vaiswanara  ;  the  other  was 
named  Kalika  ;  both  were  married  to  Kasyapa,  and  became  the 
mothers  of  sixty-thousand  distinguished  Danava?,  who  were 
powerful,  ferocious,  and  cruel. 

Puloman — l,  A  Danava  ;  oue  of  the  distinguished  sons  of 
Kasyapa  and  Danu  ;  2,  A  son  of  Viprachitti,  and  father  of  Sachi 
the  wife  of  Indra. 

Pulomarchisll— The  last   of  the  Andhrabhritya  kings  ;   the 

60 


474  PUL— PUN 


Vishnu  Pui-ana  states  that  there  were  thirty  of  them  whose  united 
reigns  amounted  to  four  hundred  and  fifty-six  years. 

Pulomavit — One  of  the  Audhra  kings,  the  son  of  Swatikarua : 
he  reigned  thirty-six  years. 

Fuman — Incorporated  spirit  ;  the  same  as  Purusha.  In  the 
Notes  to  the  Vishnu  Purana  it  is  said  the  meaning  is  that  Vishnu 
is  any  form  of  spiritual  being  that  is  acknowledged  by  different 
philosophical  systems  ;  or  that  he  is  the  Brahma  of  the  Veddnta, 
the  Iswara  of  the  Patanjala,  and  the  Purusha  of  the  Sankhya  school. 

Punarvasu — l,  A  lunar  mansion  in  Airavati,  in  the  Northern 
Avashthana  ;  2,  A  Yadava  chief,  the  son  of  Abhijit. 

Pundarika — l,  One  of  the  serpent-kings,  of  the  progeny  of 
Kadru  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Nabhas,  a  descendant  of  Kusa. 

Pundarika — (Pundarika.)  1,  A  daughter  of  Vasishtha,  and 
wife  of  Pi-ana  ;  2,  One  of  the  Apsarases. 

Pundarikaksha — A  name  of  Vishnu,  occurring  in  the  first  line 
of  the  Vishnu  Purana  ;  it  means  having  eyes  like  a  lotus,  or  heart- 
pervading  ;  or  Pundarika  is  explained,  '  supreme  glory,'  and  Aksha 
imperishable. 

Pundra — l,  A  prince,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bali  a  descendant  of 
Anu  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  fabulous  city  between  the  Himavat  and 
Hemakuta  mountains. 

Pandras — The  inhabitants  of  the  western  provinces  of  Bengal  ; 
sometimes  the  term  designates  the  provinces  themselves,  and 
includes  the  districts  of  Dinajpur,  Rangpur,  Birbhum,  Burdwan, 
Midnapur,  the  jungle  Mehats,  &c. 

Punul — The  Tamil  name  of  the  sacred  thread  worn  by  the 
Brahmaus,  Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas. 

Fnnya — l?  (Merit.)  A  daughter  of  the  sage  Kratu,  according 
to  the  Vayu  list ;  2,  A  river  in  Behar,  now  termed  Pun-pun. 

Piinyajanas — A  class  of  R^kshasas,  who  destroyed  Kusasthali, 
the  capital  of  Kakudmin,  surnamed  Raivata,  whilst  he  was  on  a 
visit  to  the  region  of  Brahm^. 


PUR  470 

Pur — One  of  the  synonyms  of  Mahat,  defined  in  the  ViiLnu 
Purina  to  be  "  that  by  which  the  conciirrence  of  nature  occupies 
and  fills  all  bodies." 

Puraka — A  modification  of  breathing  so  termed  ;  the  act  is 
performed  as  follows  :  the  thumb  is  placed  in  the  right  nostril, 
and  the  fingers  raised  from  the  left,  through  which  breath  is 
inhaled. 

Puranas — There  are  eighteen  large  treatises  so  designated. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  them  : — 

1.  Brahmi  Purina. 

2.  Padma  Purina, 

3.  Vishnu  Puraua. 

4.  Vayaviya  Purana. 

5.  Sri  Bhagavata. 

6.  Narada,  or  Naradiya  Purana. 

7.  Markanda,  or  Markandeya  Purana. 

8.  Agni  Purana. 

9.  Bhavishya  Purana. 

10.  Brahmi  Vaivartta  Purana. 

1 1.  Liuga  Purana. 

12.  Varaha  Purana. 

13.  Skanda  Purana. 

14.  Vamana  Purdna, 

15.  Kurma  Purana 

16.  Matsya  Purana. 

17.  G^ruda  Purina, 

18.  Brahmanda  Purana. 

A  brief  account  of  the  contents  of  each  of  the  above  will  be 
found  under  their  separate  titles.  The  Preface  to  the  Vishnu 
Purana  by  Dr.  Wilson  contains  the  following  excellent  remarks 
on  their  general  character. 

"  The  different  works  known  by  the  name  of  Puranas  are 
evidently  derived  from  the  same  religious  system  as  the  Raraayana 
and  Mahabharata,  or  from  the  mytho-heroic  stage  of  Hindu  belief. 
They  present,  however,  peculiarities  which  designate  their 
belonging  to  a  later  period,  and  to  an  important  modification  in  the 


476  PUR 

progress  of  opinion.  They  repeat  the  theoretical  cosmogony  of  the 
two  great  poems  ;  they  expand  and  systematize  the  chronological 
computations  ;  and  they  give  a  more  definite  and  connected  repre- 
sentation of  the  mythological  fictions,  and  the  historical  traditions. 
But  besides  these  and  other  particulars,  which  may  be  derivable 
fi-om  an  old,  if  not  from  a  primitive  era,  they  offer  characteristic 
peculiarities  of  a  more  modern  description,  in  the  paramount 
importance  which  they  assigu  to  iudividual  divinities,  in  the 
variety  and  purport  of  the  rites  and  observances  addressed  to  them, 
and  in  the  invention  of  new  legends  illustrative  of  the  power 
and  graciousness  of  those  deities,  and  of  the  efficacy  of  implicit 
devotion  to  them.  Siva  and  Vishnu,  under  one  or  other  form,  are 
almost  the  sole  objects  that  claim  the  homage  of  the  Hindus  in  the 
Puranas  ;  departing  from  the  domestic  and  elemental  ritual  of  the 
Vedas,  and  exhibiting  a  sectarial  fervour  and  exclusiveness  not 
traceable  in  the  Ramayana,  and  only  to  a  qualified  extent  in  the 
Mahabharata.  They  are  no  longer  authorities  for  Hindu  belief  as  1 
a  whole  ;  they  are  special  guides  for  separate  and  sometimes 
conflicting  branches  of  it,  compiled  for  the  evident  purpose  of 
piomotiog  the  preferential,  or  in  some  cases  the  sole  worship  of 
Vishnu  or  of  Siva. 

"  That  the  Puranas  always  bore  the  character  here  given  of 
Ihcm,  may  admit  of  reasonable  doubt  ;  that  it  correctly  applies 
to  them  as  they  now  are  met  with,  the  following  pages  will 
irrefragably  substantiate.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  there  may 
have  been  an  earlier  class  of  Puranas,  of  which  those  we  now  have 
are  but  the  partial  and  adulterated  representatives.  The  identity 
of  the  legends  in  many  of  them,  and  still  more  the  identity  of  the 
words — for  in  several  of  them  long  passages  are  literally  the  same 
— is  a  sufficient  proof  that  in  all  such  cases  they  must  be  copied 
either  from  some  other  similar  work,  or  from  a  common  and  prior 
original.  It  is  not  unusual  also  for  a  fact  to  be  stated  upou  the 
authority  of  an  '  old  stanza,'  which  is  cited  accordingly  ;  shewing 
the  existence  of  an  earlier  source  of  information  :  and  in  very 
many  instances  legends  are  alluded  to,  not  told  ;  evincing  acquaint- 
ance with  their  prior  narration  somewhere  else.  The  name  itself, 
Purana,  which  implies  '  old,'  indicates  the  object  of  the  compilation 


PUR  477 

to  be  the  preservatiou  of  ancient  traditious,  a  purpose  in  the  present 
condition  of  the  Puranas  very  imperfectly  fulfilled.  Whatever 
weight  may  be  attached  to  these  considerations,  there  is  no 
disputing  evidence  to  the  like  effect  afforded  by  other  and  unques- 
tionable authority.  The  description  given  by  Mr.  Colebrooke  of 
the  contents  of  a  Purana  is  taken  from  Sanskrit  writers.  The 
Lexicon  of  Amara  Sinha  gives  as  a  synonym  of  Purana,  Paucha- 
lakshanam,  *  that  which  has  five  characteristic  topics  :'  and  there 
is  no  difference  of  opinion  amongst  the  scholiasts  as  to  what  these 
are.  They  are,  as  Mr.  Colebrooke  mentions  ;  1,  Primary  creation, 
or  cosmogony  ;  2,  Secondary  creation,  or  the  destruction  and  reno- 
vation of  worlds,  including  chronology  ;  3,  Genealogy  of  gods  and 
patriarchs  ;  4,  Reigns  of  the  Manus,  or  periods  called  Manwan- 
taras  ;  and  5,  History,  or  such  particulars  as  have  been  preserved 
of  the  princes  of  the  solar  and  lunar  races,  and  of  their  descendants 
to  modern  times.  Such,  at  any  rate,  were  the  constituent  and 
characteristic  portions  of  a  Purana  in  the  days  of  Amara  Sinha, 
fifty-six  years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  and  if  the  Puranas  had 
undergone  no  chauge  since  his  time,  such  we  should  expect  to 
find  them  still.  Do  they  conform  to  this  description  ?  Not 
exactly  in  any  one  instance  ;  to  some  of  them  it  is  utterly  inappli- 
cable ;  to  others  it  only  partially  applies.  There  is  not  one  to 
which  it  belongs  so  entirely  as  to  the  Vishnu  Purana,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  circumstances  which  gives  to  this  work  a  more  authentic 
character  than  most  of  its  fellows  can  pretend  to.  Yet  even  in 
this  instance  wc  have  a  book  upon  the  institutes  of  society  and 
obsequial  rites  interposed  between  the  Mauwantaras  and  the 
genealogies  of  princes,  and  a  life  of  Krishna  separating  the  latter 
from  an  account  of  the  end  of  the  world,  besides  the  insertion  of 
various  legends  of  a  manifestly  popular  and  sectarial  character. 
No  doubt  many  of  the  Puranas,  as  they  now  are,  correspond  with 
the  view  Avhich  Col,  Vans  Kennedy  takes  of  their  purport.  "  I 
cannot  discover  in  them,"  he  remarks,  "  any  other  object  than  that 
of  .religious  instruction."  The  description  of  the  earth  and  of  the 
planetary  system,  and  the  lists  of  royal  races  which  occur  in  them, 
he  asserts  to  be  "  evidently  extraneous,  and  not  essential  circum- 
stances,  as  they  arc   entirely  omittc<l   in  ^omc  Puranas,   and  very 


478  PUR 

concisely  illustrated  in  others  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  in  all  the ' 
Puranas  some  or  other  of  the  leading  principles,  rites,  and  observ- 
ances of  the  Hindu  religion  are  fully  dwelt  upon,  and  illustrated 
either  by  suitable  legends  or  by  prescribing  the  ceremonies  to  be 
practised,  and  the  prayers  and  invocations  to  be  employed,  in 
the  worship  of  different  deities."  Now,  however  accurate  this 
description  may  be  of  the  Puranas  as  they  are,  it  is  clear  that  it 
does  not  apply  to  what  they  were  when  they  were  synonymously 
designated  as  Pancha-lakshanas,  or  '  treatises  on  five  topics  ;'  not 
one  of  which  five  is  ever  specified  by  text  or  comment  to  be 
"  religious  instruction."  In  the  knowledge  of  Amara  Sinha  the 
lists  of  princes  were  not  extraneous  and  unessential,  and  their 
being  now  so  considered  by  a  writer  so  well  acquainted  with  the 
contents  of  the  Puranas  as  Col.  Vans  Kennedy,  is  a  decisive  proof 
that  since  the  days  of  the  lexicographer  they  have  undergone  some 
material  alteration,  and  that  we  have  not  at  present  the  same  works 
in  all  respects  that  were  current  under  the  denomination  of  Purinas 
in  the  century  prior  to  Christianity. 

"  The  inference  deduced  from  the  discrepancy  between  the 
actual  form  and  the  older  definition  of  a  Purana,  unfavourable  to 
the  antiquity  of  the  extant  works  generally,  is  converted  into 
certainty  when  we  come  to  examine  them  in  detail  ;  for  although 
they  have  no  dates  attached  to  them,  yet  circumstances  are 
sometimes  mentioned  or  alluded  to,  or  references  to  authorities  are 
made,  or  legends  are  narrated,  or  places  are  particularized,  of 
which  the  comparatively  recent  date  is  indisputable,  and  which 
enforce  a  corresponding  reduction  of  tlie  antiquity  of  the  work  in 
which  they  are  discovered.  At  the  same  time  they  may  be 
acquitted  of  subservience  to  any  but  sectarial  imposture.  They 
were  pious  frauds  for  temporary  purposes  :  they  never  emanated 
from  any  impossible  combination  of  the  Brahmans  to  fabricate  for 
the  antiquity  of  the  entire  Hindu  system  any  claims  which  it 
cannot  fully  support.  A  very  great  portion  of  the  contents  of 
many,  some  portion  of  the  contents  of  all,  is  genuine  and  old.  The 
sectarial  interpolation  or  embellishment  is  always  sufficiently 
palpable  to  be  set  aside,  without  injury  to  the  more  authentic  and 
primitive    material  :    and   the    Puranas,    although    they    belong 


PUR  479 

especially  to  that  stage  of  the  Hindu  religion  in  which  faith  in 
some  one  divinity  was  the  prevailing  principle,  are  also  a  valuable 
record  of  the  form  of  Hindu  belief  which  came  next  in  order  to 
that  of  the  Vedas  ;  which  p;rafted  hero-worship  upon  the  simpler 
ritual  of  the  latter  ;  and  which  had  been  adopted,  and  was  exten- 
sively, perhaps  universally,  established  in  India  at  the  time  of  the 
Greek  invasion.  The  Hercules  of  the  Greek  writers  was  indubi- 
tably the  Balarama  of  the  Hindus  ;  and  their  notices  of  Mathurd 
on  the  Jumna,  and  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Suraseni  and  the 
Pandsean  countiy,  evidence  the  prior  currency  of  the  traditions 
which  constitute  the  argument  of  the  Mahabharata,  and  which  are 
constantly  repeated  in  the  Puranas,  relating  to  the  Pandava  and 
Yddava  races,  to  Krishna  and  his  contemporary  heroes,  and  to  the 
dynasties  of  the  solar  and  lunar  kings. 

"  The  theogony  and  cosmogony  of  the  Puranas  may  probably  be 
traced  to  the  Vedas.  They  are  not,  as  far  as  is  yet  known, 
described  in  detail  in  those  w^orks,  but  they  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  a  strain  more  or  less  mystical  and  obscure,  which  indicates 
acquaintance  with  their  existence,  and  which  seems  to  have 
supplied  the  Puranas  with  the  groundwork  of  their  systems.  The 
scheme  of  primary  or  elementary  creation  they  borrow  from  the 
Sankhya  philosophy,  which  is  probably  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of 
speculation  on  man  and  nature  amongst  the  Hindus.  Agreeably, 
however,  to  that  part  of  the  Pauranik  character  which  there  is 
reason  to  suspect  of  later  origin,  their  inculcation  of  the  worship 
of  a  favourite  deity,  they  combine  the  interposition  of  a  creator 
with  the  independent  evolution  of  matter,  in  a  somewhat  contra- 
dictory and  unintelligible  style.  It  is  evident  too  that  their 
accounts  of  secondary  creation,  or  the  developement  of  the  existing 
forms  of  things,  and  the  disposition  of  the  universe,  are  derived 
from  several  and  different  sources  ;  and  it  appears  very  likely  that 
they  are  to  be  accused  of  some  of  the  incongruities  and  absurdities 
by  which  the  narrative  is  disfigured,  in  consequence  of  havino" 
attempted  to  assign  reality  and  siguificancy  to  what  was  merely 
metaphor  or  mysticism.  There  is,  however,  amidst  the  unneces- 
sary complexity  of  the  description,  a  general  agreement  amongst 
them  as  to  the  origin  of  things,  and  their  final  distribution  ;  and  in 


480  PUR 

many  of  the  circumstances  there  is  a  striking  concurrence  with  the 
ideas  which  seem  to  have  pervaded  the  whole  of  the  ancient  world, 
and  which  we  may  therefore  believe  to  be  faithfully  represented 
in  the  Puranas. 

"  The  Pantheism  of  the  Puranas  in  one  of  their  invariable 
characteristics,  although  the  particular  divinity,  who  is  all  things, 
from  whom  all  things  i:>roceed,  and  to  whom  all  things  return,  be 
diversified  according  to  their  individual  sectarial  bias.  They  seem 
to  have  derived  the  notion  from  the  Yedas  :  but  in  them  the  one 
universal  Being  is  of  a  higher  order  than  a  personification  of 
attributes  or  elements,  and,  however  imperfectly  conceived,  or 
unworthily  described,  is  God.  In  the  Puranas  the  one  only 
Supreme  Being  is  supposed  to  be  manifest  in  the  person  of  Siva  or 
Vishnu,  either  in  the  way  of  illusion  or  in  sport  ;  aud  one  or  other 
of  these  divinities  is  therefore  also  the  cause  of  all  that  is,  is 
himself  all  that  exists.  The  identity  of  God  and  nature  is  not  a 
new  notion  ;  it  was  very  general  in  the  speculations  of  antiquity, 
but  it  assumed  a  new  vigour  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  and 
was  carried  to  an  equal  pitch  of  extravagance  by  the  Platonic 
Christians  as  by  the  Saiva  or  Vaishnava  Hindus.  It  seems  not 
impossible  that  there  was  some  communication  between  them.  We 
know  that  there  was  an  active  communication  between  India  and 
the  Red  Sea  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  era,  and  that 
doctrines,  as  well  as  articles  of  merchandise,  were  brought  to 
Alexandria  from  the  former.  Epiphanius  and  Eusebius  accuse 
Scythianus  of  having  imported  from  India,  in  the  second  century, 
books  on  magic,  and  heretical  notions  leading  to  Manicha^ism,  and 
it  was  at  the  same  period  that  Ammonius  instituted  the  sect  of  the 
new  Platonists  at  Alexandria.  The  basis  of  his  heresy  was,  that 
true  philosophy  derived  its  origin  from  the  eastern  nations  :  his 
doctrine  of  the  identity  of  God  and  the  universe  is  that  of  the 
Vedas  and  Puranas  ;  and  the  practices  he  enjoined,  as  well  as 
their  object,  were  precisely  those  described  in  several  of  the 
Puranas  under  the  name  of  Yoga.  His  disciples  were  taught  "  to 
extenuate  by  mortification  and  contemplation  the  bodily  restraints 
upon  the  immortal  spirit,  so  that  in  his  life  they  might  enjoy 
communion   with  the  Supreme   Being,  and  ascend  after  death  to 


PUR  481 

the  universal  parent."  That  these  are  Hindu  tenets  the  following 
pages  will  testify  ;  and  by  the  admission  of  their  Alexandrian 
teacher,  they  originated  in  India.  The  importation  was  perhaps 
not  wholly  unrequited  ;  the  loan  may  not  have  been  left  unpaid. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  Hindu  doctrines  received  fresh 
animation  from  their  adoption  by  the  successors  of  Ammonius,  and 
especially  by  the  mystics,  who  may  have  prompted,  as  Avell  as 
employed,  the  expressions  of  the  Purauas.  Auquetil  du  Perron 
has  given,  in  the  introduction  to  his  translation  of  the  '  Oupnekhat,' 
several  hymns  by  Synesius,  a  bishop  of  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  which  may  serve  as  parallels  to  many  of  the  hymns  and 
prayers  addressed  to  Vishnu  in  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

"  But  the  ascription  to  individual  and  personal  deities  of  the 
attributes  of  the  one  universal  and  spiritual  Supreme  Being, 
is  an  indication  of  a  later  date  than  the  Vedas  certainly,  ayd 
apparently  also  than  the  Ramayaua,  where  Rama,  although  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu,  commonly  appears  in  his  human  character 
alone.  There  is  something  of  the  kind  in  the  Mahabharata  in 
respect  to  Krishna,  especially  in  the  philosophical  episode  known 
as  the  Bhagavat  Gita.  In  other  places  the  divine  nature  of 
Krishna  is  less  decidedly  affirmed  ;  in  some  it  is  disputed  or 
denied  ;  and  in  most  of  the  situations  in  which  he  is  exhibited  in 
action,  it  is  as  a  prince  and  w^arrior,  not  as  a  divinity.  He 
exercises  no  superhuman  faculties  in  the  defence  of  himself  or  his 
friends,  or  in  the  defeat  and  destruction  of  his  foes.  The  Maha- 
bharata, however,  is  evidently  a  work  of  various  periods,  and 
requires  to  be  read  throughout  carefully  and  critically  before  its 
weight  as  an  authority  can  be  accurately  appreciated.  As  it  is 
now  in  type — thanks  to  the  public  spirit  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal,  and  their  Secretary,  Mr.  J.  Prinsep — it  will  not  be  long 
before  the  Sanskrit  scholars  of  the  continent  will  accurately  appre- 
ciate its  value. 

*'  The  Purauas  are  also  works  of  evidently  different  ages,  and 
have  been  compiled  under  different  circumstances,  the  precise 
nature  of  which  we  can  imperfectly  conjecture  from  internal 
evidence,  and  from  what  we  know  of  the  history  of  religious  opinion 
in  India.     It  is  highly  probable,  that  of  tho  present  popular  forms 

Gl 


482  PUR 

of  the  Hindu  religion,  none  assumed  their  actual  state  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Sankara  Acharya,  the  great  Saiva  reformer,  who 
flourished,  in  all  likelihood,  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  Of  the 
Vaishnava  teachers,  Rdmanuja  dates  in  the  twelfth  century, 
Madhwacharya  in  the  thirteenth,  and  Vallabha  in  the  sixteenth  ; 
and  the  Puraiias  seem  to  have  accompanied  or  followed  their 
innovations,  being   obviously  intended  to  advocate   the  doctrines 

•  they  taught.  This  is  to  assign  to  some  of  them  a  very  modern 
date,  it  is  true  ;  but  I  cannot  think  that  a  higher  can  with  justice 
be  ascribed  to  them.  This,  however,  applies  to  some  only  out  of 
the  number,  as  I  shall  presently  proceed  to  specify. 

"  Another  evidence  of  a  comparatively  modern  date  must  be 
admitted  in  those  chapters  of  the  Puranas  which,  assuming  a 
prophetic  tone,  foretell  what  dynasties  of  kings  will  reign  in  the 
Kali  age.  These  chapters,  it  is  true,  are  found  but  in  four  of  the 
Puranas,  but  they  are  conclusive  in  bringing  down  the  date  of 
those  four  to  a  period  considerably  subsequent  to  Christianity. 
It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that  the  Vayu,  Vishnu,  Bhagavata,  and 
Matsya  Puranas,  in  which  these  particulars  are  foretold,  have  in 
all  other  respects  the  character  of  as  great  antiquity  as  any  works 
of  their  class. 

'•  The  invariable  form  of  the  Puranas  is  that  of  a  dialogue,  in 

V;which  some  person  relates  its  contents  in  reply  to  the  inquiries  of 
another.  This  dialogue  is  interwoven  with  others,  which  are 
repeated  as  having  been  held  on  other  occasions  between  diiferent 
individuals,  in  consequence  of  similar  questions  having  been  asked. 
The  immediate  narrator  is  commonly,  though  not  constantly, 
Lomaharshana  or  Romaharshana,  the  disciple  of  Vyasa,  who  is 
supposed  to  communicate  what  was  imparted  to  him  by  his 
preceptor,  as  he  had  heard  it  from  some  other  sage.  Vyasa,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  body  of  the  work,  is  a  generic  title,  meaning 
an  '  arranger'  or  *  compiler.'  It  is  in  this  age  applied  to  Krishna 
Dwaipayana,  the  son  of  Parasara,  who  is  said  to  have  taught  the 
Vedas  and  Puranas  to  various  disciples,  but  who  appears  to  have 
been  the  head  of  a  college  or  school,  under  whom  various  learned 
men  gave  to  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Hindus  the  form  in  which 
it  now  presents   itself.     In  this  task  the  disciples,  as  they  are 


PUR  483 

termed,  of  Vyasa  were  rather  his  colleagues  and  coadjutors,  for 
they  were  aheudy  conversant  with  what  he  is  fabled  to  have 
taught  them  ;  and  amongst  them,  Lomaharshana  represents  the 
class  of  persons  who  were  especially  charged  with  the  record  of 
political  and  tenii)oral  events.  He  is  called  Suta,  as  if  it  was  a 
proper  name  ;  but  it  is  more  correctly  a  title  ;  and  Lomaharshana 
was  'a  Suta,'  that  is,  a  bard  or  panegyrist,  wlio  was  created, 
according  to  the  text,  to  celebrate  the  exploits  of  princes  ;  and 
who,  according  to  the  Vayu  and  Padraa  Puranas,  has  a  right  by 
birth  and  profession  to  narrate  the  Puranas,  in  preference  even  to 
the  Brahmaus.  It  is  not  unlikely  therefore  that  we  are  to 
understand,  by  his  being  represented  as  the  disciple  of  Vyasa,  the 
institution  of  some  attempt,  made  under  the  direction  of  the  latter, 
to  collect  from  the  heralds  and  auualists  of  his  day  the  scattered 
traditions  which  they  had  imperfectly  preserved  ;  and  hence  the 
cousequent  appropriation  of  the  Puranas,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
the  genealogies  of  regal  dynasties,  and  descriptions  of  the  universe. 
However  this  may  be,  the  machinery  has  been  but  loosely  adhered 
to,  and  many  of  the  Puranas,  like  the  Vishnu,  are  referred  to  a 
different  narrator."     Frcface  to  V.  P. 

"  The  Puranas  are  uniformly  stated  to  be  eighteen  in  number. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  also  eighteen  Upa-Puranas,  or  minor 
Puranas,  but  many  of  them  are  not  now  procurable.  The  following 
eighteen  are  specified  in  the  Devi  Bhagavata  : — 


1. 

Sanatkumira. 

10. 

Kalika. 

2. 

Narasinha. 

11. 

S^mba. 

3. 

Narad  iya. 

12. 

Nandi. 

4. 

Siva. 

13. 

Saura. 

5. 

Durvasasa. 

14. 

Parasara. 

6. 

Kapila. 

15. 

Aditya. 

7. 

Manava. 

16. 

Maheswara. 

8. 

Ausanasa. 

17. 

Bhargava. 

9, 

Varuna. 

18. 

Vasishtha. 

Of  the  contents  of  these  books  very  little  is  known.  There  arc 
many  local  legends  of  particular  temples  which  are  sometimes 
designated  Upa-Puranas.  Many  ancient  notions  and  traditions  arc 
preserved  in  the  Puranas,  but  they  have  been  so  nuich  mixed  up 


484  PUR 

with  sectarian  views,  intended  to  favour  the  popularity  of 
particular  forms  of  worship,  or  articles  of  faith,  that  they  cannot 
be  received  as  authorities  for  the  mythological  religion  of  the 
Hindus  at  any  remote  period." 

Purandara — The  Indra  of  the  seventh  (the  present)  Manwan- 
tara. 

Puranjaya — l,  A  king  of  Ayodhya  ;  son  of  Vikukshi,  whose 
reign  preceded  that  of  Ikshvaku..  Puraujaya  assisted  the  gods 
in  their  contest  with  the  Asuras.  As  he  destroyed  the  demon 
host  whilst  seated  on  the  hump  of  a  bull,  he  obtained  the  appellation 
Kakutstha,  q.  v  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Srinjaya  ;  3,  A  Yavana 
chief,  the  son  of  Viudhyasakti. 

Puravati — A  river  not  identified. 

Purohita — A  family  priest,  or  chaplain.  "  The  most  ancient 
name  for  a  priest  by  profession,"  says  Prof.  Max  Miiller  "  is 
Purohita,  which  means  prepositus  or  prceses.  The  Purohita, 
however,  was  more  than  a  priest.  He  was  the  friend  and 
counsellor  of  the  chief,  the  minister  of  the  king,  and  his  companion 
in  peace  and  war.  The  original  occupation  of  the  Purohita  may 
have  consisted  in  the  performance  of  the  usual  sacrifices  ;  but, 
with  the  ambitious  policy  of  the  Brahmans,  it  soon  became  a 
stepping  stone  to  political  power." 

The  office  of  a  Purohita  now-a-days  is,  in  the  words  of  the 
Abbe  Dubois,  to  prognosticate  what  are  good  and  what  are  evil 
days  for  beginning  any  affair,  or  for  putting  it  ofi* ;  to  avert,  by 
Mantras  or  prayers,  the  pernicious  effects  of  maledictions  or  the 
influence  of  malign  constellations  ;  to  assign  names  to  new  born 
children  and  calculate  their  nativity  ;  to  bless  new  houses,  wells, 
or  tanks  ;  to  purify  temples  and  consecrate  them  ;  to  imbue  idols 
with  the  divine  essence  :  all  these  ceremonies,  and  many  others  of 
smaller  importance,  are  the  province  of  the  Brahmans  called 
Purohitas. 

The  most  important  of  the  ceremonies  over  which  they  preside 
are  those  of  marriages  and  burials.  They  are  so  complex  that  an 
ordinary  Brahman  would  be  found  incapable  of  performing  them. 
A  regular  study  is  necessary  for  the  exactness  and  precision  which 


PUR  485 

they  require  ;  aud  Mantras  are  requisite  of  which  the  greater  part 
are  ignorant.  Tiie  Purohitas  alone  are  accomplished  in  the 
management  of  these  rites,  the  detail  of  which  they  have  in  writing, 
in  certain  formularies,  which  they  permit  nobody  to  see,  not  even 
the  other  Brahmans.  Indeed  the  principal  Mantras  tliat  are  used 
are  not  reduced  into  writing,  from  the  fear  that  some  other 
Brahmans  might  acquire  them,  and  so  become  their  rivals,  to  the 
diminution  of  their  exclusive  profits.  The  father  teaches  them,  to 
his  son,  and  thus  they  pass  from  generation  to  generation  in  one 
family.  This  shows  that  it  is  self-interest  rather  than  superstition 
which  occasions  this  reserve.  By  hindering  the  other  Brahmans 
from  learning  these  ceremonies  and  the  corresponding  Mantras, 
the  Purohitas  render  themselves  more  necessary  to  the  people,  and 
to  the  Brahmans  themselves,  v/ho  cannot  dispense  with  their 
services  on  many  occasions. 

One  of  the  highest  privileges  attached  to  the  profession  of  the 
Purohita  is  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing  the  Hindu  Almanac. 
There  are  but  feAv  Avho  are  found  capable  of  making  the  calcula- 
tions ;  perhaps  one  or  two  only  in  a  district.  It  is  not  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  that  the  Hindu 
Almanac  is  compiled,  but  upon  the  approximation  and  agreement 
of  numerous  tables  and  formula3  of  great  antiquity,  and  therefore 
the  calculation  is  very  complicated,  aud  much  time,  attention,  and 
labour  is  required  to  arrive  at  exact  conclusions. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  year,  the  Purohita  assembles  the  principal 
inhabitants  of  the  place  where  he  lives.  In  their  presence  he 
announces,  by  sound  of  trumpet,  who  is  to  be  supreme  over  the 
stars.  He  determines  also  the  quantity  of  rain  aud  of  drought, 
and  foretells,  iu  short,  whether  it  is  to  be  a  year  of  health  or  of 
disease  ;  whether  the  deaths  or  the  births  shall  predominate,  and 
many  other  contingencies  of  equal  importance. 

The  Purohita  is  essentially  a  family  priest  and  a  religious 
preceptor.  Amongst  the  poorer  classes  he  may  officiate  for  very 
many  families,  in  which  case  he  employs  assistants,  and  gives  them 
a  stipulated  share  of  the  gifts  and  other  perquisites  which  he  may 
receive.  But  amongst  the  richer  classes,  the  duties  of  a  Purohita 
are  confined  to  a  single  family,  and  under  such  circumstances  his 


486  ,  PUR 

iuflueuce  becomes  paramount  in  the  liouseliokl.  He  performs  all 
the  necessary  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  for  the  members  of  the 
family,  and  imparts  religious  instruction  from  the  sacred  books. 
At  the  same  time,  he  is  the  repository  of  all  the  family  secrets, 
and  the  confidential  and  authoritative  counsellor  in  all  times  of 
doubt  and  difficulty.  He  is  also  frequently  engaged  in  more 
secular  matters,  such  as  the  settlement  of  disputes  ;  and  in  modern 
times  a  Hindu  Zemindar  or  Raja  has  occasionally  employed  his 
Purohita  as  an  ambassador  or  envoy. 

Purnasa— (Parnasa).  A  river  that  rises  in  the  Paripitra 
mountain. 

Purnotsanga — One  of  the  thirty  Andhrabhritya  kings,  the 
sou  of  Sri  Satakarui  ;  his  reign  lasted  eighteen  years. 

Puru — 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha  ;  2,  the 
youngest  son  of  king  Yayati,  who  consented  to  give  his  youth  and 
vigour  to  his  father,  and  receive  in  exchange  Yayati's  infirmities. 
After  Yayati  had  had  a  thousand  years  experience  of  the  vanity  of 
sensual  pleasures,  he  restored  his  youth  to  Puru,  and  installed  him 
in  the  sovereignty  of  Pratishthana.  The  descendants  of  Puru  were 
numerous  and  celebrated  ;  and  included  the  Pandavas  and 
Kauravas.     See  page  367. 

Puruhotia — A  prince,  the  son  of  Anuratha,  one  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Jyamagha. 

Purujanu — One  of  the  kings  of  Kampilya,  the  son  of  Susauti. 

Purukutsa — A  king,  who  reigned  in  the  banks  of  the  Narraada, 
to  whom  the  Vishnu  Purana  was  repeated.  He  was  the  son  of 
Mandhatri,  and  assisted  the  snake-gods  by  destroying  the 
Gandharbas  in  the  regions  below  the  earth. 

Purumidha — One  of  the  sous  of  Hastin,  the  founder  of 
Hastiuapur. 

Pururavas — The  son  of  Budha  and  Sudyumna  (Ha.)  He  was 
a  prince  renowned  for  liberality,  devotion,  magnificence,  love  of 
truth,  and  for  personal  beauty.  Urvasi  having  incurred  the 
imprecation  of  Mitra  and  Varuna,  determined  to  take  up  her  abode 


PUR  487 

in  the  world  of  moi(;iIs  ;  and  descending  accordingly,  beheld 
Puriiravas.  As  soon  as  she  saw  him  she  forgot  all  reserve,  and 
disregarding  the  deliu^lits  of  Swarga,  became  deeply  enamoured  of 
the  prince.  Behokliiig  her  infinitely  superior  to  all  other  females 
in  grace,  elegance,  symmetry,  delicacy,  and  beauty,  Pururavas  was 
equally  fascinated  by  Urvasi  :  both  were  inspired  by  similar  senti- 
ments, and  mutually  feeling  that  each  was  every  thing  to  the  other, 
thought  no  more  of  any  other  object.  Confiding  in  his  merits, 
Pururavas  addressed  the  nymph,  and  said,  "  P^air  creature,  I  love 
you  ;  have  compassion  on  me,  and  return  my  affection."  Urvasi, 
half  averting  her  face  through  modesty,  replied,  "  I  will  do  so, 
if  you  will  observe  the  conditions  I  have  to  propose."  "  What  are 
they?"  inquired  the  prince;  "declare  them."  "I  have  two 
rams,"  said  the  nymph,  "  which  I  love  as  children  ;  they  must  be 
kept  near  my  bedside,  and  never  suffered  to  be  carried  away  :  you 
must  also  take  cai-e  never  to  be  seen  by  me  undressed  ;  and 
clarified  butter  alone  must  be  my  food."  To  these  terms  the  king 
readily  gave  assent. 

After  this,  Pururavas  and  Urvasi  dwelt  together  in  Alaka,  sport- 
ing amidst  the  groves  and  lotus-crowned  lakes  of  Chaitraratha, 
and  the  other  forests  there  situated,  for  sixty-one  thousand  years. 
The  love  of  Pururavas  for  his  bride  increased  every  day  of 
its  duration  ;  and  the  affection  of  Urvasi  augmenting  equally  in 
fervour,  she  never  called  to  recollection  residence  amongst  the 
immortals.  Wot  so  with  the  attendant  spirits  at  the  court  of  Indra  ; 
and  nymphs,  genii,  and  quiristers,  found  heaven  itself  but  dull 
whilst  Urvasi  was  away.  Knowing  the  agreement  that  Urvasi  had 
made  with  the  king,  Viswavasu  was  appointed  by  the  Gandharbas 
to  effect  its  violation  ;  and  he,  coming  by  night  to  the  chaml)er 
where  they  slept,  carried  off  one  of  the  rams.  Urvasi  was  awaken- 
ed by  its  cries,  and  exclaimed,  "  Ah  me  !  who  has  stolen  one  of 
my  children  ?  Had  I  a  husband,  this  would  not  have  happened  ! 
To  whom  shall  I  apply  for  aid  ?"  The  Raja  overheard  her  lamenta- 
tion, but  recollecting  that  he  was  undressed,  and  that  Urvasi  might 
see  him  in  that  state,  did  not  move  from  the  couch.  Then  the 
Gandharbas  came  and  stole  the  other  ram  ;  and  Urvasi,  hearing  it 
bleat,  cried  out  that  a  woman  had  no  protector  who  was  the  bride 


488  PUR 

of  a  prince  so  dastardly  as  to  submit  to  this  outrage.  This  inceused 
Puriiravas  highly,  aud  trusting  that  the  nymph  would  not  see 
his  person,  as  it  was  dark,  he  rose,  and  took  his  sword,  aud 
pursued  the  robbers,  calling  upon  them  to  stop,  and  receive  their 
punishment.  At  that  moment  the  Gandharbas  caused  a  flash  of 
brilliant  lightning  to  play  upon  the  chamber,  and  Urvasi  beheld 
the  king  undressed  :  the  compact  was  violated,  and  the  nymph 
immediately  disappeared.  The  Gandharbas,  abandoning  the  rams, 
departed  to  the  region  of  the  gods. 

Having  recovered  the  animals,  the  king  returned  delighted 
to  his  couch,  but  there  he  beheld  no  Urvasi  ;  and  not  finding 
her  anywhere,  he  wandered  naked  over  the  world,  like  one 
insane.  At  length  coming  to  Kurukshetra,  he  saw  Urvasi 
sporting  with  four  other  nymphs  of  heaven  in  a  lake  beautified 
with  lotuses,  and  he  ran  to  her,  and  called  her  his  wife,  and  wildly 
implored  her  to  return.  "  Mighty  monarch,"  said  the  nymph, 
"  refrain  from  this  extravagance.  I  am  now  pregnant  :  depart  at 
present,  and  come  hither  again  at  the  end  of  a  year,  when  I  will 
deliver  to  you  a  son,  and  remain  with  you  for  one  night." 
Puriiravas,  thus  comforted,  returned  to  his  capital.  Urvasi  said 
to  her  companions,  "  This  prince  is  a  most  excellent  mortal  :  I 
lived  with  him  long  and  affectionately  united."  "  It  was  well 
done  of  you,"  they  replied  ;  "  he  is  indeed  of  comely  appearance, 
and  one  with  whom  we  could  live  happily  for  ever." 

When  the  year  had  expired,  Urvasi  and  the  monarch  met  at 
Kurukshetra,  aud  she  consigned  to  him  his  first-born  Ayus  ;  and 
these  annual  interviews  were  repeated,  until  she  had  borne  to  him 
five  sons.  She  then  said  to  Pururavas,  ''  Through  regard  for  me, 
all  the  Gandharbas  have  expressed  their  joint  purpose  to  bestow 
upon  my  lord  their  benediction  :  let  him  therefore  demand  a  boon." 
The  Raja  replied,  "  My  enemies  are  all  destroyed,  my  faculties 
are  all  entire  ;  I  have  friends  and  kindred,  armies  and  treasures  : 
there  is  nothing  which  I  may  not  attain  except  living  in  the  same 
region  with  my  Urvasi.  My  only  desire  therefore  is,  to  pass  my 
life  with  her."  When  he  had  thus  spoken,  the  Gandharbas 
brought  to  Pururavas  a  vessel  with  fire,  and  said  to  him,  "  Take 
this  fire,  and,  according  to  the  precepts  of  the  Vedas,  divide  it  into 


PUR  489 

three  fires  ;  then  fixing  your  mind  upon  the  idea  of  living  with 
Urvasi,  offer  oblations,  and  you  shall  assuredly  obtain  your  wishes." 
The  Raja  took  the  brasier,  and  departed,  and  came  to  a  forest. 
Then  he  began  to  reflect  that  he  had  committed  a  great  folly  in 
bringing  away  the  vessel  of  fire  instead  of  his  bride  ;  and  leaving 
the  vessel  in  the  wood,  he  went  disconsolate  to  his  palace.  In  the 
middle  of  the  night  he  awoke,  and  considered  that  the  Gandharbas 
had  given  him  the  brasier  to  enable  him  to  obtain  the  felicity  of 
living  with  Urvasi,  and  that  it  was  absurd  in  him  to  have  left  it 
by  the  way.  Resolving  therefore  to  recover  it,  he  rose,  and  went 
to  the  place  where  he  had  deposited  the  vessel  ;  but  it  was  gone. 
In  its  stead  he  saw  a  young  Aswattha  tree  growing  out  of  a  Sami 
plant,  and  he  reasoned  with  himself,  and  said,  "  I  left  in  this  spot  a 
vessel  of  fire,  and  now  behold  a  young  Aswattha  tree  growing  out 
of  a  Sami  plant.  Verily  I  will  take  these  types  of  fire  to  my 
capital,  and  there,  having  engendered  fire  by  their  attrition,  I  will 
worship  it."     V.  P. 

Having  thus  determined,  he  took  the  plants  to  his  city,  and 
prepared  their  wood  for  attrition,  with  pieces  of  as  many  inches 
long  as  there  are  syllables  in  the  Gayatri  ;  he  recited  that  holy 
verse,  and  rubbed  together  sticks  of  as  many  inches  as  he  recited 
syllables  in  the  Gayatri.  Having  thence  elicited  fire,  he  made  it 
threefold,  according  to  the  injunctions  of  the  Vedas,  and  offered 
oblations  with  it,  proposing  as  the  end  of  the  ceremony  reunion 
with  Urvasi.  In  this  way,  celebrating  many  sacrifices  agreeably 
to  the  form  in  which  offerings  are  presented  with  fire,  Pururavas 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  sphere  of  the  Gandharbas,  and  was  no  more 
separated  from  his  beloved.  Thus  fire,  that  was  at  first  but  one, 
was  made  threefold  in  the  present  Manwantara  by  the  son  of  Ila." 

Pururavas  is  also  called  Vikrama  ;  and  the  legend  forms  the 
subject  of  Kalidasa's  drama.  "  Vikrama  and  Urvasi  ;  or  the 
Hero  and  Nymph."  The  legend  as  related  in  the  Satapatha 
Brahmana  differs  from  the  above  in  several  particulars.  An  expla- 
nation of  the  myth  is  given  by  Max  Miiller  in  his  Comparative 
Mythology,*  "  One  of  the  myths  of  the  Veda  which  expresses  this 

Chips  from  a  German  ^Yorkshop,  Vol.  II,  p.  101. 

G2 


490  PUR— PUS 


correlation  of  the  Dawn  and  the  Sun,  this  love  between  the  mortal 
and  the  immortal,  and  the  identity  of  the  morning  dawn  and  the 

evening  twilight,  is  the  story  of  Urvasi  and  Pururavas Urvasi 

was  originally  an  appellation  and  meant  dawn."  Another  expla- 
nation is  that  Pururavas  personifies  the  sun  ;  while  Urvasi  is  the 
morning  mist.  Urvasi  is  an  Apsarasas  ;  and  the  Apsarasas  are 
"  personifications  of  the  vapours  which  are  attracted  by  the  sun, 
and  form  into  mists  or  clouds."  Dr.  Goldstiicker  holds  therefore 
that  the  legend  represents  the  absorption  by  the  sun  of  the  vapour 
floating  in  the  air.  When  Pururavas  becomes  distinctly  visible, 
Urvasi  vanishes  ;  because  when  the  sun  shines  forth,  the  mist  is 
absorbed. 

Purusha— Spirit.  The  first  form  of  Vishnu.  Mahat  is  also 
called  Purusha  from  its  abiding  within  the  body. 

Purushottama — A  common  title  of  Vishnu,  implying  supreme 
best  spirit. 

Purva-bhadrapada — A  lunar  mansion  in  Vaiswanari,  in  the 
Southern  Avashthana. 

Purvachitti — One  of  the  Apsarasas  ;  of  the  Daivika  or  divine 
class. 

Purvaja — An  appellation  of  Vishnu,  meaning  produced  or 
appearing  before  creation  ;  the  Orphic  irpwroyoyos  :  animating 
nature  and  existing  before  it. 

Purvashada — A  lunar  mansion  in  Ajavithi,  in  the  Southern 
Avashthana. 

Purvaphalguni— A  lunar  mansion  in  Arshabhi,  in  the  Central 
Avashthana, 

Pushan — A  solar  deity.  "  Pushan  is  a  protector  and  multiplier 
of  cattle  and  of  human  possessions  in  general.  Asa  cow-herd  he 
carries  an  ox-goad,  and  he  is  drawn  by  goats.  In  character  he  is 
a  solar  deity,  beholds  the  entire  universe,  and  is  a  guide  on  roads 
and  journeys,  and  to  the  other  world.  He  is  called  the  lover  of 
his  sister  Surya.  He  aids  in  the  revolutions  of  day  and  night ; 
and  shares  with  Soma  the  guardianship  of  living  creatures.  He 
is  invoked  along  with  the  most  various  deities,  but  most  frequently 
with  Indra."     He  is  the  lord  of  all  things  moving  and  stationary, 


PUS  491 

tlic  inspire!'  of  the  soul,  aii  uncoDquerablc  protector  aud  defender, 
and  is  besought  to  give  increase  of  wealth.  He  is  said  to  regard 
and  to  see  clearly  and  at  once  all  creatures.  He  is  not  only  the 
tutelary  god  of  travellers,  but  also,  like  Savitri  and  Agni,  and  the 
Greek  Hermes,  a^vxaTro/MiroSf  who  conducts  departed  spirits  on 
their  way  to  the  other  world.  Many  hymns  are  addressed  to 
Pushan,  some  of  which  are  translated  by  Dr.  Muir,  (0.  S.  T.,  V, 
p.  174)  "  from  which  it  will  appear  that  the  character  of  this  god 
is  not  very  distinctly  defined  ;  and  that  it  is  difficult  to  declare 
positively  what  province  of  nature  or  of  physical  action  he  is 
designed  to  represent,  as  is  at  once  manifest  in  the  case  of  Dyaus, 
Prithivi,  Agni,  Indra,  Parjanya,  and  Surya." 

Some  of  the  hymns  in  the  Rig  Veda  are  exclusively  devoted  to 
the  celebration  of  Pushan.  The  single  or  detached  verses  of 
other  hymns  in  which  he  is  mentioned  are  numerous.  He  is 
mentioned  as  *  abounding  in  wealth,'  as  '  bringing  blessings'  as 
*  most  bountiful,'  *  beneficient,'  '  distinguished  by  all  divine 
attributes.'  He  is  associated  with  Savitri,  aud  is  described  as 
moving  onward  under  his  impulse,  and  as  knowing  and  perceiving 
all  creatures.  In  some  hymns  Pushan  is  connected  with  the 
marriage  ceremonial,  being  besought  to  take  the  bride's  hand  and 
lead  her  away,  and  to  bless  her  in  her  conjugal  relation. 

Pushkalas — The  designation  of  Kshatriyas  inKrauncha  Dwlpa. 

Pushkara — The  last  of  the  seven  great  insular  continents,  or 
Dwipas,  encompassing  the  sea  of  milk,  and  being  itself  surrounded 
by  a  sea  of  fresh  water.  Pushkara  is  represented  as  a  terrestial 
paradise  ;  where  all  the  inhabitants  are  happy,  and  rejoice  in  total 
exemption  from  sickness  and  decay.  They  live  a  thousand  years 
undisturbed  by  anger  or  affection.  There  is  neither  virtue  nor 
vice,  killer  nor  slain  :  there  is  no  jealousy,  envy,  fear,  hatred, 
covetousness,  nor  any  moral  defect  ;  neither  is  there  truth  or 
falsehood.     V.  P.  201. 

Pushkara — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Bharata  ;  he  was  king  of 
Gandhara,  residing  at  Pushkaravati  ;  2,  The  brother  of  Nala,  who 
engaged  him  in  the  gambling  match  which  cost  him  his  kingdom. 
(See  Nala.) 


492  PUS 

Pushkaras — The  designation  of  brahmans  in  Krauncha  Dwipa. 

Pushkaravarttakas— A  designation  of  the  class  of  clouds 
Pakshaja  ;  so  termed  from  their  including  water  in  their  vortices  ; 
they  are  the  largest  and  most  formidable  of  all,  and  are  those 
which,  at  the  end  of  the  Yugas  and  Kalpas,  pour  down  the  waters 
of  the  deluge. 

Pushkarin — A  prince  the  son  of  Urukshava,  a  descendant  of 
Bharata. 

Pushkarini — The  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Anaranya,  and 
mother  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha. 

Pushpadanta — One  of  Siva's  principal  attendants.  "  On  the 
summit  of  Kailasa,  a  lofty  peak  of  the  Himalaya  range,  resided  the 
mighty  deity  Maheswara,  attended  by  innumerable  spirits  and 
genii,  and  worshipped  even  by  the  superior  divinities.  The 
daughter  of  the  mountain  monarch,  and  the  spouse  of  Mahadeva, 
propitiated  her  lord  by  her  celestial  strains  ;  and,  being  pleased  by  ] 
her  adulations,  he  proffered  her  whatever  boon  she  might  request. 
Her  only  demand  was  to  receive  instruction  from  his  lips,  and  to 
liear  from  him  such  narrations  as  were  yet  unknown  to  the 
immortals  or  herself.  Siva,  giving  orders  that  no  person  should 
be  admitted,  proceeded  to  reveal  to  the  goddess  those  narratives 
which  illustrate  the  felicity  of  the  gods,  the  troubles  of  mankind, 
and  the  intermediate  and  varying  conditions  of  the  spirits  of  earth 
and  heaven. 

It  happened  that  Pushpadanta  came  to  the  palace  gate  and  was 
refused  admission  by  the  warder.  As  he  was  a  great  favourite 
with  his  master  and  had  always  ready  access  to  his  person,  the 
refusal  excited  his  astonishment  and  curiosity  ;  and,  rendering 
himself  invisible,  he  passed  in,  determined  to  ascertain  why 
entrance  was  so  rigorously  barred.  In  this  manner  having  come 
to  where  Siva  and  Bhavani  were  seated,  he  over-heard  all  the 
marvellous  stories  repeated  by  the  deity.  When  these  were 
concluded,  he  retired  as  he  had  entered,  unobserved,  and  going 
home  communicated  the  narrative  to  his  wife  Jaya,  it  being 
impossible  to  keep  wealth  or  secrets  from  a  woman.  Jaya, 
equally  unable   to  preserve  silence,  communicated  what  she  had 


PUS  493 

heard  to  her  fellow  attendants  ou  Parvati  ;  and  the  affair  soon 
became  known  to  the  goddess  and  her  lord.  As  the  punishment 
of  impertinence,  Pushpadanta  was  condemned  to  a  human  birth, 
and  his  friend  Mctlyavan,  who  presumed  to  intercede  for  him,  was 
sentenced  to  a  like  fate.  Being,  however,  subdued  by  the  distress 
of  Jayd,  the  offended  goddess  fixed  a  term  to  their  degradation, 
and  thus  spake.  '  When  Pushpadanta,  encountering  a  Yaksha,  who 
has  been  doomed  by  Kuvera  to  haunt  the  Vindhya  mountains  as  a 
goblin,  shall  recollect  his  original  condition,  and  shall  repeat  the 
tales  he  has  rashly  over-heard,  the  curse  shall  no  more  prevail.' 
So  saying,  she  ceased,  and  the  two  culprits,  instantly,  like  a  flash 
of  lightning,  blazed  and  disappeared. 

After  a  due  interval  Pushpadanta  was  bom  at  Kausambi  as 
Vararuchi,  and  when  arrived  at  years  of  discretion  found  the 
goblin,  and  recollecting  his  origin,  repeated  to  him  the  seven  great 
narratives  of  Siva,  each  comprehending  a  hundred  thousand 
\e.Yses.—  mison's  Works,  III,  160-163. 

Pushpadantha— One  of  the  serpent  kings  ;  of  the  progeny  of 
Kadru. 

Pushpaka— The  name  of  Rama's  car. 

Pushpatmitra—Thc  first  king  of  the  Sunga  Dynasty  ;  he 
reigned  at  Mekala,  a  country  on  the  Narbada  ;  he  was  the  general 
of  the  last  Maurya  prince,  whom  he  put  to  death,  and  ascended  the 
throne  himself ;  the  dynasty  lasted  a  hundred  and  twelve  years. 

Pushpavat — A  prince,  the  son  of  liishabha. 

Pushpottara — One  of  the  heavens  of  the  Jainas.  When 
Priyamitra  returned  to  the  earth  in  the  Bharata  division  as 
Nandana,  after  an  existence  of  twenty-five  lakhs  of  years,  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  king  of  the  gods  in  the  Pushpottara 
heaven,  in  which  capacity  he  preserved  his  ancient  fidth,  offering 
flowers  to,  and  bathing  daily,  the  hundred  and  eighty  images  of  the 
Arhats.  Such  exalted  piety  was  now  to  meet  with  its  reward,  and 
the  pains  of  existence  were  to  be  terminated  in  the  person  of  the 
Tirthankara  Mahavira  or  Varddhamana. —  Wilson,  I,  293. 

Pushti—' Thriving'  ;  1,  A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Dharma  ;  2,  A  daughter  of  Paurnama^ia, 


494  PUS— PUY 


Pushya — l,  A  prince,  the  sou  of  the  saintly  king  Yajnawalkya  ; 
2,  The  eighth  lunar  mansion  ;  in  Airavata,  in  the  Northern 
Avashthana. 

"  The  morning  dawned  with  cloudless  ray 
On  Pushya's  high  auspicious  day, 
And  Cancer  with  benignant  power 
Looked  down  on  Rama's  natal  hour." 

Puskola — The  palm  leaf  upon  which  the  native  books  are 
written  in  Ceylon. 

Putana— A  female  fiend  or  Asura,  the  daughter  of  Bali  ;  she 
was  known  as  a  child  killer,  and  attempted  the  life  of  Krishna 
when  he  was  an  infant,  but  was  killed  herself  in  the  act. 

Putra— One  of  the  three  sons  of  Priyavrata  who  adopted  a 
religious  life  ;  remembering  the  occurrences  of  a  prior  existence, 
he  did  not  covet  dominion,  but  diligently  practiced  the  rites  of 
devotion. 

Puyavaha — One  of  the  Narakas,  that  ip  which  crimes  of 
violence,  &c.,  are  punished. 


R 

Radha — Oue  of  Krishna's  favourite  mistresses.  The  Gita 
Goviuda  is  a  poem  ou  their  attachment  to  each  other.  The  poet 
opens  the  first  interview  of  Krishna  and  Radha  with  an  animated 
description  of  a  night  in  the  rainy  season,  in  which  Krishna  is 
represented  as  a  wanderer,  and  Radha,  daughter  of  the  shepherd 
Nanda,  is  sent  to  offer  him  shelter  in  their  cottage.  Nanda  thus 
speaks  to  Radha  "  The  firmament  is  obscured  by  clouds  ;  the 
woodlands  are  black  with  Tamala  trees  ;  that  youth  who  roves  in 
the  forest  will  be  fearful  in  the  gloom  of  night  ;  go,  my  daughter, 
bring  the  wanderer  to  my  rustic  mansion."  Such  was  the 
command  of  Nanda  the  herdsman,  and  hence  arose  the  love  of 
Radha  and  Madhava.* 

Raga — Love.  One  of  **  the  five  afflictions"  in  the  Patanjala 
philosophy  ;  the  other  four  are  Avidya,  Asmiti,  Dwesha,  and 
Abhinivesa. 

Raghu — A  distinguished  mythical  Maharaja  of  the  solar  race, 
the  sou  of  Dilipa,  and  sovereign  of  Ayodhya,  celebrated  for  his 
learning,  his  riches,  his  bravery,  and  his  uniform  success.  The 
Raghuvansa  narrates  his  wonderful  achievements  and  varied 
conquests,  and  concludes  with  the  following  legend.  A  brahman 
named  Koutsya,  a  disciple  of  the  great  Rishi  Varatanta,  having 
completed  his  course  of  studies,  asked  his  guru  what  acknowledg- 
ment he  should  make  to  show  his  gratitude. _  The  tutor  professed 
himself  satisfied  with  the  services  the  disciple  had  rendered  ;  the 
latter,  however,  insisting  on  bestowing  a  gift,  the  guru  asked  for 
fourteen  crores  of  rupees.  For  this  enormous  sum  Koutsya  applied 
to  Maluiraja  Raghu,  who  having  just  emptied  his  treasury  by  the 
performance  of  the  sacrifice  termed  Visvajit-yajna,  determined  to 
conquer  Kubera  (the  god  of  riches),  who  was  so  alarmed  at  the 
prospect  that  he  at  once  sent  innumerable  crores  to  the  Maharaja. 

*  Tod's  Rajast'hau,  Vol.  I,  p.  540,  which  contains  a  beautiful  engraviug  of 
Krishna  and  Radba. 


496  RAG— RAH 


The  money  was  then  given  to  the  brahman,  who  in  return  blessed 
the  king  with  the  promise  of  a  good  son,  and  in  due  course  the 
illustrious  Aja  was  born. 

Raghu — 1,  A  prince  of  the  lunar  race,  the  son  of  Dirgha- 
bahu  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Yadu,  the  founder  of  the  Yadava  race. 

Raghuvansa — An  epic  poem  by  Kalidasa.  The  poem  describes 
the  exploits  of  a  line  of  princes  descended  from  the  Sun,  of  whom 
Rama  was  the  boast  and  ornament.  It  has  been  translated  into 
Latin  by  Stenzler,  and  into  French  by  M.  Hippolyte  Fauche. 
The  Idylls  from  the  Sanskrit  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Griffiths  are  chiefly 
taken  from  the  Raghuvansa.     See  Dilipa. 

Rahat — One  who  is  entirely  free  from  evil  desire,  and  in  conse- 
quence possessed  of  supernatural  powers. 

Rahu — One  of  the  nine  planets  of  the  Hindus  ;  an  imaginary 
being  supposed  to  cause  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  Rahu 
according  to  the  P^dma  Purana  and  Bhagavata,  was  the  son  of  the 
Danava  Viprachitti ;  at  the  churning  of  the  sea  of  milk  he 
insinuated  himself  amongst  the  gods,  and  obtained  a  portion  of  the 
Amrita  or  nectar  ;  the  sun  and  the  moon  observed  the  theft,  and 
informed  Vishnu  of  it,  who,  as  a  punishment  beheaded  the  Daitya  ; 
the  head  became  immortal  in  consequence  of  the  Amrita  having 
reached  the  throat,  and  was  transferred  as  a  constellation  to  the 
skies  ;  and  as  the  sun  and  moon  detected  his  presence  amongst  the 
gods  and  made  known  his  theft,  Rahu  pursues  them  with  implacable 
hatred,  and  his  efforts  to  seize  them  are  the  causes  of  eclipses  ; 
Rahu  typifying  the  ascending  and  descending  nodes.  Rahu  is  also 
called  the  king  of  meteors.  The  Vishnu  Pui'ana  states  that  eight 
black  horses  draw  the  dusky  chariot  of  Rahu,  and  once  harnessed 
are  attached  to  it  for  ever.  On  the  Parvas  (the  nodes,  or  lunar  and 
solar  eclipses)  Rahu  directs  his  course  from  the  sun  to  the  moon 
and  back  again  from  the  moon  to  the  sun,  taking  up  the  circular 
shadow  of  the  earth. 

Rahula — A  prince,  the  son  of  Sakya.  A  name,  says  Dr. 
Wilson,  of  considerable  chronological  interest  ;  for  Sakya  is  the 
name  of  the  author  or  reviver  of  Buddhism,  whose  birth  appears 
to   have  occurred   in  the  seventh,   and  death  in  tlie  sixtli  century 


RAI— RAJ  497 


before  Christ  (b.  c.  621 — 543.)  Sakya,  as  the  twenty-second  of 
the  line  of  Ikshvaku  is  contemporary  with  Ripunjaya,  the  last  of 
the  kiu^s  of  Magadha.  The  chronology  is  not  easily  adjusted,  but 
it  is  not  altogether  incompatible.  The  Buddhists  always  consider 
their  teacher  Sakya  to  be  descended  from  Ikshvaku.  In  Tibet, 
-where  several  sects  of  Buddhists  are  found,  some  of  them  profess 
themselves  to  be  followers  of  Rahula. 

Raivata — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Priyavrata  according  to  tho 
Bhagavata  list,  and  the  Manu  of  the  fifth  Manwantara.  Four 
Manus  were  descended  from  Priyavrata,  who  in  consequence  of 
propitiating  Vishnu  by  his  devotions,  obtained  these  rulerships  of 
the  Manwantara,  for  his  posterity.  The  Markandeya  contains  a 
legend  of  the  birth  of  Raivata,  as  the  son  of  king  Durgama,  ])y  the 
nymph  Revati,  sprung  from  the  constellation  Revati. 

2.  An  appellation  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

3.  A  name  of  Kakudmin   (q.  v.)   the  eldest  of  the  sons  of 

Revati  ;  he  visited  Brahmti,  and  gave  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  Balarama. 

4.  The  name  of  a  mountain. 

Raja — A  prince,  the  son  of  Viraja  a  descendant  of  Bharata. 
Raja  is  derived  from  Raj,  to  shine  or  be  splendid. 

Rajadhidevi — A  daughter  of  Siira,  who  was  married  to 
Jayaseua,  king  of  Avauti. 

Rajagaha — A  city  near  Benares,  celebrated  as  the  residence  of 
Gautama  Buddha,  and  the  place  where  he  died. 

Rajagriha — The  ancient  capital  of  Magadha  or  Behar,  contain- 
ing many  remarkable  ruins. 

Rajarshis — Royal  Rishis,  or  princes  who  have  adopted  a  life  of 
devotion,  as  Viswamitra,  Ikshvaku,  and  others  ;  they  dwell  in  the 
lieaven  of  ludra. 

Rajas — The  quality  of  foulness,  passion,  activity. 

Rajas — One  of  the  seven  sages,  according  to  the  enumeration 
in  the  Vishnu  Purana  ;  they  were  all  the  sons  of  Vasishta. 

63 


498  RAJ— RAK 


Rajyavarddhana — A  prince,  the  son  of  Dama,  a  descendant 
of  Marutta. 

Rajavat — The  son  of  Dyutimat,  of  the  race  of  Bhrigu. 

Raji — One  of  the  five  sons  of  Ayus.  He  is  celebrated  for 
having  assisted  the  gods  in  their  contest  with  the  demons,  and 
"  by  his  numerous  and  formidable  weapons"  securing  to  them  the 
victory.     In  consequence  of  this  Indra  resigned  his  throne  to  Raji. 

Rajni — The  daughter  of  Raivata  and  wife  of  Vivas wat. 

Raka — l,  One  of  the  phases  of  the  moon,  represented  as  one  of 
the  four  daughters  of  Angiras  ;  2,  The  day  when  the  moon  is 
quite  round. 

Rakhi — A  bracelet  used  as  an  armlet,  or  preservative  against 
evil  (R^ksha)  consisting  of  a  piece  of  thread  or  silk  or  some  more 
costly  material,  bound  round  the  wrist  or  arm,  with  an  appropriate 
prayer.  Besides  its  application  to  children  to  avert  the  effects 
of  evil  eyes,  or  to  protect  them  against  Dains  or  witches,  there  is 
one  day  in  the  year,  the  Rakhi  Purnima,  or  full  moon  in  the  month 
of  Sravan  (July — August)  when  it  is  bound  upon  the  wrists  of 
adults,  by  friendly  or  kindred  brahmans,  with  a  short  prayer  or 
benediction.  The  Rakhi  is  also  sent  sometimes  by  persons  of 
distinction,  and  especially  by  females,  to  members  of  a  different 
family  or  race  to  intimate  a  sort  of  brotherly  or  sisterly  adoption. 
Colonel  Tod  received  the  bracelet  from  three  queens  in  Rajasthan, 
and  after  he  returned  to  his  own  country  set  a  high  value  on  these 
testimonies  of  friendly  regard. — (  Wilson.) 

In  his  Annals  he  says,  "  The  festival  of  the  Rakhi  is  in  spring, 
and  whatever  its  origin  it  is  one  of  the  few  when  an  intercourse  of 
gallantry  of  the  most  delicate  nature  is  established  between  the  fair 
sex  and  the  cavaliers  of  Rajasthan.  Though  the  bracelet  may  be 
sent  by  maidens,  it  is  only  on  occasion  of  urgent  necessity  or  danger. 
The  Rajput  dame  bestows  with  the  Rakhi  the  title  of  adopted 
brother  ;  and  while  its  acceptance  secures  to  her  all  the  protection 
of  a  '  cavaliere  serveiitt^  scandal  itself  never  suggests  any  other 
tie  to  his  devotion.  He  may  hazard  his  life  in  her  cause,  and  yet 
never  receive  a  smile  in  reward,  for  he  cannot  even  see  the  fair 
ol)iect  who,  as  the  brother  of  her  adoption,  has  constituted  him  her 


RAK  499 

defender.  But  there  is  a  charm  in  the  mystery  of  such  connexions, 
never  endangered  by  close  observation,  and  the  loyal  to  the  fair 
may  well  attach  a  value  to  the  public  recognition  of  being  the 
Rukhi-bund  Bhae,  the  '  bracelct-bound-brother'  of  a  princess.  The 
intrinsic  value  of  such  pledge  is  never  looked  to,  nor  is  it  requisite 
it  should  be  costly,  though  it  varies  with  the  means  and  rank  of 
the  donor,  and  may  be  of  flock  silk  and  spangles,  or  gilt  chains 
and  gems.  The  acceptance  of  the  pledge  and  its  return  is  by  the 
kalchli  or  corset  of  simple  silk,  or  satin,  or  gold  brocade  and 
pearls.  In  shape  or  application  there  is  nothing  similar  in  Europe, 
and  as  defending  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  structure  of  the  fair, 
it  is  peculiarly  appropriate  as  an  emblem  of  devotion. 

The  emperor  Humayiin  was  so  pleased  with  this  courteous 
delicacy  in  the  customs  of  Rajasthan,  on  receiving  the  bracelet  of 
the  "princess  Kurnavati,  which  invested  him  with  the  title  of  her 
brother,  and  uncle  and  protector  to  her  infant,  that  he  pled^^ed 
himself  to  her  service.  He  proved  himself  a  true  knight,  and 
abandoned  his  conquests  in  Bengal  when  called  on  to  redeem  his 
pledge.  Many  romantic  tales  are  founded  on  the  gift  of  the  Rakhi. 
See  Tod's  Rajasthan,  I,  312. 

Rakshas — The  son  of  Khasa,  and  father  of  the  Rakshasas. 

Rakshasa-ritual — By  violence.  Manu  says,  the  seizure  of  a 
maiden  by  force,  whilst  she  weeps  and  calls  for  assistance,  after 
her  kinsmen  and  friends  have  been  slain  in  battle  or  wounded,  and 
their  houses  broken  open,  is  the  marriage  called  Rakshasa. 

Rakshasas — Giants.  They  are  said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to 
be  the  descendants  of  Pulastya,  through  Rakshas.  They  arc  also 
represented  in  the  same  work  as  having  proceeded  from  Brahma  ; 
beings  of  hideous  aspect,  and  with  long  beards.  They  hastened 
to  the  deity  ;  such  of  them  as  exclaimed  "  Oh  !  preserve  us,"  were 
thence  called  Rakshasas  (from  Raksha  to  preserve)  ;  others  who 
cried  out,  "  let  us  eat,"  were  denominated  Yakshas  from  (yaksha 
to  eat.) 

"In  their  earliest  conception,"  says  Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson,  ''  they 
seem  to  be  those  unknown  creatures  of  darkness,  to  which  the 
superstition  of  all  ages   and  races  ha?   attributed  the  evils  that 


500  RAM 


attend  this  life,  and  a  malignant  desire  to  injure  mankind.  In  the 
Epic  period  they  seem  to  be  personifications  of  the  aborigines  of 
India,  presented  under  the  terrible  aspect  of  vampires  flying 
through  the  air,  sucking  blood,  &c.,  in  order  to  heighten  the 
triumphs  of  the  Aryan  heroes  who  subdued  them.  In  this 
character  they  play  a  very  prominent  part  on  the  Ramayana,  the 
beautiful  epic  of  Valmiki.  Here  they  are  led  by  Ravana,  the  king 
of  Lanka,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  island  of  Ceylon  and  its 
capital,  and  they  are  subdued  by  Dasaratha  Rama  the  hero  of  the 
poem.  In  the  Puranic  period  they  are  infernal  giants,  the  children 
of  the  Rishi  Pulastya,  and  enemies  of  the  gods.  They  are  then 
divided  into  three  classes  : — 

1.  The  slaves  of  Kuvera  the  god  of  wealth,  and  guardians  of 

of  his  treasures. 

2.  Malevolent  imps  whose  chief  delight  is  to  disturb  the  pious 

in  their  devotions. 

3.  Giants  of  enormous  proportions,  inhabiting  Naraka,  or  hell, 

and   hostile  to  the  gods.      In  the  second  Manwautara 
they  are  the  sons  of  Kasyapa  and  Khasd." 
The  most  celebrated  Rakshakas  are   Ravana,  and  his  brothers 
Kumbhakarna  and  Vibhishana,  an  account  of  whom  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  names. 

Rama — This  name  belongs  altogether  to  the  epic  period,  and 
is  given  to  three  persons  of  considerable  historical  importance, 
whose  mighty  deeds  won  for  them  the  privilege  of  being  considered 
incarnations  of  Vishnu.  The  first  is  Farasurdma,  or  Rama  of  the 
Axe.  He  is  considered  as  the  sixth  Avatara  of  Vishnu,  and 
belongs  to  the  period  of  the  first  struggle  betweeu  the  Brahmans 
and  the  Kshatriyas,  the  hierarchy  and  the  government. 

He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  certain  Muni  called 
Jamadagui  ;  (q.  v.)  but  as  his  mother  Kenuka  was  a  lady  of  the 
Kshatriya  caste,  and  as  the  children  follow  the  caste  of  their 
mother,  he  is  not,  like  his  father,  a  Brahman  by  birth,  although  he 
espoused  the  Brahman  cause,  and  afterward  himself  became  a 
Muni.  The  legend  relates  that  the  princess,  his  mother,  having 
committed  a  sin,  his  father  commanded  his  sous  to  put  her  to  death. 


RAM  501 

All  refused  except  Rdma,  the  youngest,  who  seized  his  axe  and 
felled  her  to  the  ground.  In  reward  for  this  triumph  of  duty  over 
feeling  he  received  the  gift  of  invincibility.  Afterwards  when 
j  Kurtavirya,  king  of  the  Ilaiheyas,  coveted  the  divine  cow  Kaaiad- 
j  h^nu  which  belonged  to  the  Muni,  and  took  it  from  him  by  force, 
I  when  he  was  on  a  visit  to  Jamadagni,  Rama  went  forth  to  recover 
the  cow,  and  soon  killed  the  robber  king.  The  sons  of  Kartavirya, 
to  revenge  his  death,  attacked  the  hermitage  of  Jamadagni,  when 
Rama  was  away,  and  slew  the  pious  and  unresisting  sage,  who 
called  repeatedly  ])ut  fruitlessly,  upon  his  valiant  son.  Rama 
returned  to  bewail  his  father's  unmerited  fate,  and  having  lighted 
his  funeral  pile,  vowed  that  he  would  extirpate  the  whole 
Kshatriya  race.  "  Thrice  seven  times  did  he  clear  the  earth  of 
the  Kshatriya  caste,"  says  the  Mahabharata  ;  Parasurama  was 
born  at  the  beginning  of  the  Treta  Yuga  (Second  age.) 

2.  The  second  Rama  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all.  He  is 
sometimes  designated  Dasaratha  Rama  or  Ramachandra,  the 
sou  of  Dasaratha,  king  of  Ayodhya  (Oude),  born  at  the  close  of 
the  Treta  Yuga.  He  belongs  historically  to  the  age  when  the 
Aryan  race,  already  settled  in  the  north,  pushed  their  conquests 
towards  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  introduced  into 
those  wild  districts  civilization  and  agriculture,  which  are  typified 
as  Sita,  to  whom  Rama  was  married,  and  who  is  represented  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana  as  having  been  found  in  the  earth.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Janaka,  king  of  Mithila  (q.  v.)  and  Rama  received 
her  for  his  strength  in  breaking  the  bow  of  Maheshwara,  in  that 
king's  palace.  She  was  carried  off  by  Ravana,  and  the  war  which 
ensued  for  her  recovery  is  the  subject  of  Valmiki's  epic,  the 
Ramiyana.  Having  built  a  bridge  across  the  ocean,  and  destroyed 
the  whole  Rakshasa  nation,  he  recovered  his  bride  Sita,  whom 
their  ten-headed  king  Ravana  had  carried  off,  and  returned  to 
Ayodhya  with  her,  after  she  had  been  purified  by  the  fiery  ordeal 
from  the  soil  contracted  by  her  captivity,  and  had  been  honoured 
by  the  assembled  gods  who  bore  witness  to  her  virtue.  Rama- 
chandra (the  moon-like-Rama)  is  the  seventh  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
born  into  the  world  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  Treta  age,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  the  demons  who  infested  the  earth. 


502  RAM 

3.  Balardma,the  strong  Rdraa,  born  at  the  end  of  the  Dwapara, 
or  third  age,  as  the  seventh  son  of  Vasudeva  and  Devaki,  but 
mystically  tmnsfevrGt]  froiii  the  womb  of  the  latter  to  that  of 
reva's  other  wife  Rohiui,  and  thus  saved  from  the  hands  of 
Kausa.  He  was  the  brother  and  playfellow  of  Krishna  ;  the 
sharer  in  his  toils  and  his  glory.  He  is  sometimes  regarded  as  an 
incarnation  of  the  serpent  Auanta  or  Sesha  ;  sometimes  called  the 
eighth  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  He  is  also  termed  the  Hercules  of 
Indian  Mythology. 

Ramagiri — A  mountain  near  Nagpur,  now  called  Ram-tek. 
Ramanaka — One  of  the  eight  islands  enumerated  in  the  Bhaga- 
vata,  as  peopled  by  Mlechchhas,  who  worship  Hindu  divinities. 

Ramanuja — A  celebrated  Vaishuava  teacher,  who  lived  some 
time  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Ramayana — One  of  the  great  Epic  poems  of  the  Hindus,  the 
other  being  the  Mahabharata.  It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  fix  the 
exact  period  at  which  either  of  them  was  composed  ;  though  it  is 
evident  from  internal  evidence  that  both  are  productions  of  a  post- 
vedic  age.  The  Ramayana  was  the  more  ancient  of  the  two  Indian 
Epics.  Probably  neither  it  nor  the  Mahabharata,  nor  any  of  the 
productions  of  antecedent  ages,  w^ere  committed  to  writing  till  long 
after  their  original  composition.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  first 
book  of  the  Ramayana,  we  meet  with  special  reference  to  the 
ministrels  and  reciters,  by  whom,  like  the  Greek  pai^^c^o/,  the 
ancient  Hindu  poems,  previous  to  the  invention  of  writing  in 
India,  were  preserved  and  transmitted  from  age  to  age. 

The  word  Ramayana  means  the  adventures  of  Rama,  who  was 
one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  the  Preserver,  and  is  still  a 
favourite  deity  in  most  parts  of  India,  more  especially  in  the 
districts  of  Oude  and  Bahar,  where  Krishna  has  not  supplanted 
him.  There  were  three  Ramas  in  Hindu  mythology,  viz.,  Parasu- 
Rama,  Rdma-Chandra,  and  Bala-Rama,  all  avatars  (or  incarna- 
tions) of  Vishnu.  The  last  is  the  Indian  Hercules,  and  as  the 
elder  brother  of  Krishna,  appears  frequently  in  the  Mahabharata. 
Parasu-Rama,  as  the  son  of  the  sage  Jamadagni,  is  the  type  of 
Brahmanisra,  arrayed  in  oppopition  to  the  Kshatriyas,   or  military 


RAM  50:i 


caste.  He  is  introduced  ouce  into  the  Ramiyana,  but  only  to 
exhibit  his  inferiority  to  the  real  hero  of  the  work,  viz.,  Rama- 
Chandra,  who,  as  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  a  prince  of  the  solar 
dynasty,  typifies  the  conquering  Kshatriyas,  advancing  towards 
the  south,  and  subjugating  the  barbarous  aborigines,  who  are 
represented  by  Ravaua  and  his  followers. 

There  are  many  poems  bearing  the  name  of  Ramayana — all 
relating  to  the  same  hero — but  by  far  the  most  complete  and 
famous  is  the  lengthy  epic,  the  authorship  of  which  is  attributed 
to  Valmtki. 

It  narrates  the  banishment  of  Rama,  under  the  surname  of 
Chandra  (the  moon,)  a  prince  belonging  to  the  dynasty  of  the 
kings  of  Ayodhya  ;  his  wanderings  through  the  southern  penin- 
sula ;  the  seizure  of  his  wife,  Sita,  by  the  giant  ruler  of  Ceylon 
(Ravana)  ;  the  miraculous  conquest  of  this  island  by  Rama,  aided 
by  Sugriva,  king  of  the  monkeys  (or  foresters — the  word  bandar 
meaning  both,)  or  Rdkshasas  as  they  are  also  called,  and  by 
Vibhishana,  the  brother  of  Ravana  ;  the  slaying  of  the  ravishing 
demon  by  Rama,  and  recovering  of  Sita  ;  and  the  restoration  of 
Rama-Chandra  to  the  empire  of  his  ancestors  at  Ayodhya. 

No  mention  is  made  of  Rama  in  the  Vedas,  but  he  may  be 
regarded  as  the  first  real  Kshatriya  hero  of  the  post-vedic  age  ; 
and  looking  to  the  great  simplicity  of  the  style  of  the  Ramayana, 
the  absence  of  any  reliable  allusion  to  Buddhism  as  an  established 
fact,  and  to  the  practices  known  to  have  prevailed  in  India  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century  before  Christ,  as  well  as  from  other 
considerations,  "  we  cannot,"  says  Mouier  Williams  (Essay  on 
Indian  Epic  Poetry,)  "  be  far  wrong  is  asserting  that  a  great 
portion,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  Ramayana,  as  we  have  now  it, 
must  have  been  current  in  India  as  early  as  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ." 

Valmiki's  work  consists  of  24,000  slokas  (or  distichs,)  divided 
into  seven  books,  which  are  again  sub-divided  into  chapters.  It 
may  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  or  periods,  correspond- 
ing to  the  three  chief  epochs  in  the  life  of  Rama.  (I.)  The 
account  of  his  youthful  days  ;  his  education  and  residence  at  the 
court  of  his    father  Dasaratha,    king   of  Ayodhya  ;  his   happy 


504  RAM— RAN 


marriage  to  Sita  ;  and  his  inauguration  as  heir-apparent  or  Crown 
Prince.  (II.)  The  circumstances  that  led  to  [his  banishment  ;  the 
description  oi  his  exile  and  residence  in  the  forests  of  Central 
India.  (III.)  His  war  with  the  giants  or  demons  of  the  south  for 
the  recovery  of  his  wife  Sita,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  their 
chief  Ravana  ;  his  conquest  and  destruction  of  Ravaria,  and  his 
restoration  to  the  throne  of  his  father. 

In  the  first  two  sections  of  the  poem,  there  is  little  of  extrava- 
gant fiction  ;  but  in  the  third,  the  poet  mars  the  beauty  of  the 
descriptions  by  the  wildest  exaggeration  and  hyperbole.  1 

The  poem  seems  to  be  founded  on  historical  fact  ;  and  the 
traditions  of  the  south  of  India  uniformly  ascribe  its  civilization, 
the  subjugation,  or  dispersion  of  its  forest  tribes  of  barbarians, 
and  the  settlement  of  civilised  Hindus,  to  the  conquest  of  Lanka 
(Ceylon)  by  Kama. 

[A  good  analysis  of  the  Ramayana  will  be  found  in  Monier 
Williams'  Indian  EidIc  Poetry,  1863.  An  abridged  English  trans- 
lation has  been  published  by  Mr.  Talboys  Wheeler,  forming  the 
second  volume  of  his  History  of  India,  1869.  The  first  English 
translation  was  made  by  Carey  and  Marshman,  at  Serampore, 
when  they  printed  the  first  volume  containing  the  first  book  of  the 
poem,  in  1806. 

An  excellent  translation,  into  English  verse,  of  the  First  and 
Second  Books  has  just  been  published  (1870-71)  by  Mr.  R.  T. 
Griffiths,  M.  A.,  Principal  of  the  Benares  College,  already  favorably 
known  by  his  Idylls  from  the  Sanskrit.] 

Rambha — l,  One  of  the  five  sons  of  Ayus  ;  2,  One  of  the 
Apsarasas,  of  the  Laukika  class,  of  whom  thirty-four  are  specified. 

Ramya — One  of  the  nine  sons  of  king  Aguidhra,  and  who 
became  king  of  the  countries  situated  between  mount  Meru  and 
the  Nila  mountain. 

Ramyaka — A  district  to  the  north  of  Meru,  extending  from 
the  Nila  or  blue  mountains  to  the  Sweta  or  white  mountains. 

Rananjaya— A  prince,  the  son  of  Kritanjaya,  of  the  family  of 
Ikshvaku. 


RAN— R  AS  505 


Ranastambha — A  country  to  the  west  of  the  juugle  Mchals 
towards  Nagpur  ;  known  iu  the  Purauus  as  Chetli. 

Rantideva — The  son  of  Saukriti,  who  is  described  in  the 
Bhagavata  as  a  prince  of  great  liberality.  According  to  a  legend 
preserved  iu  the  Megha  Duta  his  sacrifices  of  kiue  were  so  numer- 
ous that  their  blood  formed  the  river  Charmauvaii,  the  modern 
Chambal. 

Rantinara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Riteya,  descendant  of  Puru. 

Rasa  dance— A  fabled  dance  of  Krishna  with  the  Gopis,  iu 
which  it  is  said  the  circle  of  the  dance  could  not  be  constructed, 
as  each  of  the  Gopis  attempted  to  keep  in  one  place,  close  to  the 
side  of  Krishna  ;  he  therefore  took  each  by  the  hand,  and  when 
their  eyelids  were  shut,  by  the  effects  of  such  touch,  the  circle 
was  formed.  Professor  Wilson  says,  Krishna,  in  order  to  form 
the  circle  takes  each  damsel  by  the  hand  and  leads  her  to  her 
place  ;  there  he  quits  her  ;  but  the  effect  of  the  contact  is  such 
that  it  deprives  her  of  the  power  of  perception,  and  she  contentedly 
takes  the  hand  of  her  female  neighbour,  thinking  it  to  be  Krishna's. 
The  Bhagavata  is  bolder  and  asserts  that  Krishna  multiplied 
himself,  and  actually  stood  between  each  pair  of  damsels. 

Rasaloma — The  wife  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  Mahinasa. 

Rasatala. — One  of  the  divisions  of  Patala,  as  enumerated  in 
the  Bhdgavata,  Padma  Purina  and  Vayu. 

Rasayana — One  of  the  eight  branches  of  medical  science,  that 
which  treats  of  alchemical  therapeutics. 

Rasa  Yatra — An  annual  festival  celebrated  in  various  parts 
of  India,  in  the  month  of  Kartika,  upon  the  sun's  entrance  into 
Libra,  by  nocturnal  dances,  and  representations  of  the  sports  of 
Krishna.  Some  of  the  earliest  labourers  iu  the  field  of  Hindu 
mythology  have  thought  this  circular  dance  to  typify  the  dance  of 
the  planets  round  the  sun,  (Maurice)  but  there  seems  to  be  no 
foundation  for  such  a  notion.  See  Wilson's  Notes  to  Vishnu 
Purana,  534. 

RasoUasa — The  spontaneous  or  prompt  evolution  of  the  juices 

G4 


506  RAS— RAU 


ofxriie  body,    iodependeutly  of  nutriment  from   without  ;  this  is 
termed  one  of  the  eight  perfections  or  Siddhis. 

Rashtrapala — One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena. 

Rashtrapali— A  daughter  of  Ugrasena. 

Rathachitra — A  river  mentioned  in  the  Puranas  but  not  yet 
identified. 

Rathakrit— One  of  the  Yakshas,  or  guardians  of  the  sun  for 

the  mouth  of  Sukra. 

Rathantara — l,  A  teacher  of  the  Big  Veda  and  pupil  of 
Satyasri  ;  2,  The  portion  of  the  Sama  Veda  which  proceeded  from 
the  eastern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Rathinara — One  of  the  Angirasas,  or  warrior  priests,  a 
Kshatriya  by  both  parents,  who  became  a  brahman  by  profession. 

Rati — The  wife  of  Kama,  the  Hindu  Cupid  who  was  killed  by 
Siva  for  daring  to  discharge  an  arrow  at  him.  Rati's  Lament  is 
one  of  the  Idylls  from  the  Sanskrit,  translated  by  Mr.  Griffiths  from 
the  fourth  canto  of  Kalidasa's  Kumara  Sambhava,  or  Birth  of 
the  War-god. 

Ratnagarbha — A  commentator  on  the  Visnnu  Purina.  His 
book  is  entitled  Vaishnavakuta  Chandrika,  '  the  moon-light  of 
devotion  to  Vishnu  ;'  but  his  date  has  not  been  ascertained. 

Ratri— Night.  One  of  the  forms  of  Brahma.  Prof.  Wilson 
says  "  the  notions  of  night,  day,  twilight,  and  moon-light,  being 
derived  from  Brahma,  seem  to  have  originated  with  the  Vedas. 
All  the  authorities  place  night  before  day,  and  the  Asuras  or 
Titans  before  the  gods,  in  the  order  of  appearance,  as  did  Hesiod, 
and  other  ancient  theogonists." 

Ratula — A  prince,  the  son  of  Suddhodana  of  the  family  of 
Ikshvaku. 

Rauchya — The  Manu  of  the  thirteenth  Manwantara,  and  son 
of  the  Prajapati  Ruchi  by  the  nymph  Maniui.  According  to  the 
Matsya  and  Padma,  the  ninth  Manu  was  named  Rauchya. 

Raudraswa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Ahamyati,  descendant 
of  Puru. 


RAU— RAV  507 


Raurava — One  of  the  Narakas,  that  in  which  falsehood  and 
perjury  are  punished. 

Ravana — A  celebrated  Rakshaka,  the  son  of  Visravas.  lie 
was  the  king  of  Ceylon,  and  his  great  power  and  influence  have 
been  represented  in  Hindu  poetry  by  the  ascription  to  him  of  ten 
heads  and  twenty  arms.  His  character  is  described  as  libidinous 
and  cruel.  His  great  exploit  was  the  abduction  of  Sita,  the  wife 
of  Rama,  in  whose  absence  she  was  carried  through  the  air  by 
Ravana  to  Ceylon.  He  was  ultimately,  after  a  hard  struggle, 
killed  by  Rama,  who  invaded  the  island  in  order  to  rescue  Sita. 

But  as  this  terrible  Rakshasa  occupies  a  large  space  in  the 
mythology  of  India  it  is  necessary  to  relate  his  story  in  more  detail. 
Ravana  was  the  Raja  of  the  Rakshasas.  He  devoted  many  years 
to  the  performance  of  religious  austerities  ;  and  by  the  power  of 
those  austerities  he  secured  the  favour  of  Brahma,  who  at  his 
request  rendered  him  invulnerable  to  gods  and  demons.  Ravana 
then  considered  himself  to  be  immortal  ;  the  gods  and  demons  were 
unable  to  harm  him  ;  men  and  beasts  were  so  much  beneath  his 
notice  that  he  had  not  stooped  to  pray  for  immunity  from  their 
attacks.  Accordingly  he  oppressed  the  gods  ;  not  indeed  the 
Brahmanical  gods  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  but  the  ancient  gods 
of  the  Rig  Veda,  whom  he  compelled  to  do  as  he  pleased.  Death 
was  not  allowed  to  afflict  his  subjects  the  Rakshasas  ;  the  burning 
sun  was  required  to  shine  mildly  over  his  city  ;  the  Moon  was 
obliged  to  be  always  at  the  full  throughout  his  Raj  ;  the  seasons 
came  and  went  at  his  command  ;  Fire  ceased  to  burn  in  his 
presence  ;  and  the  AVind  was  forced  to  blow  gently.  Accordingly 
the  gods,  with  Indra  at  their  head,  complained  to  Brahma  of 
Ravaua's  insolence.  Brahma,  who  acknowledged  the  superiority 
of  Vishnu,  by  conducting  them  to  the  ocean  of  milk,  where  he 
abode,  and  the  gods  propitiated  Vishnu  whom  they  could  not  see, 
with  loud  praises.  Then  Vishnu  tlie  Lord  of  the  world,  appeared 
with  his  shell,  chakra,  mace,  and  lotus,  in  his  four  hands  ;  and  his 
wife  Lakshmi  sitting  upon  his  knees.  The  gods  fell  prostrate 
before  him  and  sought  relief  from  Ravana  ;  as  Brahma  was  unable 
to  recall  the  gift  of  invulnerability,  Vishnu  promised  to  overthrow 
him   by  mortals  and  monkeys,  as  Ravana  in  his  pride,  had  not 


508  EAY— REC 


requested  Brahma  to  secure  his  life  from  them.  Vishnu  further 
said,  *' I  will  take  advantage  of  this  omissiou,  aod  cause  the 
destruction  of  Rivana  without  casting  aside  the  blessing  which  has 
been  l)estowed  on  him  by  Brahma  ;  I  will  go  to  Ayodhya,  and 
divide  myself  into  four  parts,  and  take  my  birth  as  the  four  sons 
of  Maharaja  Dasaratha.  Thus  by  becoming  man  I  shall  conquer 
in  battle  Rivana,  the  teror  of  the  universe,  who  is  invulnerable  to 
the  gods  ;  go  you  meantime  upon  the  earth,  and  assume  the  shape 
of  monkeys  and  bears,  that  you  may  render  me  service  in  my 
battle  with  Ravana." 

Accordingly  Vishnu  became  incarnate  as  Rama,  and  early  in 
life  began  to  destroy  the  Rakshasas.  When  Ravana  heard  that 
Rama  had  slain  the  two  celebrated  Rakshasa  chiefs,  Kara  and 
Dushana,  he  entered  the  arena  of  conflict,  proceeded  toPanchavati, 
and  visited  the  hermitage  of  Rama  as  a  mendicant  brahman,  and 
made  proposals  to  Sita,  declaring  that  he  was  Ravana  and  that  she 
should  be  his  chief  Rani.  When  the  proposal  was  rejected  with 
indignation  and  disdain,  he  assumed  his  proper  shape,  and  carried 
off  Sita  by  force  through  the  air  to  Lanka  ;  his  chariot  was 
stopped  by  Jatayus,  whom  he  slew,  and  conducted  Sita  to  his 
palace.  All  his  efforts  to  seduce  Sita  were  ineffectual,  and  after 
long  fighting,  in  which  the  army  of  monkeys  and  bears  were 
engaged  against  the  Rakshasas,  Ravana  was  slain  by  Rama.  See 
Rama,  Sita,  &c. 

Raya — The  name  of  one  of  the  six  sons  of  Pururavas,  according 
to  the  list  in  the  Bhagavata. 

Rayananiya — The  son  of  Lokakshi,  a  distinguished  teacher  of 
the  S^ma-veda,  and  author  of  a  Sanhita  still  extant. 

Rebha — A  Rishi  who  had  been  hidden  by  magliguant  demons, 
bound,  overwhelmed  in  the  waters,  (a  well,  according  to  the 
commentator,)  for  ten  nights  and  nine  days,  and  abandoned  until 
he  was  nearly  if  not  entirely  dead  ;  the  Asvins  drew  him  up  as 
soma  juice  is  raised  with  a  ladle. —  O.  S.  T.,  F,  245. 

Rechaka — One  of  the  three  modifications  of  breathing  in  the 
practice    of  Pr^nayama  :    the    first    act    is    expiration,    which    is 


REN— REV  509 


performed  tlirougli  tlie  right  nostril  whilst  the  left  is  closed  with 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  ;  this  is  called  Rcchaka. 

Renuka — The  daughter  of  Renu,  and  wife  of  Jamadngni,  q.  v. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Parasurama,  and  an  account  of  her  death 
and  restoration  to  life  will  bo  found  under  Jamadagui. 

Revanta— In  the  Vishnu  Purana  Revanta  is  said  to  be  a  son  of 
the  sun  by  his  wife  Sanjna  ;  according  to  otl>er  accounts  he  was 
the  son  of  Vivaswat  and  Rajui. 

Revata — The  son  of  Anartta,  king  of  the  country  called  after 
his  father  Anartta,  who  dwelt  at  the  capital  denominated  Kiisas- 
thali — in  Guzerat. 

Revali — The  daughter  of  Raivata,  wliose  loveliness  was  such 
that  no  one  could  be  found  on  earth  worthy  of  her  hand.  Her 
father  therefore  repaired  with  her  to  Brahma,  to  consult  the  god 
where  a  fit  bridegroom  was  to  be  met  with.  When  they  arrived 
the  quiristers  Haha,  Huhu,  and  others,  were  singing  before 
Brahma  ;  and  Raivata,  waiting  till  they  liad  finished,  imagined  the 
ages  that  elapsed  during  their  performance,  to  be  but  as  a  moment. 
At  the  end  of  their  singing  Raivata  prostrated  himself  before 
Brahma  and  explained  his  errand.  He  was  informed  that  many 
successions  of  ages  had  passed  away  while  he  had  been  listening 
to  the  heavenly  songsters;  that  a  portion  of  Vishiui  was  then 
reigning  on  earth  in  the  person  of  Balarama  at  Dwaraka  wdiich 
had  formerly  been  his  own  capital  of  Kusasthali.  Raivata  returned 
with  his  daughter  to  earth,  where  he  found  the  race  of  meu 
dwindled  in  stature,  reduced  in  vigour,  and  enfeebled  in  intellect. 
He  bestowed  his  unequalled  daughter  on  Balarama,  who  beholding 
the  damsel  of  excessively  lofty  height,  shortened  her  with  the  end 
of  his  ploughshare  and  she  became  his  wife.  The  object  of  this 
legend,  says  Professor  Wilson,  is  obviously  to  account  for  the 
anachronism  of  making  Balarama  cotemporary  with  Kaivata  ;  the 
one  early  in  the  Trcla  ago,  and  the  other  at  (he  close  of  the 
Dwapaia.     V.  P. 

Revati — A  lunar  mansion  in  Vaiswanari,  in  the  southern 
Avasthana. 


510  RIB 

Ribhu — An  ancient  vedic  deity,  not  now  worshipped.  "  The 
practical  portion  of  the  Vedas  consists  of  little  else  than  detached 
prayers  addressed  with  a  few  exceptions  to  divinities  no  longer 
worshipped,  some  of  whom  are  even  unknown.  There  is  one  for 
instance  named  Ribhu,  of  whose  history,  office,  or  even  name,  a 
person  might  ask  in  vain  from  one  end  of  India  to  the  other." — 
Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  II,  p.  48. 

Ribhu— One  of  the  mind-born  sons  of  Brahma  ;  of  the  ninth  or 
Kaumara  creation  ;  these,  declining  to  create  progeny,  remained, 
as  the  name  of  the  first  implies,  ever  boys,  Kumaras  ;  that  is, 
ever  pure  and  innocent ;  whence  their  creation  is  called  the 
Kaumara.  Ribhu,  being  a  son  of  the  supreme  Brahma  was  of  a 
holy  character  and  acquainted  with  true  wisdom.  Nidagha,  the 
son  of  Pulastya,  Avas  his  disciple,  and  to  him  Ribhu  communicated 
perfect  knowledge.  The  residence  of  Pulastya  was  at  Viranagara, 
a  large  handsome  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Devika  river.  Nidagha 
lived  in  a  grove  adjoining  to  the  stream.  When  a  thousand  years 
had  elapsed,  Ribhu  went  to  the  city  of  Pulastya  to  visit  his 
disciple  ;  and  after  having  fully  explained  to  him  the  principles  of 
unity  departed.  After  the  expiration  of  another  thousand  years 
Ribhu  returned  to  his  disciple  and  perfected  him  in  divine  know- 
ledge. 

Ribhus — The  sous  of  Sudhauvan,  who  on  account  of  their 
artistic  skill  attained  to  immortality  and  divine  honours.  They 
are  said  to  have  made  Indra's  chariot  and  horses,  restored  their 
own  parents  to  youth,  &c.  They  are  represented  as  fabricating 
hymns  also.  "  These  Ribhus  are  said  to  have  made  into  four  a 
single  new  sacrificial  cup  which  Tvashtri  had  formed.  This  exhi- 
bition of  skill  was  performed  by  command  of  the  gods,  and  in 
consequence  of  a  promise  that  its  accomplishment  should  be 
rewarded  by  exaltation  to  divine  honours.  Tvashtri  is  represented 
as  becomiog  ashamed,  and  hiding  himself  among  the  goddesses, 
when  he  saw  this  alteration  of  his  work,  and  as  resenting  this 
change  in  his  own  manufacture  as  a  slight  to  himself,  and  as  having 
in  consequence  sought  to  slay  his  rivals.  In  another  place,  on  the 
contrary,  he  is  said  to  have  applauded  their  design,  and  admired  the 
brilliant  results  of  their  skill."— ^fwr/-,  0.  S.  T,  Vol  V,  p.  227. 


RIB— RIG  511 


"  It  was  part  of  ilie  Vedic  creed  that  holy  men,  as  iu  the  case 
of  Ribhus,  might  attain  the  couditioii  of  gods.  These  iutimatious, 
however,  are  iucidental  and  vague,  and  all  that  we  can  positively 
conclude  from  them  is  that  the  Vedas  recognised  after  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  body,  the  life  of  the  soul  which  animated  it,  and  its 
continued  existence  in  some  heavenly  sphere." — Wilson,  V,  345. 

Ribhus — A  class  of  deities  of  the  sixth  Manwantara. 

Richa — A  prinoc,  the  son  of  Sunita,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

RichaS — The  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda,  which  were  recited  by 
the  priests  termed  Hotri. 

Richeya — One  of  the  sons  of  Raudraswa,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Richika — A  sage,  of  the  descendants  of  Bhrigu,  who  demand- 
ed in  marriage  Satyavati,  the  daughter  of  king  Gadhi.  The  king 
was  very  unwilling  to  give  his  daughter  to  a  peevish  old  brahman, 
and  demanded  of  him  as  the  nuptial  present,  a  thousand  fleet  horses, 
whose  colour  should  be  white,  with  one  black  ear.  Richika, 
having  propitiated  Varuna,  the  god  of  ocean,  obtained  from  him, 
at  the  holy  place  called  Aswatirtha,  a  thousand  such  steeds  ;  and 
giving  them  to  the  king  espoused  his  daughter.  See  Jamadagni, 
also  Satyavati. 

Rig  Veda — The  oldest  and  most  important  of  the  four  Vedas. 
"  As  long  as  man  continues  to  take  an  interest  in  the  history  of 
his  race,  and  as  long  as  we  collect  in  libraries  and  museums  the 
relics  of  former  ages,  the  first  place  in  that  long  row  of  books 
which  contains  the  records  of  the  Aryan  branch  of  mankind,  will 
belong  for  ever  to  the  Rig  Veda."*  The  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda 
are  amongst  the  oldest  writings  known  to  mankind,  they  are 
generally  short,  and  are  addressed  to  the  great  powers  of  nature,  to 
Indra,  the  god  of  the  firmament  ;  to  Fire,  to  the  Sun,  to  the  Moon  ; 
and  as  regards  the  latter,  they  are  more  especially  devoted  to  the 
praise  of  the  Soma,  or  Moon  plant,  the  juice  of  which  plays  a  pro- 
minent part  in  many  of  the  Vedic  hymns.  This  juice  was  probably 
fermented,  and  formed  into  an  exhilarating  or  intoxicating 
beverage,  which  was  held  in  very  high  esteem. 

*  Max  Mailer. 


512  RIG 

"  TJie  total  number  of  hymns  in  the  Rig  Veda  is  about  1,020. 
Their  composition  was  doubtleess  the  work  of  many  men  and  of 
long  periods  of  time.  They  bear  evident  marks  of  having  been 
handed  down  by  tradition,  and  although  they  were  collected  and 
arranged  in  their  present  forms  about  ten  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  a  long  time  must  have  passed  before  they  were 
brought  together  by  the  sage,  who  from  his  performance  of  this 
work  is  called  Vyasa,  the  arranger. 

"  The  language  of  the  hymns,  besides  being  archaic,  is  very 
involved  and  elliptical,  abounding  with  epithets  of  w^iich  it  is 
difficult  to  see  the  force,  and  with  metaphors  and  comparisons 
which  are  by  no  means  obvious.  It  '  teems  with  words  which 
require  a  justification.'  The  hymns  consequently  demand,  as  Mr. 
Miiller  observes,  a  similar  treatment  to  that  bestowed  upon  the 
interpretation  of  ancient  inscriptions  ;  a  careful  collection  of  all 
grammatical  forms,  and  a  thorough  comparison  of  all  passages 
in  which  the  same  word  occurs.  The  metre  of  the  hymns  is  a 
very  important  guide  to  the  correct  reading  of  the  text,  but  this 
presents  so  many  apparent  anomalies  that  its  rules  are  variously 
explained.  The  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda  contain  very  little  poetry 
of  an  agreeable  or  elevated  order.  The  chief  desires  expressed 
are  for  riches,  victory,  and  various  temporal  blessings.  Moral 
sentiments  rarely  occur  ;  the  hymns  addressed  to  Varuna  contain 
the  most. 

Often  passages  among  the  Mantras  of  the  Veda  are  in  the  form 
of  a  dialogue,  and  in  such  cases,  the  discoursers  were  alternately 
considered  as  Rishi  and  Devata. 

Mr.  Miiller  after  working  for  more  than  twenty  years  at  his 
translation  of  the  Rig  Veda,  thus  writes  : — "  My  work  is  a  mere 
contribution  towards  a  better  understanding  of  the  Vedic  hymns, 
and  though  I  hope  it  may  give  in  the  main,  a  right  rendering  of 
the  sense  of  the  Vedic  poets,  I  feel  that  in  many  points  my 
translation  is  liable  to  correction,  and  will  sooner  or  later  be 
replaced  by  a  more  satisfactory  one." 

"  With  regard  to  the  character  and  style  of  these  hymns  on 
which  so  much   labour  has  been   expended,   it  may  be   remarked 


RIJ  513 

that  they  contaiu  very  little  poetry  of  aa  agreeable  or  elevated 
order  :  nothing  whatever  that  could  be  compared  for  a  moment 
with  the  Psalms  of  David.  "  As  mere  literary  productions,  apart 
from  their  archaic  value,  we  doubt  if  any  man  could  be  found  to 
read  them.  Snatches  of  poetry  may  here  and  there  be  found  ;  a 
grand  and  elevated  tone  mixed  with  the  most  familiar  and,  to 
modern  taste,  most  ignoble  and  unsuitable  allusions.  The  mere 
reading  of  some  of  them  conveys  the  impression  that  they  are  not 
fully  understood,  and  sets  the  mind  inquiring  as  to  the  mean  ing 
which  may  lie  concealed  in  them.  The  following  hymn,  addressed 
to  Agni  the  god  of  fire,  and  the  Maruts,  or  the  Storm-gods,  is  one 
of  the  most  readable  in  the  present  volume  : — 

1.  Thou  art  called   forth  to  this  fair  sacrifice  for  a  draugh    tof 
milk  ;  Avith  the  Maruts  come  hither  O  Agni  ! 

2.  No  god  indeed,  no  mortal,  is  beyond  the  might  of  thee,  the 
mighty  one  ;  with  the  Maruts,  &c.,  &c. 

3.  They  who  know  of  the  great  sky,  the  Visve  Devas  without 
guile  ;  with  the  Maruts,  &c, 

4.  The  wild  ones  Avho  sing  their  song,  unconquerable  by  force  ; 
with  the  Maruts,  &c. 

o.  They  who  are  brilliant,  of  awful  shape,  powerful,  and 
devourers  of  foes  ;  with  the  Maruts,  &e. 

6.  They  who  in  heaven  are  enthroned  as  gods,  in  the  light  of 
the  firmament  ;  with  the  Maruts,  &c. 

7.  They  who  toss  the  clouds  across  the  surging  sea  ;  with  the 
Maruts  come  hither,  &c. 

8.  They  who  shoot  with  their  darts  across  the  sea  with  might ; 
with  the  Maruts,  &c. 

9.  I  pour  out  to  thee  for  the  early  draught  the  sweet  juice  of 
Soma  :  with  the  Maruts,  &c." — Sat.  Eeviciv,  1869. 

Rijiswan — A  king  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda,  the  friend  of 
Indra,  and  who  conquered  the  Dasyu  Krishna  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ausumati. 

Rijrasva — A  person  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda,  who  had  been 
made  blind  by  his  cruel  father,  for  slaughtering  one  hundi-ed  and 
one  sheep,  and  giving  them  to  a  she-wolf  to  eat  :  the  wolf  having 

C5 


514  RIJ— RIS 


supplicated  the  Asvius  on  behalf  of  her  blind  benefactor,   they 
restored  sight  to  Rijrasva —  0.  S.  T.,  V,  245. 

Rijudesa — A.  sou  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Devaki. 

Riksha — l,  A  descendant  of  Bhrign,  the  Vyasa  of  the  twenty- 
fourth  Dwapara,  sometimes  called  also  Valmika. 

2.  A  prince,  the  sou  of  Ajamidha. 

3.  A  prince,  the  son  of  Akrodhaua,  a  descendant  of  Kuru. 

4.  A  chain  of  mountains  in  Gondwana. 

Rina — A  Vyasa  in  the  eighteenth  Dwapara, 
Ripu,  Ripunjaya — Two  of  the  sons  of  Slishti  and  Suchchaya, 
grandsons  of  Dhruva. 

Rishabha — The  sou  of  king  Nabhi  by  his  queen  Meru. 
Rishabha  had  a  hundred  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  Bharata  ; 
having  ruled  with  equity  and  wisdom  and  celebrated  many  sacri- 
ficial rites,  he  resigned  the  sovereignty  of  the  earth  to  the  heroic 
Bharata,  and,  retiring  to  the  hermitage  of  Pulastya,  adopted  the 
life  of  an  anchoret,  practising  religious  penance,  and  performing 
all  prescribed  ceremonies,  until,  emaciated  by  his  austerities  so  as 
to  be  but  a  collection  of  skin  and  fibres,  he  put  a  pebble  in  his 
mouth  and  naked  went  the  way  of  all  flesh.  V.  P.  In  a  note 
Wilson  adds  '  the  great  road'  '  the  road  of  heroes.'  The  pebble 
was  intended  either  to  compel  perpetual  silence,  or  to  prevent  his 
eating.  The  Bhagavata  adverts  to  the  same  circumstances,  and 
gives  more  details  of  Rishabha's  devotion,  aud  connects  him  with 
the  spread  of  Jain  doctrines  in  the  western  parts  of  the  peninsula. 
Rishabha  is  the  name  of  the  first  Tirthaukara,  or  Jain  saint  of  the 
present  era. 

Rishabha — 2,  One  of  the  seven  Rishis  of  the  second  Manwan- 
tara  ;  3,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Kusagra  ;  4,  A  mountain  on  the 
north  of  Meru. 

Rishabha — 5,  One  of  the  generals  in  Rama's  army  at  the  siege 
of  Lanka  ;  he  was  severely  wounded  by  the  magical  weapons  of 
Indrajit,  and  left  apparently  dead  on  the  battle  field  ;  but  was 
restored  to  life  by  the  healing  plants  brought  by  Hanuman  from 
the  trolden  hill  called  Rishablia. 


RIS  515 

Rishabha — 6,  The  name  of  a  gokleu  hill  on  the  very  crest  of 
Kailasa  ;  on  which  grew  four  medicinal  herbs,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  dead  and  wounded  might  be  restored  to  life. 

Rishis — Great  Sages.  Seven  are  enumerated  ;  they  are  the 
same  as  the  Prajapatis,  q.  v.  One  of  the  Rishis  is  an  attendant  on 
the  sun  in  each  mouth  of  the  year,  along  with  one  of  the  Adityas, 
Gandharbhas,  Apsarasas,  Yakshas,  etc.  The  Vishnu  Purana  says 
there  are  three  kinds  of  Rishis,  or  inspired  sages  ;  royal  Rishis,  or 
princes  who  have  adopted  a  life  of  devotion,  as  Viswamitra  ; 
divine  Rishis,  or  sages  who  are  demi-gods  also,  as  Narada  ;  and 
Brahman  Rishis,  or  sages  who  are  the  sons  of  Brahma,  or  Brah- 
mans,  as  Vasishtha  and  others.  Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson  writes  "  in 
the  Epic  period  Rishi  is  merely  a  name  for  historical  personages, 
distinguished  for  their  i^iety  and  wisdom,  cither  by  their  acts  or 
their  writings.  In  the  Puranic  period  the  Rishis,  />«?•  ecccclle?ice, 
are  seven  primeval  personages,  born  of  Brahma's  mind,  and 
presiding,  under  different  forms,  over  each  Manwantara."  The 
word  Rishi  is  derived  from  rish,  an  old  vedic  root  meaning  *  to  see. ' 

Rishis — The  constellation  of  the  Great  Bear.  For  an  account 
of  its  revolutions  see  the  Vishnu  Purana,  p.  485,  and  Wilson's 
learned  notes  on  the  subject. 

Rishika,  Rishikulya — A  river  that  rises  in  the  Mahendra 
mountain  and  flows  into  the  sea  near  Ganjam. 

Rishikas — A  people  placed  by  the  Ramayanaboth  in  the  north 
and  in  the  south  ;  Arjuna  visits  the  former  and  exacts  from  them 
eight  horses. 

Rishyamukha — A  mountain  in  the  Dekhin  wdiere  the  Pampa 
rises,  the  abode  of  the  monkeys,  and  the  tempoi-ary  abode  of  Rama. 

Rishya-sringa — A  horned  sage,  celebrated  in  the  first  book  of 
the  Ramayana. 

He  w\as  the  son  of  Vibhiindak,  a  Rishi  descended  from  Kasyapa. 

"  Bred  with  the  deer  tliat  round  him  roam. 
The  wood  shall  be  that  hermit's  home. 
To  him  no  mortal  shall  be  known 
Except  his  holy  sire  alone." 


51G  RIS 

lie  was  thus  brought  up  in  the  forest  with  his  father  and  saw 
no  other  human  being  until  he  attained  early  manhood.  At  a 
season  of  great  drought,  Somapad,  king  of  Auga,  enquired  what 
should  be  done  to  cause  rain,  when  the  brahmans  said, 

"  By  every  art  O  monarch  try 

Hither  to  bring  Vibhandak's  child, 
Persuaded,  captured  or  beguiled. 
And  when  the  boy  is  hither  led 
To. him  thy  daughter  duly  wed." 

After  much  deliberation  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  "  wondrous 
boy"  should  be  induced  to  leave  his  father's  home,  the  poem 
proceeds, 

"  Then  this  shall  be  the  plan  agreed, 

That  damsels  shall  be  sent. 
Attired  in  holy  hermit's  weed 

And  skilled  in  blandishment, 
That  they  the  hermit  may  beguile 
With  every  art  and  amorous  wile. 

Whose  use  they  know  so  well. 
And  by  their  witcheries  seduce 
The  unsuspecting  young  recluse 

To  leave  his  father's  cell. 

Then  when  the  boy  with  willing  feet 
Shall  wander  from  his  calm  retreat, 

And  in  that  city  stand. 
The  troubles  of  the  king  shall  end 
And  streams  of  blessed  rain  descend 

Upon  the  thirsty  land. 

Thus  shall  the  holy  Rishyasring 
To  Somapad  the  mighty  king 

By  wedlock  be  allied  ; 
For  Santa,  fairest  of  the  fair, 
In  mind  and  grace  beyond  compare. 

Shall  bo  his  royal  bride." 


RIS  517 

All  this  took  place  accordingly. 

"  In  ships  with  wondrous  art  prepared 
Away  the  lovely  women  fared, 
And  soon  beneath  tlie  shade  they  stood 
Of  the  wild  lonely  dreary  wood. 
And  there  the  leafy  cot  they  found 

Where  dwelt  the  devotee 
And  looked  with  eager  eyes  around 
The  hermit's  sou  to  see. 

yF  ^  7^  ^  ^^  ^  ^  vfi 

Foi-th  came  the  hermit's  son  to  view 
The  wondrous  sight  to  him  so  new, 

And  gazed  in  rapt  surprise, 
For  from  his  natal  hour  till  then 
On  woman  or  the  sons  of  men 

He  ne'er  had  cast  his  eyes. 

The  scheme  was  successful.  On  the  following  day  when  his 
father  went  as  usual  to  the  forest,  Rishyasring  eagerly  sought  his 
charming  visitants  and  accompanied  them  to  their  "  lovely  home." 

Vibh^ndak  returned  to  his  cottage  in  the  evening  to  learn  the 
will  of  fate — 

"  A  stately  ship,  at  early  morn. 
The  hermit's  son  away  had  borne. 
Loud  roared  the  clouds  as  on  he  sped, 
The  sky  grew  blacker  overhead  ; 
Till  as  he  reached  the  royal  town, 
A  mighty  flood  of  rain  came  down. 
By  the  great  rain  the  monarch's  mind 
The  coming  of  his  guest  divined. 
To  meet  the  honoured  youth  he  went, 
And  low  to  earth  his  head  he  bent. 
And  sought,  with  all  who  dwelt  within 
The  city  walls,  his  grace  to  win. 
He  fed  him  with  the  daintiest  fare, 
He  served  him  with  unceasing  care. 


518  KIT— ROH 


And  gave  to  be  the  Brahman's  bride 
His  own  fair  daughter,  lotus-eyed. 

Thus  loved  and  honoured  by  the  king, 
The  glorious  Brahman  Rishyasring 
Passed  in  that  royal  town  his  life 
With  Santa  his  beloved  w^ife." — OriffifJis  Mamdycma. 

Rita — 1,  Truth.  The  son  of  Dharma,  by  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha  ;  2,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Vijaya. 

Ritadhaman — The  Manu  of  the  thirteenth  Manwantara, 
according  to  the  list  in  the  Padma  and  Matsya  Puranas. 

Ritadhwaja — l,  One  of  the  eleven  Kudras,  according  to  the 
enumeration  in  the  Bhagavata  ;  2,  One  of  the  designations  of 
Pratarddana,  meaning  he  whose  emblem  was  truth,  being  a  great 
observer  of  veracity. 

Riteya — A  prince,  the  eldest  of  the  ten  sons  of  Eaudrasw^a, 
a  descendant  of  Puru. 

RitU — The  Manu  of  the  twelfth  Manwantara. 
Ritudhaman— The  Indra  of  the  twelfth  Manwantara. 
Ritujit — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Anjana. 
Rituparna — A  prince,  the  son  of  Ayutaswa. 
Rochana — A  wdfe  of  Vasudeva. 

Rodha — One  of  the  Narakas  ;  that  for  the  punishment  of  the 
crimes  of  causing  abortion,  killing  a  cow,  plundering,  &c. 

Rohini—  l,  The  wife  of  Vasudeva.  Kansa,  kiug  of  Mathura, 
captured  Vasudeva  and  his  wife  Devaki,  imprisoned  them  in  his 
own  palace,  set  guards  over  them,  and  slew  tlie  six  children  whom 
Devaki  had  already  borne.  She  was  now  about  to  give  birth  to  the 
seventh,  who  was  Balarama,  the  playfellow  of  Krishna,  and  like 
him,  supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu  ;  but  by  divine 
agency  the  child  was  transferred  before  birth  to  the  womb  of 
Vasudeva's  other  wife,  Rohini,  who  was  liviug  in  Gokula. 

2.  Oue  of  the  wives  of  Krishna. 

3.  The  name  of  the  wife  of  one  of  the  Rudras. 

4.  The  daughter  of  Surabhi,  and  parent  of  horned  cattle. 

5.  A  lunar  mansion  in  Gajavithi,  in  the  northern  Avashthaua. 


ROH— RUD  519 


Rohita— 1,  The  Maun,  according  to  some  of  the  Purduas,  of 
the  ninth  Manwantara  ;  2,  The  son  of  Harischaudra,  q.  v. 

Rohitaswa — Called  also  Roliita.  The  sou  of  Harischaudra, 
q.  Y.  Traces  of  his  name  appear  in  the  strongholds  of  Rotas,  in 
Behar,  and  in  the  Panjab.  The  Bhiigavata  has  a  legend  of  his 
having  been  devoted  to  Varuna  before  his  birth,  by  his  father,  who 
having  on  various  pleas  deferred  offering  his  sou  as  promised,  was 
alMicted  by  a  dropsy.  Rohita  at  last  purchased  Suuahsephas  who 
was  offered  as  a  victim  in  his  stead. 

Romaharshana — A  disciple  of  Vyasa,  and  the  narrator  of  the 
Puranas.     See  Siita. 

Romanas,  Ropanas — A  people  mentioned  in  the  Puranas  ;  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  the  Ptomans  may  be  meant. 

Romapada — l,  A  son  of  Vidarbha  and  the  princess  rescued  by 
Jyamagha,  (q.  v.)  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Chitraratha. 

Ruchi — One  of  the  Prajapatis  or  mind-born  sons  of  Brahma. 
He  was  married  to  Akiiti,  wdio  bore  him  twins,  Yajna  and  Dak- 
shiua,  who  afterwards  became  husband  and  wife,  and  had  twelve 
sous,  the  deities  called  Yamas,  in  the  MauAvantara  of  Swayam- 
bhuva. 

Ruchiradhi — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Sauk  rite,  of  the  race  of 
Bharata. 

Ruchiraswa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Seuajit,  descendant  of 
Hastin. 

Rudhirandha — One  of  the  Narakas,  designed  for  incendiaries, 
treacherous  friends,  soothsayers,  &c. 

Rudra — An  agent  iu  creation  ;  who  sprang  from  the  forehead 
of  Brahma,  radiant  as  the  noontide  sun,  fierce,  and  of  vast  bulk, 
and  of  a  figure  which  was  half-male,  half-female.  At  the  com- 
mand of  Brahma,  Rudra  became  two-folds  disjoining  his  male  and 
female  natures.  His  male  being  he  again  divided  into  eleven 
persons,  of  whom  some  were  agreeable,  some  hideous,  some  fierce, 
some  mild  :  and  he  multiplied  his  female  nature  manifold,  of  com- 
plexions black  or  white.  This  is  considered  by  Professor  Wilson 
to  be  the  primitive  form  of  the  legend. 


520  EUD 

The  Vishnu  Puraua  gives  another  account,  as  follows  : 
In  the  beginning  of  the  Kalpa,  as  Brahmi  purposed  to  create  a 
son,  who  should  be  like  himself,  a  youth  of  a  purple  complexion 
appeared,  crying  with  a  low  cry,  and  running  about.  Brahma, 
Avheu  he  beheld  him  thus  afflicted,  said  to  him,  "  Why  dost  thou 
weep?"  "Give  me  a  name,"  replied  the  boy.  "  Kudra  be  thy 
name,"  rejoined  the  great  father  of  all  creatures  :  "  be  composed  ; 
desist  from  tears."  But,  thus  addressed,  the  boy  still  wept  seven 
times,  and  Brahma  therefore  gave  to  him  seven  other  denomina- 
tions ;  and  to  these  eight  persons  regions  and  wives  and  posterity 
belong.  The  eight  manifestations,  then,  are  named  Rudra, 
Bhava,  Sarva,  Isaua,  Pasupati,  Bhima,  Ugra,  and  Mahadeva, 
which  were  given  to  them  by  their  great  progenitor.  He  also 
assigned  to  them  their  respective  stations,  the  sun,  water,  earth, 
air,  fire,  ether,  the  ministrant  Brahman,  and  the  moon  ;  for  these 
are  their  several  forms. 

The  Vayu  details  the  application  of  each  name  severall3^    These 
eight  Rudras  are  therefore  but  one,  under  as  many  appellations, ; 
and  in  as  many  types.     The  Padraa,  Markandeya,  Kiirma,  Linga, 
and  Yaju  agree  with  the  V.  P.,  in  the  nomenclature  of  the  Rudras, 
and  their  types,  their  wives,  and  progeny. 

Rudra — A  name  of  Siva  ;  one  of  the  five  great  lords  or  faces 
of  Siva,  the  name  Rudra  occurs  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  one  of  the 
inferior  gods. 

Rudrakali — A  form  of  Uma,  in  which  she  accompanied 
Virabhadra  when  he  was  sent  by  Siva  to  spoil  the  sacrifice  of 
Daksha. 

Rudraksha — A  rosary,  or  string  of  beads,  the  fruit  of  the 
eleocarpus,  resembling  in  form,  size,  and  colour,  the  nutmeg,  but 
with  a  rough  surface.  The  meaning  of  the  word  is  Rudra's  {i.  e., 
Siva's)  eye,  and  then  also  tear.  It  is  said  that  Siva  once,  in  a  war 
with  the  Asuras,  haviug  burned  three  cities,  wept  at  the  loss  of 
lives  involved,  and  the  tears  falling  to  the  ground,  sprung  up  as 
shrubs,  producing  berries,  which  were  thence  called  Rudraksha. 

Rudra-loka — The  heaven  above  Brahma-loka. 

Rudrani— The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Dhritavrata. 


RUK— RUS  521 


Rukmakavacha — A  Yddava  priuce,  tlie  son  of  Siteyas. 

Rukmisha — The  grantlson  of  the  precediug  Yadava  king. 

Rukmin — The  sou  of  Bhishmaka,  kiug  of  Vidarbha.  He  had 
a  beautiful  sister  named  Rukmini,  with  whom  Krishna  fell  in  love 
and  selected  in  marriage  ;  but  her  brother,  who  hated  Krislma, 
would  not  assent  to  the  espousals.  The  father  then  affianced 
Rukmini  to  Sisupala.  In  other  to  celebrate  the  nuptials, 
Jarasandha  and  other  princes,  the  friends  of  Sisupala,  assembled 
in  Kundina,  the  capital  of  Vidarbha  ;  and  Krishna,  attended  by 
Balarama  and  many  other  Yadavas,  also  went  to  witness  the 
wedding.  When  there  Krishna  contrived  to  carry  off  the  princess, 
leaving  Rama  and  his  kinsmen  to  sustain  the  weight  of  his  enemies. 
The  sovereigns  who  had  assembled  to  be  present  at  the  marriage, 
indignant  at  the  insult,  exerted  themselves  to  kill  Krishna  ;  and 
Rukmiu,  vowing  that  he  would  never  enter  Kundina  until  he  had 
slain  him  in  fight,  pursued  and  overtook  him.  In  the  combat  that 
ensued  Krishna  destroyed  with  his  discus  the  whole  host  of 
Rukmin,  and  would  have  put  him  to  death,  but  was  withheld  by 
the  entreaties  of  Rukmini.  Rukmin,  thus  spared,  built  the  city 
Bhojakata,  and  in  pursuance  of  his  vow,  ever  after  dwelt  therein. 
He  was  ultimately  killed  by  Balarama  in  a  quarrel  which  occurred 
at  a  game  of  dice. 

Rukmini — The  sister  of  the  above.  After  the  defeat  of 
Rukmin,  Krishna  married  Rukmini  in  due  form,  having  first  made 
her  his  own  by  the  Rakshasa  ritual,  V.  P.  According  to  the 
Bhagavata,  Rukmini  sent  to  invite  Krishna  to  carry  her  off,  and 
instructed  him  how  to  proceed.  She  was  the  mother  of  Prad- 
yumna.  On  the  death  of  Krishna  she  and  four  other  of  his  wives 
burnt  themselves  with  his  body. 

Rupa— A  river,  from  the  Saktimat  mountain. 

Rupavahikas,  Rupavasikas— People  mentioned  in  the 
Purdnas  as  Southern  tribes,  probably  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Rupa  river. 

Ruruka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Vijaya,  and  ancestor  of  Sagara, 

Rushadra — The  son  of  Swahi,  and  grandfather  of  Sasavinda. 


66 


s 

Sabhanara— One  of  the  sons  of  Anu. 

Sadacharas — Fixed  observances  ;  the  institutions  or  obser- 
vances of  the  pious  ;  the  perpetual  obligations  of  a  householder, 
consisting  of  daily  purifications,  ablutions,  libations,  and  oblations  ; 
hospitality,  obsequial  rites,  ceremonies  to  be  observed  at  meals,  at 
morning  and  evening  worship,  and  on  going  to  rest. 

Sadakanta,  Sadanira — Purdnic  rivers,  the  latter  is  said  to 
flow  from  Paripatra. 

Sadaswa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Samara. 

Sadhus — Saints  ;  just  or  pious  men  ;  those  who  are  free  from 
all  defects. 

Sadhya — A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  one  of  the  wives  of 
Dharma. 

Sadhyas — A  class  of  demi-gods,  the  sons  of  Sddhya  ;  according 
to  the  Viyu  the  Sddhyas  are  the  personified  rites  and  prayers  of 
the  Vedas,  born  of  the  metres  and  partakers  of  the  sacrifices.  It 
also  enumerates  them  amongst  the  gods  of  the  present  Manwantara. 

Sadnova — The  youngest  sou  of  the  Raja  of  Chitapur,  who  was 
thrown  into  a  cauldron  of  boiling  oil  for  delaying  to  join  his  father 
iu  an  expedition  against  Arjuna.  Sadnova  prayed  to  God,  and 
the  oil  became  quite  cold.  Sadnova  came  out  unhurt  and  went 
with  the  army  to  fight  against  Arjuna,  but  he  and  all  his  brethren 
were  slain. 

Sadwati— The  daughter  of  Pulastya  and  wife  of  Agni. 

Sagara — The  son  of  Bahu  or  Bahuka.  His  birth  is  thus 
narrated  in  the  Vishnu  Purana.  Bahu  was  vanquished  by  the 
tribes  of  Haihayas  and  Talajanghas,  and  his  country  overrun  by 
them  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  fled  into  the  forests  with 
his  wives.     One  of  these  was  pregnant,  and  being  an  object  of 


SAG  523 

jealousy  to  a  rival  queen,  the  latter  gave  her  poison  to  prevent  her 
delivery.  The  poison  had  the  eifect  of  confining  the  child  in  the 
womb  for  seven  years.  Bahu,  having  waxed  old,  died  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  residence  of  the  Muni  Aurva.  His  queen 
having  constructed  his  pile,  ascended  it  with  the  determination  of 
accompanying  him  in  death  ;  but  the  sage  Aurva,  who  knew  all 
things,  past,  present,  and  to  come,  issued  forth  from  his  hermitage, 
and  forbade  her,  saying,  "  Hold  !  hold  !  this  is  unrighteous  ;  a 
valiant  prince,  the  monarch  of  many  realms,  the  offerer  of  many 
sacrifices,  the  destroyer  of  his  foes,  a  universal  emperor,  is  in  thy 
womb  ;  think  not  of  committing  so  desperate  an  act !"  Accordingly, 
in  obedience  to  his  injunctions,  she  relinquished  her  intention. 
The  sage  then  conducted  her  to  his  abode,  and  after  some  time  a 
very  splendid  boy  was  there  born.  Along  with  him  the  poison 
that  had  been  given  to  his  mother  was  expelled  ;  and  Aurva,  after 
performing  the  ceremonies  required  at  birth,  gave  him  on  that 
account  the  name  of  Sagara  (from  Sa,  '  with,'  and  Gara,  '  poison.') 
The  same  holy  sage  celebrated  his  investure  with  the  cord  of  his 
class,  instructed  him  fully  in  the  Vedas,  and  taught  him  the  use  of 
arms,  especially  those  of  fire,  called  after  Bhargava. 

When  the  boy  had  grown  up,  and  was  capable  of  reflection,  he 
said  to  his  mother  one  day,  "  Why  are  we  dwelling  in  this 
hermitage  ?  where  is  my  father  ?  and  who  is  he  ?"  His  mother, 
in  reply,  related  to  him  all  that  had  happened.  Upon  hearing 
which  he  was  highly  incensed,  and  vowed  to  recover  his  patrimonial 
kingdom,  and  exterminate  the  Haihayas  and  Talajanghas,  by 
whom  it  had  been  overrun.  Accordingly  when  he  became  a  man 
he  put  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Haihayas  to  death,  and  would  have 
also  destroyed  the  Sakas,  the  Yavanas,  Kambojas,  Paradas,  and 
Pahnavas,  but  that  they  applied  to  Vasishtha,  the  family  priest  of 
Sagara,  for  protection.  Vasishtha  regarding  them  as  annihilated 
(or  deprived  of  power),  though  living,  thus  spake  to  Sagara  : 
"  Enough,  enough,  my  son,  pursue  no  farther  these  objects  of 
your  wrath,  whom  you  may  look  upon  as  no  more.  In  order  to 
fulfil  your  vow  I  have  separated  them  from  alfinity  to  the 
regenerate  tribes,  and  from  the  duties  of  their  castes."  Sagara, 
in  compliance  with  the  injunctions  of  his  spiritual  guide,  contented 


524  SAG 

himself  therefore  with  imposing  upon  the  vanquished  nations 
peculiar  distinguishing  marks.  He  made  the  Yavanas  shave  their 
heads  entirely  :  the  Sakas  he  compelled  to  shave  (the  upper)  half 
of  their  heads  ;  the  Paradas  v^^ore  their  hair  long  ;  and  the 
Pahnavas  let  their  beards  grow,  in  obedience  to  his  commands. 
Them  also,  and  other  Kshatriya  races,  he  deprived  of  the 
established  usages  of  oblations  to  fire  and  the  study  of  the  Vedas  ; 
and  thus  separated  from  religious  rites,  and  abandoned  by  the 
Brahmans,  these  different  tribes  became  Mlechchhas.  Sagara, 
after  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom,  reigned  over  the  seven-zoned 
earth  with  undisputed  dominion. 

Sumati  the  daughter  of  Kasyapa,  and  Kesini  the  daughter  of 
Raja  Viderbha,  were  the  two  wives  of  Sagai'a.     Being  without 
progeny,  the  king  solicited  the  aid  of  the  sage  Aurva  with  great 
earnestness,  and  the  Muni  pronounced  this  boon,  that  one  wife 
should  bear  one  son,  the  upholder  of  his  race,  and  the  other  should 
give  birth  to  sixty  thousand  sons  ;  and  he  left  it  to  them  to  make 
their  election.     Kesini  chose  to  have  the  single  son  ;  Sumati  the 
multitude  :  and  it  came  to  pass  in  a  short  time  that  the  former 
bore  Asamanjas,  a  prince  through  whom  the  dynasty  continued  ; 
and  the  daughter  of  Vinata  (Sumati)  had  sixty  thousand  sous. 
"  The  elder  consort  bare 
A  son  called  Asamauj,  the  heir. 
Then  Sumati,  the  younger,  gave 
Birth  to  a  gourd,*  O,  hero  brave. 
Whose  rind,  when  burst  and  cleft  in  two, 
Gave  sixty  thousand  babes  to  view." 
The  sou  of  Asamanjas  was  Ansumat. 

Asamanjas  was  from  his  boyhood  of  very  irregular  conduct. 
His  father  hoped  that  as  he  grew  up  to  manhood  he  would  reform  ; 
but  finding  that  he  continued  guilty  of  the  same  immorality, 
Sagara  abandoned  him.  The  sixty  thousand  sous  of  Sagara 
followed  the  example  of  their  brother  Asamanjas.  The  path  of 
virtue  and  piety  being  obstructed  in  the  world  by  the  sons  of 

*  Ikshv^ka,  the  name  of  a  king  of  AyodhydjWho  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  solar  race,  means  also  a  (jourd.     Hence  perhaps  the  myth. — Griffiths. 


SAG  525 

Sagara,  the  gO(is  repaired  to  the  Muni  Kapila,  -who  was  a  portion 
of  Vishnu,  free  from  fault,  and  endowed  with  all  true  wisdom. 
Having  approached  him  with  respect,  they  said,  "  0  lord,  what 
will  become  of  the  world,  if  these  sons  of  Sagara  are  permitted  to 
go  on  in  the  evil  ways  which  they  have  learned  from  Asamanjas  ! 
Do  thou,  then,  assume  a  visible  form,  for  the  protection  of  the 
afflicted  universe."  "  Be  satisfied,"  replied  the  sage,  "  in  a  brief 
time  the  sons  of  Sagara  shall  be  all  destroyed." 

At  that  period  Sagara  commenced  the  performance  of  the 
solemn  sacrifice  of  a  horse,  which  was  guarded  by  his  own  sons  : 
nevertheless  some  one  stole  the  animal,  and  carried  it  off  into  a 
chasm  in  the  earth.  Sagara  commanded  his  sous  to  search  for  the 
steed  ;  and  they,  tracing  him  by  the  impressions  of  his  hoofs, 
followed  his  course  with  perseverance,  until  coming  to  the  chasm 
where  he  had  entered,  they  proceeded  to  enlarge  it,  and  dug 
downwards  each  for  a  league.  Coming  to  Patala,  they  beheld  the 
horse  wandering  freely  about,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  him 
they  saw  the  Rishi  Kapila  sitting,  with  his  head  declined  in 
meditation,  and  illuminating  the  surrounding  space  with  radiance 
as  bright  as  the  splendours  of  the  autumnal  sun,  shining  in 
an  unclouded  sky.  Exclaiming,  "  This  is  the  villain  who  has 
maliciously  interrupted  our  sacrifice,  and  stolen  the  horse  !  kill 
him  !  kill  him  !"  they  ran  towards  him  with  uplifted  weapons. 
The  Muni  slowly  raised  his  eyes,  and  for  an  instant  looked  upon 
them,  and  they  were  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  sacred  flame  that 
darted  from  his  person. 

"  Then  all  the  princes  lofty  souled, 
Of  wondrous  vigour,  strong  and  bold, 
Saw  Vasudeva  standing  there 
In  Kapil's  form  he  loved  to  wear, 
And  near  the  everlasting  God, 
The  victim  charger  cropped  the  sod. 
They  saw  with  joy  and  eager  eyes 
The  fancied  robber  and  the  prize, 
And  on  him  rushed  the  furious  band 
Crying  aloud,  stand,  villain  !  stand  ■ 


526  SAG 

*  Avauut  !  avauut  !  great  Kapil  cried, 
His  bosom  flushed  with  passion's  tide  ; 
Then  by  his  might  that  proud  array 
All  scorched  to  heaps  of  ashes  lay."  '* 

When  Sagara  learned  that  his  sons,  whom  he  had  sent  in  pursuit 
of  the  sacrificial  steed,  had  been  destroyed  by  the  might  of  the 
great  Rishi  Kapila,  he  despatched  Ausumat,  the  son  of  Asamanjas, 
to  effect  the  animal's  recovery.  The  youth,  proceeding  by  the 
deep  path  which  the  princes  had  dug,  arrived  where  Kapila  was, 
and  bowing  respectfully,  prayed  to  him,  and  so  propitiated  him, 
that  the  saint  said,  "  Go,  my  son,  deliver  the  horse  to  your 
grandfather  ;  and  demand  a  boon  ;  thy  grandson  shall  bring  down 
the  river  of  heaven  on  the  earth."  Ausumat  requested  as  a  boon 
that  his  uncles,  who  had  perished  through  the  sage's  displeasure, 
might,  although  unworthy  of  it,  he  raised  to  heaven  through  his 
favour.  "  I  have  told  you,"  replied  Kapila,  "  that  your  grandson 
shall  bring  down  upon  earth  the  Ganges  of  the  gods  ;  and  when 
her  waters  shall  wash  the  bones  and  ashes  of  thy  grandfather's 
sons,  they  shall  be  raised  to  Swarga.  Such  is  the  efficacy  of  the 
stream  that  flows  from  the  toe  of  Vishnu,  that  it  confers  heaven 
upon  all  who  bathe  in  it  designedly,  or  who  even  become 
accidentally  immersed  in  it  :  those  even  shall  obtain  Swarga, 
whose  bones,  skin,  fibres,  hair  or  any  other  part,  shall  be  left  after 
death  upon  the  earth  which  is  contiguous  to  the  Ganges."  Having 
acknowledged  reverentially  the  kindness  of  the  sage,  Ansumat 
returned  to  his  grandfatlier,  and  delivered  to  him  the  horse. 
Sagara,  on  recovering  the  steed,  completed  his  sacrifice  ;  and  in 
affectionate  memory  of  his  sons,  denominated  Sagara  the  chasm 
which  they  had  dug. 

Sagara  is  still  the  name  of  the  ocean,  and  especially  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges.     V.  P. 

*  It  appears  to  me  that  this  my  third  story  has  reference  to  the  volcanic 
phenomena  of  nature.  Kapil  may  very  possibly  be  that  hidden  fiery  force 
which  suddenly  unprisons  itself  and  bursts  forth  in  volcanic  effects.  Kapil 
is,  moreover,  one  of  the  names  of  Agni,  the  god  of  Fire.— Goeresio. 


SAH— SAI  52^ 


Sahadeva — l,  The  lif'tli  and  youngest  sou  of  Pandu  by  his  wife 

Madri,  but  mystically  l)egotteu  by  Dasra,  the  younger  of  the  two 

Aswinau.     He  is  considered  as  the  beau  ideal  of  masculine  beauty. 

[He  was  taught  Astronomy  and  the  use  of  the  sword  by  Droiia. 

I  When  the  Pandavas  applied  for  service  to  the  Raja  Virata,   Saha- 

'  deva  was  made  master  of  the  cattle,  and  caster  of  nativities  and 

teller  of  fortunes  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  sou  of  Srinjaya  ;  3,  The  son  of 

Harshavarddhana  ;  4,  A  son  of  Sudasa  ;  5,  A  sou  of  Jarasandha  ; 

6,  The  sou  of  Divakara,  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku. 

Sahajanya— A  divine  nymph  ;  one  of  the  ten  in  the  class 
termed  Daivika. 

Sahanji — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Kunti. 

Saharaksha — The  fire  of  the  Asuras  ;  the  Bhagavata  exj^lains 
the  different  fires  to  be  so  many  appellations  of  fire  employed  in 
the  invocations  ^vith  which  different  oblations  to  fire  are  offered 
in  the  ritual  of  the  Vedas. 

Sahas,  Sahasya — The  names  of  two  of  the  months,  occurring 
in  the  Vedas  and  belonging  to  a  system  now  obsolete. 

Sahasrabala — A  prince,  a  descendant  of  Kusa,  according  to 
the  lists  in  the  Matysa,  Linga,  &c. 

Sahasrajit— 1,  The  eldest  son  of  Yadu  ;  9.,  One  of  the  sons  of 
Bhajam^na. 

Sahishna — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  the  patriarch  Pulaka  ;  2,  A 
son  of  Vanakapivat,  and  father  of  Kamadeva. 

Sahya — One  of  the  seven  princii)al  chains  of  mountains  in 
Bharata  ;  the  northern  portions  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Konkan. 

Saindhava,  or  Saindhavayana — A  teacher  of  the  Atharva 

Veda,  and  founder  of  a  school  of  brahmans. 

Saindhavas — l,  The  inhabitants  of  Sindh,  and  Western  Raj- 
pootana  ;  2,  A  school  of  brahmans. 

Saineyas — The  descendants  of  Sini,  a  branch  of  the  Yadavas. 

Sainhikeyas — A  class  of  Danavas,  the  sons  of  Viprachilti  and 
Sinhika. 


528  SAI 

Saisikatas — Inhabitauts  of  mountainous  regions  and  sandy 
deserts. 

Saisiri— A  teacher  of  the  White  Yajush.     V.  P.,  281. 

Saisiriya — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  a  disciple  of  Vedamitra, 
called  also  Sakalya. 

Saisunaga — A  king  of  Magadha,  and  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  that  name,  consisting  of  ten  kings.  He  relinquished  Benares  to 
his  son  and  established  himself  at  Girivraja  in  Behar,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  reigned  forty  years. 

Saiva  Purana — The  fourth  Puraua  in  the  enumeration  given 
in  the  Vishnu  Purana.  In  some  lists  it  is  omitted,  and  when  that 
is  the  case  it  is  replaced  by  the  Vayu,  or  Vayuviya.  When  the 
Saiva  is  specified,  as  in  the  Bhagavata,  then  the  Vayu  is  omitted  ; 
intimating  the  possible  identity  of  these  two  works.  This  Puraua 
contains  the  genealogies  of  the  patriarchs,  a  description  of  the 
universe,  and  the  incidents  of  the  first  six  Manwautaras  ;  inter- 
mixed with  legends  and  praises  of  Siva.  A  long  account  of  the 
Pitris  or  progenitors  is  also  pecuh'ar  to  this  Purana  ;  as  are  stories 
of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  Pishis,  who  were  engaged  in  the 
distribution  of  the  Vedas.     See  Vayu  Purana. 

Saivya — The  wife  of  king  Satadhanu,  and  a  woman  of  great 
virtue.  The  legend  of  her  life  is  peculiar  to  the  Vishnu  Purana 
and  is  thus  narrated.  She  was  devoted  to  her  husband,  benevo- 
lent, sincere,  pure,  adorned  with  every  female  excellence,  with 
humility,  and  discretion.  The  Raja  and  his  wife  daily  worshipped 
the  god  of  gods,  Jan^rddana,  with  pious  meditations,  oblations  to 
fire,  prayers,  gifts,  fasting,  and  every  other  mark  of  entire  faith, 
and  exclusive  devotion.  On  one  occasion  when  they  had  fasted 
on  the  full  moon  of  Kartika,  and  had  bathed  in  the  Bhagirathi, 
they  beheld,  as  they  came  up  from  the  water,  a  heretic  approach 
them,  who  was  the  friend  of  the  Raja's  military  preceptor.  The 
Raja,  out  of  respect  to  the  latter,  entered  into  conversation  with 
the  heretic  ;  but  not  so  did  the  princess  ;  reflecting  that  she  was 
observing  a  fast,  she  turned  from  him,  and  cast  her  eyes  up  to  the 
sun.  On  their  arrival  at  home,  the  husband  and  wife,  as  usual, 
performed  the  worship  of  Vishnu,  agreeably  to  the  ritual.     After 


SAI  529 

a  time  the   Rija,    triumphant   over   his  enemies,  died  ;  and   the 
princess  ascended  the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband. 

In  consequence  of  the  fault  committed  by  Satadhanu,  by  speaking 
to  an  infidel  when  he  -was  engaged  in  a  solemn  fast,  he  was  born 
again  as  a  dog.  His  wife  was  born  as  the  daughter  of  the  Raja 
of  Kasi,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  events  of  her  pre-existence, 
accomplished  in  every  science,  and  endowed  with  every  virtue. 
Her  father  was  anxious  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  some  suitable 
husband,  but  she  constantly  opposed  his  design,  and  the  king  was 
prevented  by  her  from  accomplishing  her  nuptials.  With  the  eye 
of  divine  intelligence  she  knew  that  her  own  husband  had  been 
regenerate  as  a  dog,  and  going  once  to  the  city  of  Vaidisa,  she 
saw  the  dog,  and  recognised  her  former  lord  in  him.  Knowing 
that  the  animal  was  her  husband,  she  placed  upon  his  neck  the 
bridal  garland,  accompanying  it  with  the  marriage  rites  and  prayers  : 
but  he,  eating  the  delicate  food  presented  to  him,  expressed  his 
delight  after  the  fashion  of  his  species  ;  at  which  she  was  much 
ashamed,  and,  bowing  reverently  to  him,  thus  spake  to  her 
degraded  spouse  :  "  Recall  to  memory,  illustrious  prince,  the 
ill-timed  politeness  on  account  of  which  you  have  been  born  as  a 
dog,  and  are  now  fawning  upon  me.  In  consequence  of  speaking 
to  a  heretic,  after  bathing  in  a  sacred  river,  you  have  been 
condemned  to  this  abject  birth.  Do  you  not  remember  it  ?"  Thus 
reminded,  the  Raja  recollected  his  former  condition,  and  was  lost 
in  thought,  and  felt  deep  humiliation.  With  a  broken  spirit  he 
went  forth  from  the  city,  and  falling  dead  in  the  desert,  was  born 
anew  as  a  jackal.  In  the  course  of  the  following  year  the  princess 
knew  what  had  happened,  and  went  to  the  mountain  Kolahala  to 
seek  for  her  husband.  Finding  him  there,  the  lovely  daughter  of 
the  king  of  the  earth  said  to  her  lord,  thus  disguised  as  a  jackal, 
"  Dost  thou  not  remember,  oh  king,  the  circumstance  of  conversing 
with  a  heretic,  which  I  called  to  thy  recollection  when  thou  wast 
a  dog  ?"  The  Raja,  thus  addressed,  knew  that  what  the  princess 
had  spoken  was  true,  and  thereupon  desisted  from  food,  and  died. 
He  then  became  a  wolf ;  but  his  blameless  wife  knew  it,  and  came 
to  him  in  the  lonely  forest,  and  awakened  his  remembrance  of  his 
original  state.     "  No  wolf  art  thou,"  she  said,  "  but  the  illustrious 

67 


530  SAI 

sovereign  Satadhanu.  Thou  wast  then  a  dog,  then  a  jackal,  and 
art  now  a  wolf."  Upon  this,  recollecting  himself,  the  prince 
abandoned  his  life,  and  became  a  vulture  ;  in  which  form  his 
lovely  queen  still  found  him,  and  aroused  him  to  a  knowledge  of 
the  past.  "  Prince,"  she  exclaimed,  "  recollect  yourself :  away 
with  this  uncouth  form,  to  which  the  sin  of  conversing  with  a 
heretic  has  condemned  you  !"  The  Rlja  was  next  born  as  a  crow  ; 
when  the  princess,  who  through  her  mystical  powers  was  aware  of 
it,  said  to  him,  "  Thou  art  now  thyself  the  eater  of  tributary  grain, 
to  whom,  in  a  prior  existence,  all  the  kings  of  the  earth  paid 
tribute."  Having  abandoned  his  body,  in  consequence  of  the 
recollections  excited  by  these  words,  the  king  next  became  a 
peacock,  which  the  princess  took  to  herself,  and  petted,  and  fed 
constantly  with  such  food  as  is  agreeable  to  birds  of  its  class.  The 
king  of  Kasi  instituted  at  that  time  the  solemn  sacrifice  of  a  horse. 
In  the  ablutions  with  which  it  terminated  the  princess  caused  her 
peacock  to  be  bathed,  bathing  also  herself;  and  she  then  reminded 
Satadhanu  how  he  had  been  successively  born  as  various  animals. 
On  recollecting  this,  he  resigned  his  life.  He  was  then  born  as 
the  son  of  a  person  of  distinction  ;  and  the  princess  now  assenting 
to  the  wishes  of  her  father  to  see  her  wedded,  the  king  of  Kasi 
caused  it  to  be  made  known  that  she  would  elect  a  bridegroom 
from  those  who  should  present  themselves  as  suitors  for  her  hand. 
When  the  election  took  place,  the  princess  made  choice  of  her 
former  lord,  who  appeared  amongst  the  candidates,  and  again 
invested  him  with  the  character  of  her  husband.  They  lived 
happily  together,  and  upon  her  father's  decease,  Satadhanu  ruled 
over  the  country  of  Videha.  He  offered  many  sacrifices,  and  gave 
away  many  gifts,  and  begot  sons,  and  subdued  his  enemies  in  war  ; 
and  having  duly  exercised  the  sovereign  power,  and  cherished 
benignantly  the  earth,  he  died,  as  became  his  warrior  birth,  in 
battle.  His  queen  again  followed  him  in  death,  and,  conformably 
to  sacred  precepts,  once  more  mounted  cheerfully  his  funeral  pile. 
The  king  then,  along  with  his  princess,  ascended  beyond  the  sphere 
of  Indra  to  the  regions  where  all  desires  are  for  ever  gratified,  obtain- 
ing ever-during  and  unequalled  happiness  in  heaven,  the  perfect 
felicity  that  is  the  rarely  realised  reward  of  conjugal  fidelity." 


SAI  531 

Saivya — A  celebrated  legendary  kiug  of  ancient  India,  of  whom 
an  affecting  story  is  related  of  a  hawk  and  a  dove. 

"  Saivya,  a  king  whom  earth  obeyed, 
Once  to  a  hawk  a  promise  made. 
Gave  to  the  bird  his  flesh  and  bone 
And  by  his  trnth  made  heaven  his  own." 

"  Learn  from  that  tale,  the  Hawk  and  Dove, 
How  strong  for  truth  was  Saivya's  love 
Pledged  by  his  word  the  monarch  gave 
His  flesh  the  suppliant  bird  to  save." 

"  The  following  is  a  free  version   of  this  very  ancient  story, 
which  occurs  more  than  once  in  the  Mah^bharata. 

The  Suppliant  Dove. 

Chased  by  a  hawk  there  came  a  dove 

With  worn  and  weary  wing. 
And  took  her  stand  upon  the  hand 

Of  Kasi's  mighty  king. 

The  monarch  smoothed  her  ruffled  plumes 

And  laid  her  on  his  breast, 
And  cried,  '  No  fear  shall  vex  thee  here, 

Rest,  pretty  egg-born,  rest  ! 

Fair  Kasi's  realm  is  rich  and  wide, 

With  golden  harvests  gay. 
But  all  that's  mine  will  I  resign 

Ere  I.  my  guest  betray.' 

But  panting  for  his  half-won  spoil 

The  hawk  was  close  behind. 
And  with  wild  cry  and  eager  eye 

Came  swooping  down  the  wind  : 

*  This  bird,'  he  cried,  ray  destined  prize, 

'Tis  not  for  thee  to  shield  : 
'Tis  mine  by  right  and  toilsome  flight 

O'er  hill  and  dale  and  field. 


532  SAI 

Hunger  aud  thirst  oppress  me  sore, 

Aud  I  am  faint  with  toil : 
Thou  shouldst  not  stay  a  bird  of  prey 

Who  claims  his  rightful  spoil. 

'  They  say  thou  art  a  glorious  king, 

And  justice  is  thy  care  : 
Then  justly  reign  in  thy  domain, 

Nor  rob  the  birds  of  air.' 

Then  cried  the  king  :  '  A  cow  or  deer 
For  thee  shall  straightway  bleed, 

Or  let  a  ram  or  tender  lamb 
Be  slain,  for  thee  to  feed. 

Mine  oath  forbids  me  to  betray 
My  little  twice-born  guest  : 

See  how  she  clings  with  trembling  wings 
To  her  protector's  breast.' 

'  No  flesh  of  lambs,'  the  hawk  replied, 
'  No  blood  of  deer  for  me  ; 

The  falcon  loves  to  feed  on  doves, 
And  such  is  Heaven's  decree. 

But  if  affection  for  the  dove 
Thy  pitying  heart  has  stirred. 

Let  thine  own  flesh  my  maw  refresh, 
Weighed  down  against  the  bird.' 

He  carved  the  flesh  from  off  his  side, 

And  threw  it  in  the  scale, 
While  women's  cries  smote  on  the  skies 

With  loud  lament  and  wail. 

He  hacked  the  flesh  from  side  and  arm, 
From  chest  aud  back  and  thigh. 

But  still  above  the  little  dove 
The  monarch's  scale  stood  high. 

He  heaped  the  scale  with  piles  of  flesh, 
With  sinewy,  blood,  and  skin, 


SAI  533 

And  when  aloue  was  left  him  bono 
He  threw  himself  therein. 

Then  thundered  voices  through  the  air  ; 

The  sky  grew  black  as  night  ; 
And  fever  took  the  earth  that  shook 

To  see  that  wondrous  sight. 

The  blessed  Gods,  from  every  sphere, 

By  Indra  led,  came  nigh  ; 
While  drum  and  flute  and  shell  and  lute 

Made  music  in  the  sky. 

They  rained  immortal  chaplets  down. 

Which  hands  celestial  twine. 
And  softly  shed  upon  his  head 

Pure  Amrit,  drink  divine. 

Then  God  and  Seraph,  Bard  and  Nymph 

Their  heavenly  voices  raised, 
And  a  glad  throng  with  dance  and  song 

The  glorious  monarch  praised. 

They  set  him  on  a  golden  car 

That  blazed  with  many  a  gem  ; 
Then  swiftly  through  the  air  they  flew, 

And  bore  him  home  with  them. 

Thus  Kami's  lord,  by  noble  deed. 

Won  heaven  and  deathless  fame  ; 
And  when  the  weak  piotection  seek 

From  thee,  do  thou  the  same. 

— Griffiths.     Scefies  from  the  Rdmdyan,  ^c. 

2.  Saivya  was  also  the  name  of  a  king  of  the  Sivis,  who  was 
an  ally  of  the  Pandavas  ;  the  Silex  of  the  Greeks. 

Saivya — l,  The  wife  of  Harischandra,  (q.  v.)  whose  heroic 
fortitude  was  shown  in  her  patient  endurance  of  the  long  series  of 
severe  trials  to  which  she  and  her  husband  were  subjected  by 
Visvamitra. 


534  SAI 

*'  According  to  the  Markandeya  Puraua,  Harischaudra  gave  up 
his  whole  country,  and  sold  his  wife  and  son,  and  finally  himself, 
in  satisfaction  of  Visvamitra's  demands  for  money.  The  sufferings 
of  Harischandra,  his  wife,  and  son,  are  very  pathetically  depicted, 
and  the  effect  of  the  various  incidents  is  heightened  with  great 
artistic  skill.  The  story,  in  fact,  appears  to  me  one  of  the  most 
touching  to  be  found  in  Indian  literature.  Harischaudra,  the 
Purana  tells  us,  was  a  royal  Rishi  who  lived  in  the  Treta  age,  and 
was  renowned  for  his  virtues,  and  the  universal  prosperity,  moral 
and  physical,  which  prevailed  during  his  reign.  On  one  occasion, 
when  hunting,  the  king  heard  a  sound  of  female  lamentation  which 
proceeded,  it  appears,  from  the  sciences  who  were  becoming 
mastered  by  the  austerely -fervid  sage  Visvdmitra,  in  a  way  they 
had  never  been  before  by  any  one  else  ;  and  were  consequently 
crying  out  in  alarm  at  his  superiority.  In  fulfilment  of  his  duty 
as  a  Kshattriya  to  defend  the  weak,  and  inspired  by  the  god 
Ganesa,  who  had  entered  into  him,  Harischandra  exclaimed 
"  '  What  sinner  is  this  who  is  binding  fire  in  the  hem  of  his  gar- 
ment, while  I,  his  lord,  am  present,  resplendent  with  force  and 
fiery  vigour  V  He  shall  to-day  enter  on  his  long  sleep,  pierced  in 
all  his  limbs  by  arrows,  which,  by  their  discharge  from  my  bow, 
illuminate  all  the  quarters  of  the  firmament."  Visvamitra  was 
provoked  by  this  address.  In  consequence  of  his  wrath  the  sciences 
instantly  perished,  and  Harischandra,  trembling  like  the  leaf  of  au 
asvattha  tree,  submissively  represented  that  he  had  merely  done 
his  duty  as  a  king,  which  he  defined  as  consisting  in  the  bestowal 
of  gifts  on  eminent  Brahmans  and  other  persons  of  slender  means, 
the  protection  of  the  timid,  and  war  against  enemies.  Visvamitra 
hereupon  demands  a  gift  as  a  Brahman  intent  upon  receiving  one. 
The  king  offers  him  whatever  he  may  ask  :  Gold,  his  own  sou, 
wife,  body,  life,  kingdom,  good  fortune.  The  saint  first  requires 
the  present  for  the  Rajasuya  sacrifice.  On  this  being  promised, 
and  still  more  offered,  he  asks  for  the  empire  of  the  whole  earth, 
including  everything  but  Harischandra  himself,  his  wife  and 
son,   and   his   virtue  which   follows   its   possessor   wherever   he 


SAI  535 

goes.*  Harischandra  joyfully  agrees.  Visvamitra  then  requires 
him  to  strip  off  all  his  ornaments,  to  clothe  himself  in  the  bark  of 
trees,  and  to  quit  the  kingdom  with  his  wife  Saivya  and  his  son. 
When  he  is  departing  the  sage  stops  him  and  demands  payment 
of  his  yet  unpaid  sacrificial  fee.  The  king  replies  that  he  has  only 
the  persons  of  his  wife,  his  son,  and  himself  left.  Visvamitra 
insists  that  he  must  nevertheless  pay  ;  and  that  "  unfulfilled 
promises  of  gifts  to  Brahmans  bring  destruction."  The  unfortu- 
nate prince,  after  being  threatened  with  a  curse,  engages  to  make 
the  payment  in  a  month  ;  and  commences  his  journey  with  a  wife 
unused  to  such  fatigues,  amid  the  universal  lamentations  of  his 
subjects.  While  he  lingers,  listening  to  their  affectionate  remon- 
strances against  his  desertion  of  his  kingdom,  Visvamitra  comes  up, 
and  being  incensed  at  the  delay  and  the  king's  apparent  hesitation, 
strikes  the  queen  with  his  staff,  as  she  is  dragged  on  by  her  hus- 
band. All  this  Harischandra  endures  with  patience,  uttering  no 
complaint.  Then  the  five  Visvedevas,  merciful  gods,  exclaimed, 
"  '  To  what  worlds  shall  this  sinner  Visvamitra  go,  who  has 
thrust  down  this  most  excellent  of  sacrifices  from  the  royal 
dignity  ?  Whose  faith  shall  now  sanctify  the  soma-juice  poured 
out  with  recitation  of  texts  at  the  great  sacrifice,  that  vie  may 
drink  it,  and  become  exhilarated'  ?  "  Visvamitra  heard  what  they 
said,  and  by  a  curse  doomed  them  to  become  men  ;  he  relented, 
however,  so  far  as  to  exempt  them  from  having  offspring,  and  from 
other  family  ties  and  human  weaknesses,  and  promised  that  they 
should   eventually  be  restored  to  their  pristine  position  as  gods. 

*  Compare  Manu's  very  striking  verses,  which  may  be  freely  rendered  as 
follows  : — 

"  Our  virtue  is  the  only  friend  that  follows  us  in  death  ; 

All  other  ties  and  friendships  end  with  our  departing  breath. 

Nor  father,  mother,  wife,  nor  son  beside  us  then  can  stay, 

Nor  kinsfolk  : — virtue  is  the  one  companion  of  our  way. 

Alone  each  creature  sees  the  light,  alone  the  world  he  leaves  ; 

Alone  of  actions,  wrong  or  right,  the  recompense  i-eceives. 

Like  log  or  clod,  beneath  the  sod  their  lifeless  kinsman  laid, 

His  friends  turn  round  and  quit  the  ground  ;  but  virtue  tends  the  dead. 

Be  then  a  hoard  of  virtue  stored,  to  help  in  day  of  doom  ; 

By  virtue  led,  we  cross  the  dread,  immeasurable  gkiom." 


536  SAI 

They  in  consequence  became  pavtailly  incarnate  as  the  five  Fundus, ' 
the  sons  of  Draupadi.  Resuming  the  story  of  Harischaudra,  the 
writer  tells  us  that  he  then  proceeded  with  his  wife  and  little  sou 
to  Benares,  imagining  that  this  divine  city,  as  the  special  property 
of  Siva,  could  not  be  possessed  by  any  mortal.  Here  he  found  the 
relentless  Visvamitra  waiting  for  him,  and  ready  to  press  his 
demand  for  the  payment  of  his  sacrificial  gift,  even  before  the 
expiration  of  the  full  period  of  grace.  In  this  extremity  Saivy^ 
the  queen  suggests  with  a  sobbing  voice  that  her  husband 
should  sell  her.  On  hearing  this  proposal  Harischaudra  swoons, 
then  recovers,  utters  lamentations,  and  swoons  again,  and  his 
wife,  seeing  his  sad  condition,  swoons  also.  While  they  are 
in  a  state  of  unconsciousness,  their  famished  child  exclaims  in 
distress,  "O  father,  father,  give  me  bread  ;  O  mother,  mother, 
give  me  food  :  hunger  everpowers  me  ;  and  my  tongue  is  parch- 
ed." At  this  moment  Visvamitra  returns,  and  after  recalling 
Harischaudra  to  consciousness  by  sprinkling  water  over  him,  again 
urges  payment  of  the  present.  The  king  again  swoons,  and  is 
again  restored.  The  sage  threatens  to  curse  him  if  his  engage- 
ment is  not  fulfilled  by  sunset.  Being  now  pressed  by  his  wife, 
the  king  agrees  to  sell  her,  adding,  however,  "  If  my  voice  can 
utter  such  a  wicked  word,  I  do  what  the  most  inhuman  wretches 
cannot  perpetrate."  He  then  goes  into  the  city,  and  in  self- 
accusing  language  offers  his  queen  for  sale  as  a  slave.  A  rich  old 
Brahman  offers  to  buy  her  at  a  price  corresponding  to  her  value, 
to  do  his  household  work.  Harischandra's  heart  was  torn,  and  he 
could  make  no  reply.  The  Brahman  paid  down  the  money,  and 
was  dragging  away  the  queen  by  the  hair  of  her  head,  when  her 
little  son  Rohitdsva,  seeing  his  mother  about  to  be  taken  away 
from  him,  began  to  cry,  and  laid  hold  of  her  skirts.  The  mother 
then  exclaims  :  "  '  Let  me  go,  let  me  go,  venerable  sir,  till  I  look 
upon  my  son.  I  shall  hardly  ever  behold  him  again.  Come,  my 
darling,  see  thy  mother  now  become  a  slave.  Touch  me  not, 
young  prince  ;  I  may  no  longer  be  handled  by  thee.'  Seeing  his 
mother  dragged  away,  the  child  ran  after  her,  his  eyes  dimmed 
with  tears,  and  crying  'mother.'  The  Brahman  purchaser  kicked 
him  when  he  came   up  ;   but  he  would  not  let  his   mother  go,    and 


SAK  537 

continued  crying  "  mother,  mother.'  The  queen  then  said  to  the 
Brahman,  'Be  so  kind,  my  master,  as  to  buy  also  this  child,  as 
without  him  I  shall  prove  to  thee  but  a  useless  purchase.  Be 
thus  merciful  to  me  in  my  wretchedness  ;  unite  me  with  my  sou, 
like  a  cow  to  her  calf.'*  The  Brahman  agrees :  *  Take  this 
money  and  give  me  the  boy.' "  When  his  wife  and  son  were 
being  carried  away,  Harischandra  broke  out  into  lamentations  : 
"  '  She,  my  spouse,  whom  neither  air,  nor  sun,  nor  moon,  nor 
stranger  had  beheld,  is  now  gone  into  slavery.  This  my  son,  a 
scion  of  the  solar  race,  with  his  delicate  hands  and  fingers,  has 
been  sold.  Woe  to  me,  wicked  wretch  that  I  am.'" — 0.  S.  T., 
Vol.  I,  pp.  379-383. 

2.  Saivyd  was  the  name  of  the  wife  of  king  Jyamagha.  Her 
history  will  be  found  in  the  account  of  her  husband.     [Jyamagha.] 

Saka — One  of  the  seven  Dwipas,  or  great  insular  continents  ; 
it  is  surrounded  with  a  sea  of  milk.  In  this  Dwipa  there  are 
seven  mountains  and  seven  sacred  rivers.  There  grows  a  large 
Saka  (teak)  tree,  frequented  by  the  Siddhas  and  Gandharbas,  the 
wind  from  which,  as  produced  by  its  fluttering  leaves,  diffuses 
delight.     The  inhabitants  are  described  as  sinless  and  happy. 

Sakalya — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda.  He  is  said  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana  to  have  divided  the  Sanhita,  or  collection  of  hymns, 
given  to  him,  into  five  Sanhitas,  which  he  distributed  amongst  as 
many  disciples,  who  became  founders  of  schools  for  teaching  the 
truths  of  the  Veda. 

Sakapurni — (Called  also  Rathautara.)  A  teacher  of  the  Rig 
Veda,  who  divided  the  original  Sanhita  into  three  portions,  and 
added  a  glossary  (Nirukta)  constituting  a  fourth.  See  Vishnu 
Purana,  277. 

Sakas — The  vSakai  and  Saca3  of  classical  writers  ;  the  Indo- 
Scythians  of  Ptolemy  ;  Turks  or  Tartar  tribes,  who  established 
themselves  about  a  century  and  a  half  before  our  era,  along  the 
western  districts  of  India,  from  the  Hindu  Koh  to  the  mouths  of 
the  Indus.     Professor   Wilson  thinks   they   were  not  improbably 

*"  The  whole  of  this  reads  like  a  scene  from  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

68 


538  SAK 

connected  with  our  Saxou  forefathers.  Sixteen  kings  of  this  race 
are  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua  which  also  mentions  their 
conquest  by  Sagara,  along  witli  the  Yavanas  and  Kambojas. 

Sakha — One  of  tlie  sons  of  Kuraara,  and  grandson  of  Agni. 

Sakha — A  branch  (i.  e.,  of  the  Veda  considered  as  a  tree)  ;  it 
means  sometimes  a  division  or  part  ;  sometimes  an  edition  or 
recension.  A  Sakha,  generally  comprised  a  Sanhita  and  a  Erah- 
mana. 

Sakra — l,  A  name  of  Indra,  (q.  v.)  ;  2,  One  of  the  twelve 
Adityas. 

Sakra — The  powerful  god,  an  epithet  of  India. 

Saktas — The  worshippers  of  the  Sakti,  the  poAver  or  energy 
of  the  divine  nature  in  action,  are  exceedingly  numerous  amongst 
all  classes  of  Hindus.  This  active  energy  is,  agreeably  to  the  spirit 
of  the  mythological  system,  personified,  and  the  form  with  which 
it  is  invested,  considered  as  the  especial  object  of  veneration, 
depends  upon  the  bias  entertained  by  the  individuals  towards  the 
adoration  of  Vishnu  or  Siva.  In  the  former  case  the  personified 
Sakti  is  termed  Lakshmi,  or  Maha  Lakshmi,  and  in  the  latter, 
Parvatt.  Bhav^ni,  or  DurgA.  Even  Sarasvati  enjoys  some 
portion  of  homage,  much  more  than  her  lord,  "Brahma,  whilst  a 
vast  variety  of  inferior  beings  of  malevolent  character  and  formi- 
dable aspect  receive  the  worship  of  the  multitude.  The  bride  of 
Siva,  however,  in  one  or  other  of  her  many  and  varied  forms,  is 
by  far  the  most  popular  emblem  in  Bengal  and  along  the  Ganges. 

The  worship  of  the  female  principle,  as  distinct  from  the 
divinity,  appears  to  have  originated  in  the  literal  interpretation 
of  the  metaphorical  language  of  the  Vedas^  in  which  the  luill  or 
purpose  to  create  the  universe  is  represented  as  originating  from 
the  creator,  and  co-existent  with  him  as  his  bride,  and  part  of 
himself.  Thus  in  the  Rig  Veda  it  is  said,  "  That  divine  spirit 
breathed  without  afflation,  single  with  ( Svadhci)  her  who  is 
sustained  within  him  ;  other  than  him  nothing  existed.  First 
desire  was  formed  in  his  mind,  and  that  became  the  original 
productive  seed,"  and  the  Sdma  Veda,  speaking  of  the  divine  cause 
of  creation,  says,  •'  He  felt  not   delight,   being  alone.     He  wished 


SAK  539 

another,  and  instantly  became  such.  lie  caused  his  own  self  to 
fall  in  twain,  and  thus  became  husband  and  wife.  He  approached 
her,  and  thus  were  human  beings  produced."  In  these  passages 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  reference  is  made  to  the  primitive  tradition 
of  the  origin  of  mankind,  but  there  is  also  a  figurative  representa- 
tion of  the  first  indication  of  tvish  or  will  in  the  Supreme  Being. 
Being  devoid  of  all  qualities  whatever,  he  was  alone,  until  he 
permitted  the  wish  to  be  multiplied,  to  be  generated  within  himself. 
This  wish  being  put  into  action,  it  is  said,  became  united  with  its 
parent,  and  then  created  beings  were  produced.  Thus  this  fust 
manifestation  of  divine  power  is  termed  Ichchhdrupa,  personified 
desire,  and  the  creator  is  designated  as  Svechchhdmaya^  united 
with  his  own  will,  whilst  in  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  and  the 
popular  sects,  such  as  that  of  Kabir,  and  others,  in  which  all 
created  things  are  held  to  be  illusory,  the  Sakti,  or  active  will  of 
the  deity,  is  always  designated  and  spoken  of  as  Maya  or  Mahd- 
mdyd,  original  deceit  or  illusion. 

Another  set  of  notions  of  some  antiquity  which  contributed  to 
form  the  character  of  the  Sakti,  whether  general  or  particular, 
were  derived  from  the  Sd?ikhya  philosophy.  In  this  system 
nature,  Prakriti,  or  Mula  Frakriti,  is  defined  to  be  of  eternal 
existence  and  independent  origin,  distinct  from  the  supreme  spirit, 
productive  though  no  production,  and  the  plastic  origin  of  all 
things,  including  even  the  gods.  Hence  Prakriti  has  come  to  be 
regarded  as  the  mother  of  gods  and  men,  whilst  as  one  with  matter, 
the  source  of  error,  it  is  again  identified  with  Maya,  or  delusion, 
and  as  co-existent  with  the  supreme  as  his  Sakti,  his  personified 
energy,  or  his  bride. 

These  mythological  fancies  have  been  principally  disseminated 
by  the  Furdnas,  in  all  which  Frakriti,  or  3/ayfl  bears  a  prominent 
part.  The  aggregate  of  the  whole  is  given  in  the  Brahma 
Vaivartta  Purdna,  one  section  of  which,  the  Prakriti  Khanda,  is 
devoted  to  the  subject,  and  in  which  the  legends  relating  to  the 
principal  modifications  of  the  female  principle  are  narrated. — 
fVilson. 

Sakti — Energy.  Potency.  Mythologically  the  word  means 
consort  of  a  deity.     Parvati  is  the  Sakti  of  Siva.     Sarasvati  the 


540  SAK 

Sakti  of  Brahmii.  The  Sakti  is  said  to  have  originated  in  God,  the 
Supreme  Beiug.  From  the  first  Sakti  nine  others  are  derived  who 
are  called  Navasakti.  They  for  their  arrogance,  were  banished 
from  heaven  to  earth  ;  and  when  here  obtained  the  office  of 
protecting  mankind  from  demons  ;  hence  temples  are  erected  and 
festivals  celebrated  in  their  honour.  They  are  in  fact  the 
Graraadevatas  so  often  mentioned.  The  Sakti  is  worshipped  in 
the  pagodas  under  the  form  of  the  Sivalinga.  There  are  many 
special  forms  of  Sakti-worship,  some  of  them  accompanied  with 
the  grossest  obscenities.  The  Abbe  Dubois  terms  one  of  them  an 
"  occult  sacrifice,  secret  and  abominable."  The  Sakti  worship  is  to 
a  certain  extent  sanctioned  by  the  Puranas,  but  it  is  especially 
prescribed  in  certain  works  called  Tantras.  The  female  forms  of 
Rudra,  white  and  black,  are  termed  in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  Saktis. 

Sakti,  Saktri— A  celebrated  sage,  the  son  of  Yasishtha.  King 
Kalmashapada,  one  day  met  Sakti,  in  a  narrow  path  in  a  thicket 
and  desired  him  to  stand  out  of  his  way.  The  sage  refused  ;  on 
which  the  raja  beat  him  with  his  whip,  and  Sakti  cursed  him  to 
become  a  Eakshas,  or  cannibal.  The  Raja  in  this  transformation 
killed  and  ate  its  author,  Sakti,  and  all  the  other  sons  of  Vasishtha. 
Parasara  was  a  posthumous  son  of  Sakti.  In  the  twenty-fifth 
Dwiipara  Sakti  was  the  Vyasa. 

Sakuni — l,  The  son  of  the  Raja  of  Gaudhara,  who  conducted 
his  sister  Gandhari  to  the  city  of  Hastinapur  to  be  married  to 
Rdja  Dritarashtra.  He  was  very  skilful  in  throwing  dice,  and  in 
playing  with  dice  that  were  loaded  ;  so  that  he  always  won  the 
game.  At  the  celebrated  gambling  match  when  Yudhishthira  lost 
all  his  property,  himself,  his  brothers  and  his  wife,  it  was  Sakuni 
who  threw  the  dice  and  won  every  game,  and  obliged  the  Pandavas 
to  go  into  exile.  Sakuni  plotted  with  Duryodhana  to  seize 
Krishna,  when  the  latter  revealed  his  divinity  and  disconcerted 
the  whole. 

Sakuni — 2,  A  Daitya  of  great  prowess,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Hiranyaksha. 

Sakuni~A  female  fiend  or  Asura,  the  daughter  of  Bali,  and 
feister  of  Putana. 


SAK— SAL  541 


Sakuntala — The  daughter  of  the  celebrated  llishi  Visvamitra, 
by  one  of  the  Apsarasas  uamed  Meuaka,  who  was  sent  from 
heaven  by  ladra  to  allure  the  sage  from  his  solitary  penance. 
"  Visvamitra  yielded  and  lived  with  Menaka  in  connubial  bliss  for 
some  years.  When  Visvamitra  returned  to  his  ambitious  austerities, 
INIenaka  went  back  to  heaven,  and  their  child,  Sakuntala,  was 
adopted  by  the  Rishi  Kanwa,  and  brought  up  at  his  hermitage,  in 
a  forest  to  the  south  of  Hastiuapura,  the  city  in  which  were 
reigning  the  princes  of  the  Lunar  line.  To  Dushyanta,  the 
reigning  monarch,  it  was  decreed  by  the  celestials,  the  daughter 
of  Menaka  should  be  married  ;"*  the  plot  of  Kalidasa's  drama  of 
'•'  Sakuntala  or  the  Lost  Ring,"  is  arranged  to  bring  about  the 
marriage. 

Sakwala — A  mundane  system  ;  being  the  space  to  which  the 
light  of  u  sun  extends,  each  sakwala,  of  which  there  is  a  great 
number,  including  a  heaven,  earth,  hells,  &c. 

Sakya,  or  Sakyamuni— The  author  or  reviver  of  Buddhism, 
whose  birth  appears  to  have  occurred  in  the  seventh,  and  death  in 
the  sixth  century  before  Christ  (b.  c  621-543).  He  was  the  son 
of  Suddhodana,  king  of  Kapila-vastu,  or  of  Magadha  (Behar.) 
See  Buddha  and  Gautama. 

Sala — One  of  the  sons  of  Bahlika,  of  the  family  of  Kuru. 

Salagrama — A  holy  place  of  pilgrimage,  often  mentioned,  but 
the  locality  is  unknown.  The  kings  Agnidhra,  Bharata,  and 
others,  are  said  to  have  retired  thither  to  a  life  of  penance.  The 
term  Salagrama  is  usually  applied  to  a  stone,  an  ammonite,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  a  type  of  Vishnu,  and  of  which  the  worship  is 
enjoined  in  some  books.  Ammonites  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
Gandak  river,  and  Professor  Wilson  thinks  that  the  Sdlagrdma 
Tirtha  was  probably  at  the  source  of  that  stream,  or  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Ganges.  He  adds  that  its  sanctity,  and  tiiat 
of  the  stone,  are  probably  of  comparatively  modern  origin. 

Salaka — One  of  the  eight  branches  of  medical  science  ;  that 
which  treats  of  external  organic  affections  j  this  and  Salj'-a 
constitute  surgery. 


*  Mrs.  Manning,  A.  and  M.  I, 


542  SAL— SAM 


Saligotra — A  teacher  of  the  Sama-veda  ;  he  was  the  sou  of 
Laugali  and  established  six  schools. 

Salin — One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  white  Yajush. 

Salisuka — A  king  of  Magadha,  of  the  Maurya  dynasty,  the  son 
of  Sangata. 

Saliya — A  disciple  of  Vedamitra  and  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Salmali — One  of  the  Dwipas  or  seven  great  insular  continents 
into  which  the  Puranas  divide  the  world.  In  this  Dvvipa  there 
are  seven  mountain  ranges  abounding  in  precious  gems  and 
medicinal  herbs.  There  are  seven  rivers  whose  waters  wash  away 
sins.  A  large  Salmali  (silk  cotton)  tree  grows  in  this  Dwipa  and 
gives  it  its  name.  The  Dwipa  is  sourrounded  by  the  Sura  sea 
(sea  of  wine)  of  the  same  extent  as  itself. 

Salwas,  or  Salyas— Are  placed  by  the  Vayu  and  Matsya 
amongst  the  central  nations,  and  seem  to  have  occupied  part  of 
Rajasthan,  a  Salwa  Raja  being  described  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as 
engaging  in  hostilities  with  the  people  of  Dwaraka  in  Guzerat. 

Salya — The  first  of  the  eight  branches  of  medical  science,  that 
which  treats  of  the  extraction  of  extraneous  bodies.  Salya  and 
Salaka  constitute  surgery. 

Salya — l,  A  Danava,  the  son  of  Viprachitti  renowned  for  great 
strength  ;  2,  The  Raja  of  Madra.  He  sold  his  sister  Madri  to  be 
wife  to  Pandu.  He  was  Raja  of  one  of  the  mountain  tribes  occupy- 
ing the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  great  war  he  was  on  the  side  of  the  Pdndavas,  but  afterwards 
deserted  them,  and  drove  the  chariot  of  Kama  in  his  combat  with 
Arjuna.  He  obtained  the  command  of  the  army  for  one  day,  the 
last  of  the  war,  and  was  slain  by  Yudhishthira. 

Samadhi — The  result  of  meditation  ;  or  that  state  of  mind 
when  there  is  an  absence  of  all  idea  of  individuality,  when  the 
meditator,  the  meditation,  and  the  thing  or  object  meditated  upon, 
are  all  considered  to  be  but  one.  According  to  the  text  of  Patan- 
jali  :  '  Restraint  of  the  body,  retention  of  the  mind,  and  meditation, 
which  thence  is  exclusively  confined  to  one  object  is  Dhyana  ;  the 
idea  of  identification  with  the  object  of  such  meditation,  so  as  if 


SAM  543 

devoid  of  individual  nature,  is  Samadhi.  The  word  is  sometimes 
used  to  express  the  power  that  enables  its  possessor  to  exercise  an 
entive  control  over  all  his  faculties,  and  keep  them  in  perfect 
restraint. 

Saman — The  name  of  the  third  Veda.  See  Sama-veda. 
'?  Samanera — The  novice  of  Buddhism,  from  sranana,  an  ascetic. 
."  r  must  be  at  least  eight  years  of  age,  and  must  have  received  the 
«  \  sent  of  his  parents  to  his  abandonment  of  the  world.  The  vows 
of  tthe  Samanera  are  not  in  any  case  irrevocable,  and  there  arc 
many  circumstances  that  make  his  yoke  less  onerous  than  that 
of  the  stricter  communities  among  the  western  celibates. 

Samanodakas — People  who  are  related  or  connected  only  by 
presentations  of  water.     V.  P.,  p.  316. 

Samara — The  eldest  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Nipa,  and  king  of 
Kampilya  in  the  Doab.  The  Matsya  makes  Samara  the  son  of 
K<Asya. 

Samara vira — A  king  in  Bharatakshetra,  whose  daughter 
Yasoda  was  married  to  prince  Varddhamiina,  who  afterwards 
became  the  distinguished  Jaina  saint  Mahavira. 

Sama-veda — Saman  is  the  name  of  third  Veda,  which  in  the 
Bhagavat  Gita  is  called  the  best  of  the  three.  It  appears  to  be 
little  more  than  a  recast  of  the  Rich,  (see  Rig  Veda)  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  same  hymns,  broken  up  and  arranged  so  as  to  be 
chanted  during  the  various  expiatory  ceremonies.  Thus,  while 
the  Rich  is  said  to  be  in  regular  metre  to  be  recited  aloud  ;  and 
the  Yajush  consists  chiefly  of  prose  to  be  inaudibly  muttered,  the 
Saman  contains  a  certain  rhythm,  or  mode,  which  was  sung  to 
music,  and  the  name  is  also  generally  employed  to  designate  a  hymn. 

The  principal  part  of  the  Sama-veda  is  that  entitled  Archika. 
It  comprises  prayers  arranged  in  six  chapters  ;  sub-divided  into 
half  chapters  and  into  sections,  ten  in  each  chapter,  and  usually 
containing  exactly  ten  verses  each.  The  same  collection  of  prayers, 
in  the  same  order,  but  prepared  for  chanting,  is  distributed  in 
seventeen  chapters,  under  the  title  of  Gramagcija  gdna.  Another 
portion  of  the  Sama-veda,  arranged  for  chanting,  bears  the  title  of 
Aranya-gana,  and  is  sub-divided  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Archika. 


544  SAM 

There  are  four  Brahraanas  of  this  Veda,  received  by  four  different 
schools.  One  is  denominated  Shadvlnsa,  probably  from  its  contain- 
ing twenty-six  chapters.  Another  is  called  the  Adbhuta  Brdh- 
mana.  But  the  best  known  is  that  entitled  the  Tandya,  and  an 
exposition  of  it  by  Sayanacharya.  Its  principal  Upauishad  is  the 
Chhandogya,  divided  into  eight  chapters.  Another  is  called  the 
Kena  Upanishad.  These  works  are  disquisitions  on  abtruse  anfi 
mystical  theology.  The  Kena  has  been  translated  by  RammohJ  >. 
Roy.     Small.     H.  S.  L.  j 

Samba — A  son  of  Krishna  by  his  wife  Jambavati,  celebvated 
for  his  great  strength.  At  the  Swayamvara  of  the  daughterof 
Duryodhana,  the  princess  was  carried  off  by  Samba.  Duryod- 
hana,  Kama,  Bhishma,  Drona,  and  other  celebrated  chiefs,  incensed 
at  his  audacity,  pursued  him  and  took  him  prisoner.  When  the 
Yadavas  heard  of  the  occurrence,  they  prepared  for  war  ;  but 
Balararaa  undertook  alone  to  procure  the  liberation  of  Samba  ;  he 
succeeded  by  threatening  to  throw  the  city  of  Hastinapura  into 
the  Kiver.  Samba  for  deceiving  and  ridiculing  the  Rishis  was 
cursed  to  bring  forth  an  iron  pestle,  which  was  broken  and  thrown 
into  the  sea  ;  a  spike  of  it,  that  could  not  be  broken,  was  swallowed 
by  a  fish  ;  the  fish  was  caught,  and  the  spike  extracted  by  a 
hunter  named  Jara,  who  tipped  his  arrow  with  the  spike.  Krishna 
was  ultimately  killed  with  this  arrow.     V.  P. 

Sambara — l.  An  ancient  aboriginal  king  mentioned  in  the  Rig 
Veda  as  a  black-skinned  enemy,  who  dwelt  forty  years  on  the 
mountains  and  possessed  a  hundred  impregnable  cities.  These 
cities  were  coveted  by  one  of  Indra's  white-complexioned  friends, 
the  *  hospitable  Divodasa.'  Divoddsa  was  repulsed,  and  obliged 
to  hide  himself  in  the  water  ;  but  Indra  to  give  him  pleasure, 
struck  off  the  head  of  Sambara.  Sambara  lived  in  Udavraja,  "  a 
country  into  which  the  waters  flow."  He  believed  himself  invul- 
nerable :  but  Indra  discovered  him  when  issuing  from  the  moun- 
tain, and  scattered  the  hundreds  and  thousands  of  his  hosts.  For 
the  mighty  Divodasa,  Indra,  who  dances  with  delight  in  battle, 
destroyed  ninety  cities.  Indra  hurled  Sambara  from  the  mountain  ; 
ninety-nine  cities  he  destroyed  ;  the  hundredth  lie  gave  to  Divo- 
disa. —  Wilson's  Rig  ,Veda. 


SAM  545 

Sambara — 2,  A  great  Asura  or  demou,  '  terrible  as  death,' 
who  knowing  that  Pradjumna,  if  he  lived,  would  be  his  destroyer, 
carried  off  the  infant  and  threw  him  into  the  ocean.  Pradyumna 
was  preserved  by  a  fish  and  rescued.  When  he  reached  manhood 
and  heard,  what  Sambara  had  done  ;  he  challenged  the  demon,  and 
after  a  terrible  conflict,  killed  him.     V.  P. 

Sambara — 3,  One  of  the  demons  who  personify  drought ;  they 
are  described  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  shutting  up  the  watery  treasures 
in  the  clouds,  until  Indra  attacks  them  and  after  severe  contests 
overcomes  them,  and  the  clouds  discharge  their  imprisoned  waters 
on  the  thirsty  earth. 

"  And  now  the  clouds  disperse,  the  blue 
Of  heaven  once  more  comes  forth  to  view. 
The  sun  shines  out,  all  nature  smiles, 
Redeemed  from  Vrittra's  powers  and  wiles; 
The  gods,  with  gratulations  meet. 
And  loud  acclaim,  the  victor  greet  ; 
While  Indra's  mortal  votaries  sing 
The  praises  of  their  friend  and  king." 

—  0.  S.  T.,  Vol,  V,p.  135. 

Sambhala — A  village  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  the  sage 
Kalki,  who  was  endowed  with  eight  superhuman  faculties. 

Sambhu— 1,  One  of  the  eleven  Rudras  ;  2,  The  wife  of  Dhruva. 

Sambhuta — A  prince,  the  son  of  Trasadasyu. 

Sambhuti— '  Fitness.'  A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Marichi. 

Samika — One  of  the  sons  of  Sura  and  brother  of  Vasudeva. 

Sampadvasa — One  of  the  seven  principal  solar  rays — the  one 
which  supplies  heat  to  the  planet  Mars. 

Sampara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Samara. 

Samparayana— One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  White 
Yojush,  who  founded  various  new  schools. 

Sampati — The  son  of  Syeni  and  brother  of  Jatayu.  It  was 
he  who  informed  Hanuman  that  R^vana  had  carried  Sita  to  Lanka. 


546  SAM— SAN 


Samrat — l,  The  Manu  of  any  particular  period  ;  2,  One  of 
the  daughters  of  Priyavrata,  by  his  wife  KAmya. 

Samudra— The  king  of  rivers. 

Samudra — The  daughter  of  Samudr^  by  "  his  wife  Vela. 
Samudra  was  married  to  Prachinavarshish,  and  became  the  mother 
of  the  ten  Prachetasas. 

Samvara — A  sou  of  Kasyapa  and  Danu,  and  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Daityas.  He  is  called  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  the 
mightiest  of  enchanters,  to  whom  Hirauyakasipu  had  recourse, 
when  he  was  himself  unable  to  influence  or  destroy  his  son 
Prahlada.  Samvara  undertook  to  effect  his  destruction,  but  all  his 
schemes  were  frustrated. 

Samvarana — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Riksha,  and  father  of  Kuru. 

Samvatsara — l.  The  name  of  the  first  of  the  five  Cycles  or 
Yugas,  consisting  of  twelve  years  ;  2,  The  lord  of  times  and 
seasons. 

Samvit — That  in  which  all  things  are  found  or  known,  and 
wdiich  is  found  or  known  in  all  things.     A  synonym  of  Mahat. 

Samya — An  original  property  of  man.  One  of  the  eight 
perfections  or  Siddhis,  defined  in  the  notes  to  the  Vishnu  Purana 
as  sameness  of  degree. 

Samyati — A  son  of  Prachiuvat  or  Bahugava,  of  the  race  of 
Puru. 

Samyoga — The  union  of  contiguity,  in  opposition  to  that  of 
identification  or  perfect  unity — Tadaikj/am. 

SanaiSChara,  Saturn — The  son  of  Rudra  and  Suvarchala. 
Saturn  is  also  represented  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  as  the  sou  of  the 
Bun  and  his  handmaid  Chh^ya,  and  is  said  to  move  slowly  along  in 
a  car  drawn  by  piebald  steeds. 

Sanaka,  Sanandana,  Sanatana,  Sanatkumara— Sons  of 

Rudra,  who  declining  to  create  progeny,  remained,  as  the  name  of 
the  last  implies,  ever-boys,  kumaras,  that  is,  ever  pure  and 
innocent  ;  whence  their  creation  is  called  the  K^umara. 


SAN  547 

Sanakadi,  Sampradayis — One  of  the  Vaishnav a  sects  among 
the  Hindus.  They  worship  Krishna  and  Radha  conjointly,  and 
are  distinguished  from  other  sects  by  a  circular  black  mark  in  the 
centre  of  the  ordinary  double  streak  of  white  earth  ;  and  also  by 
the  use  of  the  necklace  and  rosary  of  the  stem  of  Tulasi.  The 
members  of  this  sect  are  scattered  throughout  the  whole  of  Upper 
India.  Theyare  very  numerous  about  Mathura,  and  they  are  also 
among  the  most  numerous  of  the  Yaishuava  sects  in  Bengal. 

Sandansa — One  of  the  Narakas,  the  hell  of  i)incers  ;  into 
which  falls  the  violator  of  a  vow,  and  one  who  breaks  the  rules  of 
his  order. 

Sandhya — Twilight  ;  a  form  of  Brahma  ;  also  the  name  of  the 
period  preceding  a  Yuga.  In  the  Vishnu  Puraua  it  is  said,  "  The 
night  is  called  Usha,  and  the  day  is  denominated  Vyush'ta,  and 
the  interval  between  them  is  called  Sandhya.  On  the  occurrence 
of  the  awful  Sandhya,  the  terrific  fiends  termed  Maudehas,  attempt 
to  devour  the  sun  ;  for  Brahma  denounced  this  curse  upon  them, 
that,  without  the  power  to  perish,  they  should  die  every  day  (and 
revive  by  night),  and  therefore  a  fierce  contest  occurs  daily 
between  them  and  the  sun.  At  this  season  pious  Brahmans  scatter 
w^ater,  purified  by  the  mystical  Omkara,  and  consecrated  by  the 
Gayatri,  and  by  this  water,  as  by  a  thunderbolt,  the  foul  fiends 
are  consumed.  When  the  first  oblation  is  offered  with  solemn 
invocations  in  the  morning  rite,  the  thousand-rayed  deity  shines 
forth  with  unclouded  splendour.  Omkara  is  Vishnu  the  mighty, 
the  substance  of  the  three  Vedas,  the  lord  of  speech  ;  and  by  its 
enunciation  those  Ri,kshasas  are  destroyed.  The  sun  is  a  principal 
part  of  Vishnu,  and  light  is  his  immutable  essence,  the  active 
manifestation  of  which  is  excited  by  the  mystic  syllable  Om. 
Light  effused  by  the  utterance  of  Omkara  becomes  radiant,  and 
burns  up  entirely  the  Rakshasas  called  Mandehas.  The  performance 
of  the  Sandhy^  (the  morning)  sacrifice  must  never  therefore  be 
delayed,  for  he  who  neglects  it  is  guilty  of  the  murder  of  the  sun. 
Protected  thus  by  the  Brahmans  and  the  pigmy  sages  called 
B^lakhilyas,  the  sun  goes  on  his  course  to  give  light  to  the  world. 

Sandipani— The  tutor  of  Krishna  and  Balarama  ;  who  was  so 


548  SAN 

astonished  at  their  rapid  progress  that  he  thought  the  sun  and  moon 
had  become  his  scholars.  When  they  had  acquired  all  that  he  could 
teach  and  enquired  what  fee  he  demanded,  he  requested  them  to 
give  him  his  dead  son  drowned  in  the  sea  of  Prabhasa.  The  sea 
aaid,  '  I  have  not  killed  the  son  of  Sandipani  ;  a  demon  named 
Pauchajana,  who  lives  in  the  form  of  a  conch  shell,  seized  the  boy  ; 
he  is  still  under  my  waters.'  Krishna  then  plunged  into  the  sea  ; 
and  having  slain  the  demon,  took  the  conch  shell  as  his  horn  ;  the 
boy  was  also  restored  to  life  and  given  to  his  father. 

Sandhyansa — The  name  of  the  period  succeeding  a  Yuga. 

Sandilya— A  celebrated  teacher  of  Avhom  Mr.  Max  Miiller 
says,  "It  was  au  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  human  mind  when 
the  identity  of  the  masculine  self  and  the  neutral  Brahma  "was  for 
the  first  time  perceived,  and  the  name  of  the  discoverer  has  not 
been  forgotten.  It  was  Sandilya  who  declared  that  the  self  within 
our  heart  is  Brahma,  and  this  tenet,  somewhat  amplified,  is  quoted 
as  Saudilya's  wisdom."  The  age  in  which  he  lived  is  not  given. 
~A.  S.  L.,  p.  323. 

SandracottUS — See  Chandragupta. 

Sangata — One  of  the  tenMauryas,  descendants  of  Chandragupta, 
whose  dynasty  at  Mithila  lasted  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven  years. 

Sangha — An  assembly  or  chapter  of  Buddhist  priests. 

Sangha-bheda — The  causing  of  a  division  among  the  priest- 
hood. 

Sangha  disesa — A  class  of  priestly  misdemeanours. 

Sanghamitta — A  princess,  the  daughter  of  the  grandson  of 
Chandragupta,  who  on  being  left  by  her  husband  became  a 
priestess,  and  was  the  first  who  visited  Ceylon. 

Sangramajit — One  of  the  sons  of  Krishna,  by  his  wife  Saivya 
or  Mitravinda. 

Sanhataswa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Nikumbha. 

Sanhitas— Collections  of  Hymns.  By  a  Sanhita  is  generally 
understood  a  collection  or  compilation.  The  Sanhitas  of  the  Vedas 
are  collections  of  hymns  and  prayers  belonging  to  them,  arranged 
according  to  the  judgment  of  some  individual  sage  who  is  there- 


SAN  549 

fore  regarded  as  the  originator  and  teacher  of  each.  The  Vislmu 
Purana  mentions  the  names  of  the  principal  teachers  of  the 
Sanhitas  of  (he  Vedas  and  of  their  disciples  and  the  schools  founded 
by  them. 

Sanhlada — The  youngest  of  the  four  sons  of  Iliranyakasipu, 
distinguished  for  his  heroism,  and  termed  the  augmentor  of  the 
Daitya  race. 

Sani — Saturn.     See  Sanaischara  above. 

Sanjaya — The  minister  and  charioteer  of  ^Maharaja  Dhritara- 
shtra.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  Pandavas,  and  is,  says 
Mr.  Wheeler,  evidently  the  type  of  an  ancient  diplomatist.  His 
object  was  to  induce  the  Pandavas  to  return  to  Hastinapur,  with- 
out giving  them  any  distinct  pledge  that  their  Raj  would  be 
restored  to  them.  He  was  surprised  at  the  greatness  of  their  pre- 
parations for  war.  The  Pandavas  received  him  in  Council,  and 
he  delivered  the  message  of  the  Maharaja  ;  to  which  Yudhishthira 
replied  that  whoever  is  wise  would  never  give  his  consent  to  a  war 
on  trivial  grounds  ;  but  that  when  war  seemed  to  be  inevitable  it 
would  be  useless  in  them  to  humiliate  themselves  to  the  dust  for 
the  sake  of  concord.  "  He,  however,  who  is  intent  upon  a  war 
of  malice  is  always  in  a  fever,  and  the  fever  burns  stronger  and 
stronger  in  his  heart  day  by  day,  until  he  can  feel  no  pleasure  iii 
the  ordinary  gratifications  of  the  world."  As  for  Dhritarashtra  we 
acknowledge  him  to  be  our  Mahai-aja,  and  we  know  that  he  is 
kind  and  benevolent,  and  averse  to  doing  evil  ;  but  for  the  sake 
of  humouring  his  son  Duryodhaua,  and  keeping  on  good  terms 
with  him,  the  Maharaja  stoops  to  act  deceitfully  towards  us,  and 
would  entrap  us  into  his  presence  by  'mere  offers  of  protection." 
Krishna  spoke  to  the  same  effect,  Yudhishthira  then  gave  costly 
presents  to  the  envoy  Sanjaya,  both  for  himself  and  some  of  his  old 
friends,  to  whom  he  sent  kind  messages.  The  mission  however 
was  a  fruitless  one,  and  when  the  war  broke  out,  Sanjaya  was 
emploved  to  inform  the  blind  Maharaja  of  every  event  that  trans- 
pired during  its  progress.  It  was  Sanjaya  who  recited  the  Bhagavat 
Gita  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Suparswa  ;  3,  the  sou  of  Pratik- 
shatra  :  4.  A  prince  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku,  son  of  Rauanjaya. 


550  SAN 

Sanjna — The  daughter  of  Visvakarmaii,  was  the  wife  of  the 
sun  and  bore  him  three  children,  the  Manu  (Yaivaswata),  Yama, 
and  the  goddess  Yami  (or  the  Yamuna  river).  Unable  to  endure 
the  fervours  of  her  lord,  Sanjna  gave  him  Chhaya  his  handmaid, 
and  repaired  to  the  forests  to  practise  devout  exercises.  The  sun, 
supposing  Chhaya  to  be  his  wife  Sanjna,  begot  by  her  three  other 
children,  Sanaischara  (Saturn),  another  Manu  (Savarni),  and  a 
daughter  Tapati  (the  Tapti  river).  Chhaya,  upon  one  occasion, 
being  offended  with  Yama,  the  son  of  Sanjna,  denounced  an  impre- 
cation upon  him,  and  thereby  revealed  to  Yama  and  to  the  sun 
that  she  was  not  in  truth  Sanjn^,  the  mother  of  the  former.  Being 
further  informed  by  Chhaya  that  his  wife  had  gone  to  the  wilder- 
ness, the  sun  beheld  her  by  the  eye  of  meditation  engaged  in 
austerities,  in  the  figure  of  a  mare  (in  the  region  of  Uttara  Kuru.) 
Metamorphosing  himself  into  a  horse,  he  rejoined  his  wife,  and 
begot  three  other  children,  the  two  Asvins  and  Revanta,  and  then 
brought  Sanjna  back  to  his  own  dwelling.  To  diminish  his 
intensit}'-,  Visvakarman  placed  the  luminary  on  his  lathe,  to  grind 
off  some  of  his  effulgence  ;  and  in  this  manner  reduced  it  an 
eighth,  for  more  than  that  was  inseparable.  The  parts  of  the 
divine  Vaishnava  splendour,  residing  in  the  sun,  that  w^ere  filed 
off  by  Viswakarman,  fell  blazing  down  upon  the  earth,  and  the 
artist  constructed  of  them  the  discus  of  Vishnu,  the  trident  of 
Siva,  the  weapon  of  the  god  of  wealth,  the  lance  of  K^rtikeya, 
and  the  weapons  of  the  other  gods  :  all  these  Visvakarman 
fabricated  from  the  superfluous  rays  of  the  sun.      V.  P. 

Sankalpa — l,  One  of  the  prajapatis,  according  to  the  Kurma 
list  ;  2j  A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of  Dharma. 

Sankana — A  prince,  the  son  of  Kalmashapada  according  to 
the  Ram  %  an  a. 

Sankara — l,  A  name  of  Siva  ;  2,  A  renowned  Dauava,  son  of 
Kasyapa  and  Dan u. 

Sankara  Acharya — The  great  Saiva  Reformer,  who  flourished, 
it  is  supposed,  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  ;  Professor  Wilson 
is  of  opinion  that  of  the  present  popular  forms  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  some   assumed   their  actual   state  earlier  than  the  above 


SAN  55] 

date.  Sankava  Achaiya  Avas  a  distinguished  professor  of  the 
Vedanta  and  Advaita  system.  He  was  a  native  of  Kerala  or 
Malabar,  of  the  tribe  of  Nambiiii  brahraans,  and  in  the  mytholo- 
gical  language  of  the  sect  an  incarnation  of  Siva. 

"  In  Malabar,  he  is  said  to  have  divided  the  four  original  tribes 
into  seventy-two,  or  eighteen  sub-divisions  each,  and  to  have 
assigned  them  their  respective  rites  and  duties.  Notwithstanding 
this,  he  seems  to  have  met  with  particular  disrespect,  either  on 
account  of  his  opinions,  or  his  origin,  or  his  wandering  life.  On 
his  return  home,  on  one  occasion,  his  mother  died,  and  he  had  to 
perform  the  funeral  rites,  for  which  his  relations  refused  to  supply 
him  with  fire,  and  at  which  all  the  Brahmans  declined  to  assist. 
Sankara  then  produced  fire  from  his  arm  and  burnt  the  corpse  in 
the  court-yard  of  the  house,  denouncing  imprecations  to  the  effect, 
that  the  Brahmans  there  should  not  study  the  Vedas,  that  religious 
mendicants  should  never  obtain  alms,  and  that  the  dead  should 
always  be  burnt  close  to  the  houses  in  which  they  had  resided — a 
custom  which  is  said  to  have  survived  him. 

"  All  accounts  concur  in  representing  Sankara  as  leading  an 
erratic  life,  and  engaging  in  successful  controversy  with  various 
sects,  whether  Saiva,  or  Vaishnava,  or  of  less  orthodox  opinions 
as  the  Buddhists  and  Jainas.  In  the  course  of  his  peregrinations, 
he  established  several  Maths,  or  convents,  under  the  presidencies 
of  his  disciples,  particularly  one,  still  flourishing  at  Sringeri,  or 
Sringiri,  on  the  western  ghats,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tungabadra. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  he  repaired  as  far  as  Kashmir,  and 
seated  himself,  after  triumphing  over  various  opponents,  on  the 
throne  of  Sarasvati.  He  next  went  to  Badarikasraraa,  and  finally 
to  Kedarn^th,  in  the  Himalaya,  where  he  died  at  the  early  age  of 
thirty-two.  The  events  of  his  last  days  are  confirmed  by  local 
traditions,  and  the  Pitha,  or  throne  of  Sarasvati,  on  which  Sankara 
sat,  is  still  shown  in  Kashmir  ;  whilst  at  the  temple  of  Siva  at 
Badari,  a  Malabar  Brahman,  of  the  Namburi  tiibe,  has  always 
been  the  officiating  priest. 

"  The  influence  exercised  by  Sankara  in  person,  has  been  perpe- 
tuated by  his  w^'itings,  the  most  eminent  oi  which  are  his  Bha- 
shyas,  or  commentaries  on  the  Siitras  or  Aphorisms  of  Vyasa.     A 


552  SAN 

commeutaiy  on  the  Bhagavat  Gita,  is  also  ascribed  to  him,  as  is 
one  ou  the  Nrisiuha  Tapaniya  Upanishad,  and  a  cento  of  verses  iu 
praise  of  Durga.  The  Saundarya  Lahari  is  likewise  said  to  be  his 
composition."     See  Vedanta. 

Sa/Ilkarshaiia — A  name  of  Balarama,  given  to  him  in  conse- 
quence of  his  being  extracted  from  his  mother's  womb  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  that  of  Rohini. 

Sankasya — A  country  in  the  Doab,  near  Maiupuri. 

Sankha — l,  A  powerful  mauy-headed  serpent,  one  of  the 
progeny  of  Kadru  ;  2,  one  of  the  minor  Dwipas,  peopled  by 
Mlechhas  who  worship  Hindu  deities  ;  3,  A  conch  shell,  one  of 
the  principal  weapons  of  Vishnu. 

Sankhakuta — One  of  the  mountain  ridges  on  the  north  of 
Meru. 

Sankhanata — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Vajranabha,  a  descendant 
of  Rama. 

Sankhapada — One  of  the  eight  L(5kapalas,  and  son  of  the 
patriarch  Kardama  by  Sruti.     He  is  the  regent  of  the  south. 

Sankhya — One  of  the  six  Sastras  properly  so  called.  It  is 
ascribed  to  the  Muni  Kapila.  It  is  the  principal  of  the  six  philo- 
sophical schools  of  India.  This  system  say  some,  is  an  attempt 
to  account  for  the  existence  of  the  universe  without  the  deity,  by 
asserting  the  principle  of  duality,  or  in  other  words,  the  co-exist- 
ence of  spirit  and  matter.  Dr.  Ballantyne  gives  the  following 
outline  of  the  system.  "  The  Sankhya  makes  a  step  in  advance 
of  the  Nyaya  by  reducing  the  external  from  the  category  of 
substance  to  that  of  quality.  Souls  alone  are,  in  the  Sankhya, 
regarded  as  substances ;  whatever  affects  the  soul  being  arranged 
under  the  head  of  a  quality — 1,  pleasing  ;  2,  displeasing  ;  or  3, 
indifferent.  This  mode  of  viewing  the  universe  may  be  desig- 
nated the  emotional  view  of  things. 

The  word  Sankhya  means  "  numeral,  rational  or  discrimina- 
tive,^^ The  system  promises  beatitude  as  the  reward  of  that  discri- 
mination which  rightly  distinguishes  between  soul  and  nature. 
The  meaning  to  be  attached  to  these  two  words  will  be  explained 
presently. 


SAN  553 

The  Sdnkhya  system  was  delivered  by  Kapila  iu  a  set  of 
apliorisms  no  less  concise  than  those  of  the  Nydya.  He  begins 
by  defmiug  tlic  cJdcf  end  of  Mcui.  His  first  aphorism  is  as 
follows  : — "  Now  the  complete  (or  highest)  end  of  man."  Ey  the 
three  kinds  of  pain  are  meant — 1,  diseases,  griefs,  &c.,  which  are 
intrinsic  or  inherent  iu  the  sulferer  ;  2,  injuries  from  ordiuaiy 
external  things  ;  and  3,  injuries  from  things  supernatural  or  meteo- 
rological. In  his  nineteenth  aphorism,  he  declares  that  the  bondage 
{bandha)  under  which  the  soul,  or  individual  man  (purusha), 
groans,  is  due  to  its  conjunction  with  nature  (prakriti)  ;  and  this 
bondage  is  merely  seeming,  because  soul  is  "  ever  essentially  a 
pure  and  free  intelligence." 

In  his  fifty-ninth  aphorism,  he  says  again  of  the  soul's  bondage 
— "  It  is  merely  verbal,  and  not  a  reality,  since  it  resides  in  [the 
soul's  organ]  the  mind  [and  not  iu  the  soul  or  self]  ;"  on  which 
the  Hindu  commentator  remarks, — "  That  is  to  say,  since  bondage, 
&c.,  resides  only  in  the  mind  (chitta),  all  this,  as  far  as  concerns 
the  soul  l^pnrusha'],  is  merely  verbal,  because  it  is  merely  a 
reflexion,  like  the  redness  of  a  [pellucid]  crystal  [when  a  China 
rose  is  near  it],  but  not  a  reality,  with  no  false  imputation  like  the 
redness  of  the  China  rose  itself." 

Of  nature,  which  thus,  by  conjunction,  makes  the  soul  seem  to 
be  in  bondage  when  it  is  really  not,  he  gives,  in  his  sixty-second 
aphorism,  the  following  account  : — "  Nature  (prakriti)  is  the  state 
of  equipoise  of  goodness  (sattiva),  passion  (r«J«5),  and  darkness 
(tamas)  ;  from  nature  [proceeds]  intellect  {mahat),  from  intellect 
self-consciousness  {ahankdra),  from  self-consciousness  the  five 
subtile  elements  {taumdtra),  and  both  sets  [external  and  internal] 
of  organs  (indriya),  and  from  the  subtile  elements  the  gross 
elements  {sthula-bhata),  [then,  besides,  there  is]  soul  {purusha)  ; 
such  is  the  class  of  twenty-five." 

We  may  add  further,  that,  iu  aphorism  105,  we  arc  told  that 
*'  experience  (bhoga)  [whether  of  pleasure  or  pain,  liberation  from 
both  of  which  is  desiderated],  ends  with  [the  discrimination  of] 
thought  [i.  €.,  soul  as  contra-distinguished  from  nature]  ;"  that  a 
plurality  of  souls  is  asserted  (in  ojjposition  to  the  Veddnta)  in 
nuothcr  aphorism  (150),  viz.  :  '*  From  the  diverse  allotment  of 


554  SAN 

birth,  &c.,  the  plurality  of  souls  [is  to  be  inferred]  ;"  and,  finally, 
that  the  Sdnkhya  system  explicitly  repudiates  the  charge  of  anni- 
hilation, aphorism  47  declaring  that,  "  In  neither  way  [whether 
as  a  means  or  as  an  end]  is  this  [viz.,  annihilation],  the  soul's  aim." 
Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson  writes,  "  The  Sankhya  is  divided  into  three 
classes  : — 1,  The  pure  Sankhya,  which,  if  it  admits,  does  not 
mention,  a  deity  or  Supreme  Being,  but  considers  the  material 
essence  as  the  plastic  principle  of  all  things,  and  is  therefore  called 
nirishivara  or  atheistical.  Its  text  books  are  the  '  Sankhya- 
pravachana,'  and  the  '  Tattwa  Samasa,'  both  attributed  to  Kapila 
himself,  and  the  '  Sankhya-kdrika,'  to  his  disciple  Ishwara  Krishna. 
Asuri  and  Panchashika  are  also  mentioned  as  the  earliest  followers 
of  this  system  ;  2,  The  Yoga  system,  called  seshwara,  or  theistical, 
founded  by  Patanjali,  whose  Yoga-siitras  are  its  text  book,  and 
followed  by  the  author  of  the  Bhagavat  Gita  ;  3,  The  Puranic 
school,  a  corrupt  mixture  of  the  other  two.  (Lit.,  *  rational,' 
from   Sankhya,  '  reasoning,  computation.') 

Sankhyayana — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Sankranta — The  beginning  of  the  year  or  a  month,  and  the 
name  of  the  festival  which  is  commonly  called  Pongal,  (q.  v.) 

Sankriti — 1,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Sankriti  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Nara,  descendant  of  Bharata. 

Sanku— One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena. 

Sankusiras — A  powerful  Danava — one  of  the  sons  of  Kasyapa 
and  Danu. 

Sannati — Humility  ;  one  of  the  daughters  of  the  patriarch 
Daksha,  who  was  married  to  the  Muni  Kratu. 

Sannatimat — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Sumati. 

Sannyasi — An  ascetic  ;  the  last  of  the  four  conditions  of  life 
prescribed  for  brahmans.  These  four  conditions  are  :  1,  That  of 
the  Brahmachari  or  bachelor,  who,  from  the  time  of  his  invest- 
ment with  the  sacred  cord,  is  required  to  tend  the  sacred  fires  and 
to  follow  his  studies  under,  or  in  the  presence  of,  his  preceptor  ; 
2,  That  of  the  Grihasta  or  householder,  who,  from  his  marriage, 
must  strictly  observe  his  religious  duties,  maintain  the  sacred  fires, 


SAN  555 

aud  liberally  practise  hospitality  for  the  support  of  the  other  three 
orders  ;  3,  That  of  the  Vanaprastha  or  recluse,  who,  with  or 
without  his  wiie,  relinquishes  domestic  life,  retires  to  the  desert, 
feeding  on  leaves,  roots  and  fruits,  or  on  the  hospitality  of  the 
second  order,  and  continues  to  perform  his  daily  rites  ;  4,  That  of 
the  Sannydsi  or  ascetic,  who  performs  no  rite  whatever,  and 
appears  sometimes  in  a  state  of  nudity  ;  who  has  renounced  social 
life,  with  all  its  enjoyments  aud  attachments,  and  subjected  his 
passions  ;  who  lives  on  what  is  given  him  unasked,  and  remains  in 
a  village  only  one  day,  in  a  town  not  more  than  three  days,  and  in 
a  city  only  five  ;  lest  his  mind  become  secularized. 

Sansapayana — A  teacher  of  the  Puranas,  and  composer  of  a 
"  fundamental  Sanhita,"  the  substance  of  which  is  included  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana. 

Sanskaras — The  ten  essential  ceremonies  of  Hindus  of  the  first 
three  castes  ;  viz.,  three  before  birth  ;  then,  "  At  the  birth  of  a 
child  the  father  should  feed  two  brahmans,  seated  with  their  faces 
to  the  east ;  and  according  to  his  means  oflTer  sacrifices  to  the  gods 
and  progenitors.  Let  him  present  to  the  manes  balls  of  meat  mixed 
with  curds,  barley,  aud  jujubes,  with  the  part  of  his  hand  sacred 
to  the  gods,  or  with  that  sacred  to  Prajapati.  Let  a  brahman 
perform  such  a  Sraddha,  with  all  its  offerings  and  circumambula- 
tions,  on  every  occasion  of  good  fortune." 

"  Next,  upon  the  tenth  day  (after  birth),  let  the  father  give  a 
name  to  his  child, — the  first  term  of  which  shall  be  the  appellation 
of  a  god  ;  the  second,  of  a  man  ;  as  Sarman  or  Varman  ;  the  former 
being  the  appropriate  designation  of  a  brahman  ;  the  latter,  of  a 
warrior  ;  whilst  Gupta  and  Dasa  are  best  fitted  for  the  names  of 
Vaisyas  and  Sudras.  A  name  should  not  be  void  of  meaning  ;  it 
should  not  be  indecent,  nor  absurd,  nor  ill-omened,  nor  fearful  ;  it 
should  consist  of  an  even  number  of  syllables  ;  it  should  not  be 
too  long,  nor  too  short,  nor  too  full  of  long  vowels,  but  contain  a 
proportion  of  short  vowels,  and  be  easily  articulated.  After  this 
and  the  succeeding  initiatory  rites,  the  purified  youth  is  to  acquire 
religious  knowledge,  in  the  mode  that  has  been  described,  in  the 
dwelling  of  his  spiritual  guide." 


556  SAN 

Santana — Mercury.     The  son  of  the  Rudra  Ugra. 

Santanu — A  king  of  the  lunar  race,  the  thirteenth  in  descent 
from  Kuru,  the  prince  who  gives  the  designation  to  Duryodhana 
and  his  brothers,  thence  called  Kauravas,  their  cousins,  the  sons  of 
Pandu  being  termed  Pandavas.  Santanu  had  four  sons,  Bhishma, 
Chitraugada,  Vichitravirya  and  Vyasa.  Of  these  the  eldest  and 
youngest  both  lived  unmarried,  the  other  two  Chitrangada  and 
Vichitravirya  both  died  without  issue  ;  on  which,  to  prevent  the 
extinction  of  the  family,  and  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  Hindu 
law,  Vyasa  begot  offspring  on  his  brother's  widows.  The  sons 
were  Dhritarashtra  and  Pandu.  Dhritarashtra  had  a  hundred 
sons  by  Gandhari,  the  princess  of  Gandhara,  of  whom  Duryodhana 
was  the  eldest.  Pandu  had  five  sons,  the  celebrated  princes 
Yudhishthira,  Bhima,  Arjuna,  and  the  twin  brothers  lN"akula  and 
Sahadeva.  Of  these  the  first  was  remarkable  for  his  piety  and 
integrity  ;  the  second  for  his  gigantic  bulk  and  strength.  Arjuna 
was  eminent  for  his  valour,  and  was  the  particular  friend  of 
Krishna — Wilson,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  291.     See  Vidura. 

Santarddana — A  prince,  the  son  of  Dhrishtaketu,  raja  of 
Kaikeya,  or  according  to  the  Padraa,  king  of  Kashmir. 

Santateyu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Randraswa,  of  the  house  of 
Puru. 

Santati — The  son  of  Alarka,  who  became  kiug  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  sovereign  of  Benares,  but  whose  reign  was  only  that  of 
an  ordinary  mortal,  though  his  father  is  said  to  have  reigned  as  a 
youthful  monarch  for  sixty  thousand  and  sixty  hundred  years. 

Santi — 1,  Placidity,  a  property  of  sensible  objects,  according  to 
the  Sankiiya  philosophy  ;  2,  The  Indra  of  the  tenth  Manwantara  ; 
3,  A  brahman,  pupil  of  Angiras,  who  having  suffered  the  holy  fire 
to  go  out  in  his  master's  absence,  prayed  to  Agni,  and  so  propi- 
tiated him,  that  he  not  only  relighted  the  flame  but  desired  Santi 
to  demand  a  further  boon  ;  4,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Nlla ;  5,  A 
daughter  of  Daksha,  *  Expiation,'  and  wife  of  Dharma, 

Santideva — A   daughter   of  Devaka,    who  was   married  to 

Vasudeva, 


SAN— SAR  557 


Santosha — Content.  The  son  of  Dliarma  by  liis  wife  Tushti, 
(Resignation)  one  of  the  daughters  of  Dharma. 

Sapeijon — A  teacher  of  the  white  Yajush  and  founder  of 
several  schools. 

Sapindana — An  ancestral  Sraddhn,  performed  at  the  expiration 
of  twelve  months  after  the  death  of  a  person.  The  practices  of 
this  rite  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  monthly  obsequies,  but  a 
lustration  is  made  with  four  vessels  of  water,  perfumes,  and 
sesamum  ;  one  of  these  vessels  is  considered  as  dedicated  to  the 
deceased,  the  other  three  to  the  progenitors  in  general  ;  and  the 
contents  of  the  former  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  other  three,  by 
which  the  deceased  becomes  included  in  the  class  of  ancestors  to 
whom  worship  is  to  be  addressed  with  all  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Sraddha. 

Sapindas — Relations  connected  by  offerings  of  cakes  to  common 
ancestors  ;  they  extend  to  seven  degrees,  ascending  or  descending. 

Saptadasa — A  collection  of  hymns  created  from  the  western 
mouth  of  Brahma,  along  with  the  Sama  Veda,  &c. 

Sarabhanga — A  celebrated  devotee  described  in  the  Rcuna- 
yana.  Pic  was  visited  by  Indra  and  invited  to  return  with  him  to 
heaven  ;  and  when  asked  afterwards  by  Rama  the  reason  of  Indra's 
coming  to  his  hermitage,  Sarabhanga  replied,  "  O  Rama,  the 
sovereign  of  the  gods  or  demons  came  to  take  me  to  the  heaven  of 
Brahma,  which  I  have  gained  by  my  severe  austerities  ;  but 
knowing  that  you  were  not  Air  off  I  would  not  depart  to  heaven 
until  I  had  seen  you."  Sarabhanga  then  said,  "  Behold,  now 
while  1  put  off  this  body,  as  a  serpent  casts  its  slough  !"  Then  the 
sage  prepared  a  fire,  offered  ghee,  and  entered  the  flame  ;  the  fire 
consumed  his  body  ;  and  a  youth,  bright  as  the  fire,  was  instantly 
produced  ;  and  in  this  shape,  Sarabhanga  sought  the  heaven  of  the 
sages  who  had  devoted  their  lives  to  religious  austerities,  and 
passing  by  the  heaven  of  the  gods,  he  ascended  to  the  heaven  of 
Brahma. 

Saradwat — The  husband  of  Ahalya  and  father  of  Satyadhriti. 

Sarama — A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of  Kasyapa  ;  she 
is  said  to  be  the  mother  of  canine  animals.     Vishnu  Puruua,  1 22. 


558  SAR 

Saranu — One  of  the  ministers  of  Ravana,  who  was  sent  with 
Suka  to  spy  out  the  array  of  Rama,  and  obtain  information  of  the 
chief  heroes  and  counsellors.     See  Suka. 

Saranu — One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva,  by  his  wife  Rohini. 

Saranyu — The  daughter  of  TvashtrijWho  was  given  in  marriage 
to  Vivaswat,  the  son  of  Aditi.  Saranyu  became  the  mother  of  the 
two  Asvins.  Dr.  IMuir  quotes  the  following  text :  "  Saranyu,  the 
daughter  of  Tvashtri,  bore  twins  to  Vivaswat.  She  then  substi- 
tuted for  herself  another  female  of  similar  appearance,  and  fled  in 
the  form  of  a  mare.  Vivaswat  in  like  manner,  assumed  the  shape 
of  a  horse  and  followed  her.  From  their  intercourse  sprang  two 
Asvins,  while  Manu  was  the  offspring  of  Savarna  (or  'the  female  of 
like  appearance.')"  Another  text  is  ;  "Tvashtri  had  twin  children, 
Saranyu  and  Trisiras.  He  gave  Saranyu  in  marriage  to  Vivaswat, 
to  whom  she  bore  Yama  and  Yami,  who  were  also  twins.  Creating 
a  female  like  herself  without  her  husband's  knowledge,  and  making 
the  twins  over  in  charge  to  her,  Saranyu  took  the  form  of  a  mare 
and  departed.  Vivaswat,  in  ignorance,  begot,  on  the  female  who 
was  left,  Manu,  a  royal  Rishi,  who  resembled  his  father  in  glory." 
But  discovering  that  the  real  Saranyu  had  gone  away,  he  followed 
her  in  the  shape  of  a  horse,  and  from  their  intercourse  sprang  the 
two  Kumaras  (youths)  Nasatya  and  Dasra,  who  are  lauded  as 
Asvins  (sprung  from  ahorse.) — Miiir,  0.  S.  T,,  Vol.  V, p.  228. 

Sarasvat — A  river  god,  the  consort  of  Sarasvati,  who  rolls 
along  his  fertilizing  waters,  and  is  invoked  by  the  worshippers 
who  are  seeking  for  wives  and  offspring,  as  well  as  for  plenty  and 
protection.— 0.  >S.  T.,  V,  340. 

Sarasvata — l,  A  sage  who  related  the  Vishnu  Purana  to 
Parasara  ;  2,  A  Vyasa  in  the  ninth  Dwapara  age.  In  the  notes 
to  the  Vishnu  Purana,  a  legend  is  given  from  the  Mahabharata  in 
which  it  is  said  "  that  during  a  great  drought  the  Brahmans, 
engrossed  by  the  care  of  subsistence,  neglected  the  study  of  the 
sacred  books,  and  the  Vedas  were  lost.  The  Rishi  Sarasvata  alone, 
being  fed  with  fish  by  his  mother  Sarasvati,  the  personified  river 
so  named,  kept  up  his  studies,  and  preserved  the  Hindu  scriptures. 
At  the  end  of  the  famine  the  Brahmans  repaired   to   him   to  be 


SAR  559 

taught,  and  sixty  thousand  disciples  again  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  the  Vedas  from  Sarasvata.  This  legend  appears  to  indicate  the 
revival,  or  more  probably  the  introduction,  of  the  Hindu  ritual 
by  the  race  of  Brahmans,  or  the  people  called  Sarasvata  ;  for 
according  to  the  Hindu  geographers,  it  was  the  name  of  a  nation, 
as  it  still  is  the  appellation  of  a  class  of  Brahmans  who  chiefly 
inhabit  the  Paujab.  The  Sarasvata  Brahmans  are  met  with  in 
many  parts  of  India,  and  are  usually  fair-complexioned,  tall,  and 
handsome  men.  They  are  classed  in  the  Jati  malas,  or  popular 
lists  of  castes,  amongst  the  five  Gaura  Brahmans,  and  are  divided 
into  ten  tribes  :  they  are  said  also  to  be  especially  the  Purohits  or 
family  priests  of  the  Kshatriya  or  military  castes  :  circumstances 
in  harmony  with  the  purport  of  the  legend,  and  confirmatory  of  the 
Sarasvatas  of  the  Panjab  having  been  prominent  agents  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Hindu  religion  in  India.  The  holy  land  of 
the  Hindus,  or  the  primary  seat,  perhaps,  of  Brahmanism,  has  for 
one  of  its  boundaries  the  Sarasvati  river."     V.  P.,  285. 

Sarasvata — A  dialect  of  Sanscrit  ;  the  term  is  employed  by 
Mr.  Colebrooke  to  designate  that  modification  of  Sanscrit,  which 
is  generally  termed  Prakrit. 

Sarasvatas — A  tribe  of  brahmans,  which  occupied  the  banks 
of  the  river  Sarasvati.     See  above,  under  Sarasvata. 

Sarasvati — The  consort  of  Brahma  and  the  goddess  of  wis- 
dom, knowledge,  science,  art,  learning  and  eloquence,  the  patroness 
of  music  and  inventor  of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  Devanagari 
letters.  '  She  is  represented  as  a  young  female,  of  fair  comj^lexion, 
with  four  arms  and  hands.  In  one  of  the  two  right  hands  she 
holds  a  flower,  which  she  offers  to  her  husband,  by  whose  side  she 
is  continually  standing,  and  in  the  other  a  book  of  palm  leaves, 
indicating  that  she  is  fond  of  learning,  and  imparts  knowledge  to 
those  who  study.  In  one  of  her  two  left  hands  she  holds  a  string 
of  pearls,  called  Sivamala,  which  serve  her  as  a  rosary,  and  in  tho 
other  a  damaru,  or  small  drum.  An  annual  festival  is  celebrated 
in  her  honour.  She  dwells  among  men,  but  her  special  abode  is 
Brahma  loka,  with  Brahma  her  husband.' 

The  name  Sarasvati  means  flowing,  and  is  applied  to  a  celebrated 


560  SAR 

river  as  well  as  to  the  goddess  of  speech.  The  river  rises  in  the 
raouutains  north-east  of  Delhi.  Sarasvati  was  also  the  name  of 
one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to  Dharma. 

"  Sarasvati,  by  the  standard  mythological  authorities,  is  the  wife 
of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  presiding  over  letters  and  arts.  The 
Vaishnavas  of  Bengal  have  a  popular  legend  that  she  was  the 
wife  of  Vishnu,  as  were  also  Lakshmi  and  Ganga.  The  ladies 
disagreed  ;  Sarasvati,  like  the  other  prototype  of  learned  ladies, 
Minerva,  being  something  of  a  termagant,  and  Vishnu,  finding 
that  one  wife  was  as  much  as  even  a  god  could  manage,  transferred 
Sarasvati  to  Brahma,  and  Ganga  to  Siva,  and  contented  himself 
with  Lakshmi  alone.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Sarasvati  is 
represented  as  of  a  white  colour,  without  any  superfluity  of  limbs, 
and  not  unfrequently  of  ^  graceful  figure,  wearing  a  slender 
crescent  on  her  brow,  and  sitting  on  a  lotus." — Wilsorts  Works, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  187-8. 

"  Sarasvati  is  a  goddess  of  some,  though  not  of  very  great 
importance,  in  the  Rig  Veda.  As  observed  by  Yaska,  she  is 
celebrated  both  as  a  river  and  a  deity.  She  was  no  doubt  primarily 
a  river  deity,  as  her  name,  "  the  watery,"  clearly  denotes,  and  in 
this  capacity  she  is  celebrated  in  a  few  separate  passages.  Allusion 
is  made  in  the  hymns  and  in  the  Brahmanas  to  sacrifices  performed 
on  the  banks  of  this  river,  and  the  adjoining  Dhrishdavati  :  and 
the  Sarasvati  in  particular  seems  to  have  been  associated  with  the 
reputation  for  sanctity  which  was  ascribed  to  the  whole  region, 
called  Brahmavartta,  lying  between  those  two  small  streams,  and 
situated  immediately  to  the  westward  of  the  Jumna.  The 
Sarasvati  thus  appears  to  have  been  to  the  early  Indians  what  the 
G  anges  (which  is  only  twice  named  in  the  Rig  Veda)  became  to 
their  descendants.  When  once  the  river  had  acquired  a  divine 
character,  it  was  quite  natural  that  she  should  be  regarded  as  the 
patroness  of  the  ceremonies  which  were  celebrated  on  the  margin 
of  her  holy  waters,  and  that  her  direction  and  blessing  should  be 
invoked  as  essential  to  their  proper  performance  and  success.  The 
connection  into  which  she  was  thus  brought  with  sacred  rites  may 
have  led  to  the  further  step  of  imagining  her  to  have  an  influence 
on  the  composition  of  the  liymns  which  formed  so  important  a  part 


SAR  561 

of  the  proceedings,  aud  of  identifyiug  her  with  V^ch,  the  goddess 
of  speech.  At  least,  I  have  no  other  explanation  to  offer  of  this 
double  character  and  identification. 

Sarasvati  is  frequently  invited  to  the  sacrifices  along  with  other 
goddesses  Ila,  Mahi,  Varutri,  who  however  were  not,  like  her, 
river  nymphs,  but  personifications  of  some  department  of  religious 
worship  or  sacred  science. 

In  many  of  the  passages  where  Sarasvati  is  celebrated,  her 
original  character  is  distinctly  preserved.  Thus  in  two  places  she 
is  mentioned  along  with  rivers,  or  fertilizing  waters.  She  is  spoken 
of  as  having  seven  sisters,  as  one  of  seven  rivers,  aud  as  the 
mother  of  streams.  In  another  place  she  is  said  to  pour  on  her 
fertilizing  waters,  to  surpass  all  other  rivers,  and  to  flow  pure 
from  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  She  is  called  the  best  of  mothers, 
of  rivers,  and  of  goddesses. 

In  the  later  mythology,  as  is  well  known,  Sarasvati  was  identi- 
fied with  Vach,  and  became,  under  diflTerent  names,  the  spouse  of 
Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  eloquence,  and  is  invoked 
as  a  Muse.  In  the  Mahabharata  she  is  called  the  mother  of  the 
Vedas,  and  the  same  is  said  of  Vach  in  the  Taitt.  Br.  In  the 
Santiparva  it  is  related  that  when  the  Brahmarshis  were  perform- 
ing austerities,  prior  to  the  creation  of  the  universe,  "  a  voice 
derived  from  Brahma  entered  into  the  ears  of  them  all  ;  the 
celestial  Sarasvati  was  then  produced  from  the  heavens."—  0.  5.  T., 
V,  337-343. 

SaragU  or  SarjU~A  river,  commonly  identified  with  the 
Deva  ;  but  though  identical  through  great  part  of  their  course,  they 
rise  as  different  streams,  and  again  divide  and  enter  the  Ganges  by 
distinct  branches. 

Sardhawa — Confidence.  One  of  the  Charitas,  or  states  of 
mind,  which  the  Buddhist  priest  is  taught  to  cultivate.  The  priest 
who  has  attained  this  condition  is  known  by  his  being  always 
cheerful  ;  by  the  pleasure  he  has  in  hearing  the  sacred  writings, 
and  by  the  general  excellence  of  his  conduct. 

Sarmajaya — A  prince,  the  son  of  Swaphalka. 

71 


562  SAR 

Sannan — An  appropriate  name  for  a  brahman,  affixed  to  the 
appellation  of  a  god  ;  both  to  be  given  by  the  father  the  tenth  day 
after  the  birth  of  the  child.     Vishnn  Puraua,  297. 

Sarmishta — The  daughter  of  Vrishaparvan,  and  one  of  the 
wives  of  king  Yayati.  She  was  the  mother  of  Puru,  who  gave 
his  youth  to  his  father,  receiving  in  exchange  Yayati's  infirmities. 

Sarpa — The  name  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras  according  to  the 
Vayu  list. 

Sarpi — The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Siva,  whose  place  is  the  air. 

Sam — One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva  by  his  wife  Rohini. 

Sarva — One  of  the  eight  modifications  or  manifestations  of 
Rudra  ;  the  one  whose  station  is  the  earth.     Vishnu  Purana,  58. 

Sarvabhauma — A  prince,  the  son  of  Viduratha,  a  descendant 
of  Kuru. 

Sarvaga — (l,  A  son  of  the  sage  Paurnamasa,  of  the  race  of 
Marichi  ;  2,  one  of  the  Pandava  princes,  the  son  of  Bhima. 

Sarve'svara — One  of  the  names  of  the  Supreme  Being,  meaning 
"The  Lord  of  all."  Ziegeubalg  writes,  "  When  the  Hindus 
speak  of  the  highest  Divine  Being  as  altogether  spiritual  and 
immaterial,  they  talk  quite  reasonably.  They  take  for  unquestionable 
truth  all  that  Christians  believe  of  God's  nature  and  attributes, 
saying  that  there  is  but  one  God,  who  is  purely  spiritual,  iu- 
comprehensible,  eternal,  almighty,  omniscient,  all-wise,  holy,  true, 
just,  gracious,  and  merciful  ;  who  creates,  upholds,  and  governs 
all  ;  who  has  pleasure  in  dwelling  with  mankind  and  making  them 
happy,  both  in  this  world  and  the  world  to  come  ;  wherefore  to 
serve  him  is  happiness.  The  names  they  give  to  this  Divine 
Being  are  altogether  expressive  of  divine  attributes." 

Saryatas — Sons  of  Saryatas,  descendant  of  Raivata,  who  through 
fear  of  the  Rakshasas  took  refuge  in  forests  and  mountains,  and 
afterwards,  according  to  the  legends,  became  renowned  in  all  regions. 

Saryati— 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  the  great  Manu  Vaivaswata  ;  2, 
A  son  of  Nahusha,  according  to  the  list  in  the  Liuga  Purana. 


SAS— SAT  563 

Sasa — A  portion  of  Jambu-chvipa,  reflected  in  the  luuar  orb  as 
in  a  mirror, 

Sasada — The  son  of  Ikshvaku,  who  on  the  death  of  his  father 
sncceeded  to  the  sovereignty  of  Ayodhya,  or  as  the  Vishnu  Puraua 
has  it,  to  tlie  dominion  of  tlie  earth. 

Sasadharman — One  of  the  Manryan  kings,  or  descendants  of 
Ch:indragnpta,  king  of  Magadhii. 

Sasavinda — A  prince,  the  son  of  Chitrarathra  ;  celebrated  as 
the  lord  of  the  fourteen  great  gems  ;  or  articles  the  best  of  their 
kind,  seven  animate  and  seven  inanimate  ;  a  wife,  a  priest,  a 
general,  a  charioteer,  a  liorse,  an  elephant,  and  a  body  of  foot 
soldiers  ;  or  instead  of  the  last  three,  an  excntioner,  an  encomiast, 
a  reader  of  the  vedas  :  and  a  chariot,  an  umbrella,  a  jewel,  a  sword, 
a  shield,  a  banner,  and  a  treasure.  The  Vishnu  Purana  states  that 
he  had  a  hundred  thousand  wives  and  a  million  of  sons  ! 

Sastra-devatas  — Gods  of  the  diviue  weapons  ;  a  hundred  arc 
enumerated  in  the  Ramayaua,  and  they  are  there  termed  the  sous 
of  Kriaswa  by  Jaya  and  Vijaya,  daughters  of  the  Prajapati,  that  is, 
of  Daksha. 

Saswata — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Sruta. 

Satabali— A  distinguished  general  in  the  army  of  the  monkey 
king  Sugriva.. 

Satabhisha — A  lunar  mansion  in  Mrigavithi  in  the  southern 
Avashthana. 

Satadhanu — l,  A  king  in  the  olden  time  celebrated  on  account 
of  the  great  virtue  of  his  wife  Saivya,  under  whose  name  the 
history  of  Satadhanu  will  be  found  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Hridika, 
of  the  Yadava  race. 

SatadrU — "The  hundred  channelled,"  the  river  Sutledj.  It  is 
the  Zardias  of  Ptolemy,  the  Hesidrus  of  Pliny.  Notes  to  Vishnu 
Puraua. 

Satadyumna — l,  One  of  the  ten  sons  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha  ; 
2,  One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Bhanumat. 


5G4  SAT 

Satajit — 1,  Oue  of  the  kings  of  Bharata,  the  sou  of  Raja  ;  2, 
A  sou  of  Sahasrajit  of  the  Yadava  race  ;  3,  One  of  the  sons  of 
Bhajamana. 

Satakarni — The  uame  or  title  of  several  Audhra  priuces. 

Satananda — The  sou  of  Gautama  by  Ahalya.  According  to 
the  Ramayana,  Satanauda  was  the  family  priest  of  Janaka,  the 
father  of  Sita. 

Satanika — l,  Oue  of  the  Pandava  princes,  the  son  of  Nakula  ; 
2,  The  son  of  Janamejaya,  king  of  Bharata  ;  3,  The  sou  of 
Vasudaua,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Satapatha-Brahmana— An  appendix  to  the  White  Yajur  Veda, 
which  describes  a  variety  of  solemn  sacrifices  in  which  the  juice  of 
the  Soma  plant  is  the  chief  ingredient.  It  also  contains  various 
theories  of  creation  and  wild  legends  which  show  that  "  the  old 
Sanskrit  philosophers  found  it  extremely  difficult  to  determine  the 
difference  between  gods  and  men." 

"  Considered  religiously  the  Satapatha-Brahmana  appears  to 
offer  a  thorough  type  of  scepticism.  Man  makes  gods,  god  makes 
a  chief  god,  the  chief  god  (Prajapati)  makes  the  world  and  gods. 
But  the  gods  were  mortal.  Rites  and  austerities  were  invented 
which  insure  immortality.  Death  becomes  alarmed.  Death  is 
promised  that  only  without  the  body  shall  gods  or  men  become 
immortal.  But  after  the  gods  have  become  immortal,  they  are 
unable  to  determine  which  among  them  shall  be  greatest."* 

The  contents  of  the  Satapatha-Brahmana  are  somewhat  hetero- 
geneous, and  amongst  other  curious  stories  there  is  one  relating 
to  the  Deluge,  which  has  been  already  given  under  the  article 
Manu.  •» 

Satarupa — The  female  portion  of  Brahma,  who,  after  detaching 
from  himself  the  property  of  anger,  in  the  form  of  Rudra, 
converted  himself  into  two  persons,  the  first  male,  or  the  Manu 
Sw^yambhuva,  and  the  first  woman,  or  Satarupa  :  Professor 
Wilson  says,  "  The  division  of  Brahma  into  two  halves,  designates, 
as  is  very  evident  fi-om  the  passage  in  the  Vedas  given  by  Mr. 

*  Mrs.  Manning.     A.  and  M.  I. 


SAT  565 

Colebrooke,  the  distinction  of  corporeal  substance  into  two  sexes  ; 
Viraj  being  all  male  animals,  Satarupa,  all  female  animals.  Sata- 
riipa,  the  bride  of  Brahma,  of  Viraj,  or  of  Manu,  is  nothing  more 
than  beings  of  varied  or  manifold  forms,  from  Sata,  '  a  hundred,' 
and  riipa,  '  form'  ;  explained  by  the  annotator  in  the  Hari  Vansa 
by  Anantariipa,  of  iufiuite  shape,  and  Vividharupa,  of  diversified 
shape,  being  as  he  states,  the  same  as  Maya  *  illusion,'  or  the 
power  of  multiform  metamarphosis."     Vishnu  Purana,  53. 

Sata  Sankhyas — A  class  of  deities  in  the  tenth  Manwantara. 

Satavalaka — A  pupil  of  Sakapumi  and  teacher  of  the  Rig 
Veda. 

Satayus — One  of  the  six  sons  of  Pururavas. 

Sati — Truth  ;  one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  and  wife  of 
Bhava.  The  Vishnu  Puraiia  says  she  abandoned  her  corporeal 
existence  in  consequence  of  the  displeasure  of  Daksha  :  and  was 
afterwards  the  daughter  of  Himavan  by  Mena  ;  and  in  that 
character,  as  the  only  Uma,  the  mighty  Bhava  again  married  her. 
Urged  by  her  Maheswara  went  to  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha  ;  the 
different  Puranas  furnish  contradictory  accounts  of  her  share  in 
the  transaction  and  of  the  way  in  which  she  met  her  death. 

Satrughna  — The  youngest  of  the  four  divine  sons  of  Dasaratha, 
king  of  Ayodhya.  Satrughua  killed  the  Rakshasa  chief  Lavana, 
and  took  possession  of  his  capital  Mathura.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Rakshasas  had  been  completed,  Satrughna  re-ascended  to 
heaven  with  his  three  brothers. 

Satrajit — The  son  of  Nighna  and  friend  of  the  divine  Aditya, 
the  Sun.  The  Vishnu  Puraiia  relates  the  following  legend  respect- 
ing him  : — "  On  one  occasion,  Satrajit,  whilst  walking  along  the 
sea-shore,  addressed  his  mind  to  Surya,  and  hymned  his  praises  ; 
on  which,  the  diviuity  appeared  and  stood  before  him.  Beholding 
him  in  an  indistinct  shape,  Satrajit  said  to  the  Sun  :  "I  have 
beheld  thee,  lord,  in  the  heavens,  as  a  globe  of  fire.  Now  do  thou 
show  favour  unto  me,  that  I  may  see  thee  in  thy  proper  form." 
On  this,  the  Sun,  taking  the  jewel  called  Syamantaka  from  off  his 
neck,  placed  it  ai)art ;  and  Satrajit  beheld  him  of  a  dwarfish 
stature,    with  a  body    like   burnished    copppr.    and    with   slightly 


o(j6  sat 

reddish  eyes.  Haviug  offered  bis  adorations,  the  Sun  desired  him 
to  demand  a  boon  ;  and  he  requested  that  the  jewel  might  become 
his.  The  Siui  presented  it  to  him,  and  then  resumed  his  place  in 
the  sky.  Having  obtained  the  spotless  gem  of  gems,  Satrajit 
wore  it  on  his  neck  ;  and,  becoming  as  brilliant,  thereby,  as  the 
Sun  himself,  irradiating  all  the  regions  with  his  splendour,  he 
returned  to  Dwaraka.  The  inhabitants  of  that  city,  beholding 
him  approach,  repaired  to  the  eternal  male,  Purushottama, — who, 
to  sustain  the  burthen  of  the  earth,  had  assumed  a  mortal  form  (as 
Krishna), — and  said  to  him  :  "  Lord,  assuredly  the  (divine)  Sun  is 
coming  to  visit  you."  But  Krishna  smiled,  and  said  :  "  It  is  not 
the  divine  Sun,  but  Satrajit,  to  whom  Aditya  has  presented  the 
Syamantaka  gem  ;  and  he  now  wears  it.  Go  and  behold  him 
without  apprehension."  Accordingly,  they  departed.  Satrajit, 
having  gone  to  his  house,  there  deposited  the  jewel,  which  yielded, 
daily,  eight  loads  of  gold,  and,  through  its  marvellous  virtue, 
dispelled  all  fear  of  portents,  wild  beasts,  fire,  robbers,  and  famine. 

Satrajit  was  ultimately  killed  by  Satadhanwan  in  order  to  obtain 
possession  of  the  jewel. 

Satwata — A  prince  of  the  Yadava  race,  whose  descendants  were 
termed  Satwatas. 

Satya — The  quality  of  goodness,  or  purity,  knowledge, 
quiescence.     An  incarnation  of  Vishnu  in  the  third  Manwantara. 

Satyabhama — The  daughter  of  Satrajit  and  one  of  the  wives 
of  Krishna.  In  consequence  of  some  aspersions  cast  on  the 
character  of  Krishna  relating  to  the  disappearance  of  the 
Syamantaka  gem,  Satrajit  reflected  that  he  had  been  their  cause,  and 
to  conciliate  Krishna  gave  him  to  wife  his  daughter  Satyabhama. 
When  the  jewel  was  recovered,  Balabhadra  claimed  it  as  his 
property  jointly  with  Krishna,  while  Satyabhama  demanded  it 
as  her  right,  as  it  had  originally  belonged  to  her  father.  She 
afterwards  desired  to  possess  the  Parijata  tree,  which  Krishna 
accordingly  removed  from  heaven  to  Dwaraka,  though  strongly 
opposed  by  Indra  and  the  other  gods. 

Satyadhrita — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Push  pa  vat. 
Sataydhriti— ],  One    of   the   kings    of   Mithila,    the   son    of 


SAT  567 

Mahavirya  ;  2,  The  son  of  Saraini  ;  3,  Tlie  son  of  Dhritiraat  ;  4, 
The  sou  of  Satauanda  :  aud  a  proficient  in  military  science.  Being 
enamoured  of  the  nympli  Urvasi,  Satyadhriti  was  the  parent  of  two 
children,  a  l)oy  and  a  girl  ;  who  were  found  exposed  in  a  clump  of 
long  Sara  grass,  by  the  Raja  Santana  whilst  out  hunting. 

Satyadhwaja — A  prince,  the  son  of  ITrjjavaha,  king  of  Mithila. 

Satyahita — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Satyajit — One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Sanhita. 

Satyaka — A  prince,  the  son  of  Siui. 

Satyakarman — One  of  the  kings  of  Anga,  the  son  of  Dhri- 
tavrata. 

SatyaketU — A  king  of  Kasf,  the  son  of  Sukamara,  a  descendant 
of  Alarka. 

Satyaloka — The  world  of  infinite  wisdom  and  truth,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  never  again  know  death.  It  is  said  in  the 
Vishnu  Purana  to  be  situated  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of 
leagues  above  Dhruva. 

Stayanetra — A  sage,  one  of  the  sous  of  Atri,  according  to  the 
series  in  the  Vayu, 

Satyaratha — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  sou  of  Mina- 
ratha. 

Satyarathi — The  sou  and  successor  of  the  above. 

Satyas — A  class   of  deities  in   the  third   Manwantara.     (See 

J  AY  AS.) 

Satyasravas — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Satyavak — One  of  the  noble  sous  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha. 

Satyavan — The  son  of  a  blind  old  king  who  had  been  driven 
from  his  throne  and  was  living  in  the  forest  as  a  hermit,  when 
Savitri,  the  lovely  daughter  of  king  Aswapati  saw  Satyavan  and 
loved  him.  She  was  warned  by  a  seer  to  overcome  her  attach- 
ment as  Satyavdu  was  a  doomed  man  having  only  one  year  to  live. 
But  Savitri  replies  :— 

Whether  his  years  be  few  or  many,  be  he  gifted  with  all  grace 

Or  graceless,  him  my  lieart  hath  chosen,  and  it  chooseth  not  again. 


568  SAT 

They  are  therefore  married  and  the  bride  strives  to  forget  the 
ominous  prophecy  ;  out  as  the  last  day  of  the  year  approaches, 
her  anxiety  becomes  irrepressible.  She  accompanied  her  husband 
to  the  forest  on  the  fatal  morning  with  a  heavy  heart ;  while  he 
w^as  cutting  wood  a  thrill  of  agony  suddenly  shot  through  his 
temples,  and  he  called  out  to  his  wife  to  support  him — 

Then  she  received  her  fainting  husband  in  her  arms,  and  sate  herself 
On  the  cold  ground,  and  gently  laid  his  drooping  head  upon  her  lap  ; 
Sorrowing  she  called  to  mind  the  sage's  prophecy,  and  reckoned  up 
The  days  and  hours.     All  in  an  instant  she  beheld  an  awful  shape 
Standing  before  her,  dressed  in  blood-red  garments,  with  a  glittering  crown 
Upon  his  head  :  his  form,  though  glowing  like  the  sun,  was  yet  obscure, 
And  eyes  he  had  like  flames,  a  noose  depended  from  his  hand,  and  he 
Was  terrible  to  look  upon,  as  by  her  husband's  side  he  stood 
And  gazed  upon  him  with  a  fiery  glance.     Shuddering  she  started  up 
And  laid  her  dying  Satyavan  upon  the  ground,  and  with  her  hands 
Joined  reverently,  she  thus  with  beating  heart  addressed  the  shape  ; 
Surely  thou  art  a  god,  such  form  as  thine  must  more  than  mortal  be. 
Tell  me,  thou  god-like  being,  who  thou  art,  and  wherefore  thou  art  here  ? 

The  figure  replies  that  he  is  Yama,  king  of  death  ;  that  her 
husband's  time  has  come,  and  that  he  must  bind  and  take  his  spirit. 

Then  from  her  husband's  body  forced  he  out  and  firmly  with  his  cord 
Bound  and  detained  the  spirit,  like  in  size  and  length  to  a  man's  thumb. 
Forthwith  the  body,  reft  of  vital  being,  and  deprived  of  breath. 
Lost  all  its  grace  and  beauty,  and  became  ghastly  and  motionless. 

After  binding  the  spirit,  Yama  proceeds  with  it  towards  his  own 
quarter,  the  South.  The  faithful  wife  follows  him  closely.  Yama 
bids  her  go  home  and  prepare  her  husband's  funeral  rites  ;  but  she 
persists  in  following,  till  Yama,  pleased  with  her  devotion,  grants 
her  any  boon  she  pleases  except  the  life  of  her  husband.  She 
chooses  that  her  husband's  father,  who  is  blind,  may  recover  his 
sight.  Yama  consents,  and  bids  her  now  return  home.  Still  she 
persists  in  following.  At  last,  overcome  by  her  constancy,  Yama 
grants  a  boon  without  exception.  The  delighted  Savitri  exclaims — 

'  Nought,  mighty  king,  this  time  hast  thou  excepted  ;  let  my  husband  live  ; 
Without  him  I  desire  not  happiness,  nor  even  heaven  itself  : 
Without  him  I  must  die.'    '  So  be  it,  faithful  wife,'  replied  the  king  of  death, 

'  Thus  I  release  him  ;  and  with  that  he  loosed  the  cord  that  bound  his  soul.  '* 

— See  Savitri. 

Satyavati — The  daughter  of  king  Gadhi,  who  was  demanded 

*  William's  Indian  Epic  Poetry,  pp.  37 — 39. 


SAT  569 

in  marriage  by  an  elderly  brahmin  name  Richika.  The  king 
would  only  consent  to  give  his  daughter  ou  the  condition  that  the 
sage  should  give  him  as  the  nuptial  present,  a  thousand  fleet 
horses  whcso  colour  should  be  white  with  one  black  ear.  Richika, 
having  propitiated  Varuna,  the  god  of  the  ocean,  obtained  from 
him,  at  (the  holy  place  called)  Aswatirtha,  a  thousand  such  steeds, 
and,  giving  them  to  the  king,  espoused  his- daughter. 

In  order  to  effect  the  l)irth  of  a  sou,  Richika  prepared  a  dish  of 
rice,  barley,  and  pulse,  with  butter  and  milk,  for  his  wife  to  eat  ; 
and,  at  her  request,  he  consecrated  a  similar  mixture  for  her 
mother,  by  partaking  of  which,  she  should  give  birth  to  a  prince 
of  martial  prowess.  Leaving  both  dishes  with  his  wile, — after 
describing,  particularly,  which  was  intended  for  Iier,  and  which  for 
her  mother, — the  sage  went  forth  to  the  forests.  When  the  time 
arrived  for  the  food  to  be  eaten,  the  queen  said  to  Satyavati  : 
"  Daughter,  all  persons  wish  their  children  to  be  possessed  of 
excellent  qualities,  and  would  be  mor^fied  to  see  them  surpassed 
by  the  merits  of  their  mother's  brother.  It  will  be  desirable  for 
you,  therefore,  to  give  me  the  mess  your  husband  has  set  apart  for 
you,  and  to  eat  of  that  intended  for  me  ;  for  the  sou  which  it  is  to 
procure  me  is  destined  to  be  the  monarch  of  the  whole  world, 
whilst  that  which  your  dish  would  give  you  must  be  a  brahman, 
alike  devoid  of  affluence,  valour,  and  power,"  Satyavati  agreed 
to  her  mother's  proposal  ;  and  they  exchanged  messes. 

When  Richika  returned  home,  and  beheld  Satyavati,  he  said  to 
her  :  "  Sinful  woman,  what  hast  thou  done  ?  I  view  thy  body  of 
a  fearful  appearance.  Of  a  surety,  thou  hast  eaten  the  consecrated 
food  which  was  prepared  for  thy  mother  :  thou  hast  done  wrong.  In 
that  food  I  had  infused  the  properties  of  power,  and  strength,  and 
heroism  ;  in  thine,  the  qualities  suited  to  a  brahman, — gentleness, 
knowledge,  and  resignation.  In  consequence  of  haviug  reversed 
my  plans,  thy  son  shall  follow  a  warrior's  j)ropensities,  and  use 
weapons,  and  fight,  and  slay.  Thy  mother's  sou  shall  be  born 
with  the  inclinations  of  a  brahman,  and  be  addicted  to  peace  and 
piety."  Satyavati,  hearing  this,  fell  at  her  husband's  feet,  and 
said  :  "  My  lord,  I  have  done  this  thing  through  ignorance.  Have 
compassion   on  mc  ;  let   mc  not   have  a   sou   such  as   thou   hast 


570  SAT 

foretold.  If  such  there  must  be,  let  it  be  my  grandson,  not  my 
sou."  The  Muni,  relenting  at  her  distress,  replied  :  "  So  let  it 
be."  Accordingly,  in  due  season,  she  gave  birth  to  Jamadagni  ; 
and  her  mother  brought  forth  Visvamitra.  Satyavati  afterwards 
became  the  Kausiki  river.     V.  P. 

Satyavrata — A  king  of  Ayodhya,  the  seventh  in  descent  from 
Ikslivaku,  who  obtained  the  appellation  of  Trisanku,  and  was 
degraded  to  the  condition  of  a  Chandala  or  outcaste.  The  Vishnu 
Purana  states  that  :  "  During  a  twelve  years'  famine,  Trisanku 
provided  the  flesh  of  deer,  for  the  nourishment  of  the  wife  and 
children  of  Visvamitra  ;  suspending  it  upon  a  (spreading)  fig-tree 
on  the  borders  of  the  Ganges,  that  he  might  not  subject  them  to 
the  indignity  of  receiving  presents  from  an  outcaste.  On  this 
account,  Visvamitra,  being  highly  pleased  with  him,  elevated  him, 
in  his  living  body,  to  heaven. 

In  a  Note,  Professor  Wilson  remarks,  "  The  occurrence  of  the 
famine,  and  Satyavrata's  care  of  the  wife  and  family  of  Visvamitra, 
are  told,  with  some  variations,  in  the  Vayu,  which  has  been 
followed  by  the  Brahma  and  Hari  Vamsa.  During  the  famine, 
when  game  fails,  he  kills  the  cow  of  A^asishtha  ;  and,  for  the 
three  crimes  of  displeasing  his  father,  killing  a  cow,  and  eating 
flesh  not  previously  consecrated,  he  acquires  the  name  of  Trisanku 
(tri,  '  three,"  sanku,  '  sin.')  Vasishtha  refusing  to  perform  his 
regal  inauguration,  Visvamitra  celebrates  the  rites,  and,  on  his 
death,  elevates  the  king,  in  his  mortal  body,  to  heaven.  The 
Ramayana  relates  the  same  circumstance,  but  assigns  to  it  a 
different  motive, — Visvamitra's  resentment  of  the  refusal  of  the 
gods  to  attend  Trisanku's  sacrifice.  That  work  also  describes  the 
attempt  of  the  gods  to  cast  the  king  down  upon  earth,  and  the 
compromise  between  them  and  Visvamitra,  by  which  Trisanku 
was  left  euspeuded,  head  downwards,  in  mid-air,  forming  a  constel- 
lation in  the  southern  hemisphere,  along  with  other  new  planets 
and  stars  formed  by  Visvamitra.  The  Bhagavata  has  no  allusion 
to  this  legend,  saying  that  Trisanku  is  still  visible  in  heaven.  The 
Vayu  furnishes  some  further  information  from  an  older  source  : 
Both  my  copies  have  a  blank,  where  it  is  marked  ;  and  a  similar 
passage  does  not  elsewhere  occur  :  bnt  the  word   should  probably 


SAT— SAU  571 


be  7usha,  and  the  whole  may  be  thus  rendered  :  '^  Men  acquainted 
with  the  Purauas  recite  those  two  stanzas  :  *By  the  favour  of  Yisva- 
mitra,  the  illustrious  Trisaukn  shines  in  heaven,  along  with  the 
gods,  through  the  kindness  of  that  sage.  Slowly  passes  the  lovely 
night  in  winter,  embellished  by  the  moon,  decorated  with  three 
watches,  and  ornamented  with  the  constellation  Trisanku.'"  This 
legend  is,  therefore,  clearly  astronomical,  and  alludes,  possibly,  to 
some  reformation  of  the  sphere  by  Visvaraitra,  under  the  patronage 
of  Trisanku,  and  in  opposition  to  a  more  ancient  system  advocated 
by  the  school  of  Vasishtha.  It  might  be  no  very  rash  conjecture, 
perhaps,  to  identify  Trisanku  with  Orion,  the  three  bright  stars  of 
whose  belt  may  have  suggf'^ted  the  three  Sankus  (stakes  or  pins) 
which  form  his  name. 

"  The  seven  ancient  rishis  or  saints,  as  has  been  said  before,  were 
the  seven  stars  of  Ursa  Vajor.  The  seven  other  new  saints  which 
are  here  said  to  have  been  created  by  Visvamitra,  should  be  seven 
new  southern  stars,  a  sort  of  new  Ursa.  Von  Schlegel  thinks  that 
this  mythical  fiction  of  new  stars  created  by  Visvamitra  may 
signify  that  these  southern  stars,  unknown  to  the  Indians  as  long 
as  they  remained  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Ganges,  became 
known  to  them  at  a  later  date  when  they  colonised  the  southern 
regions  of  India." — Gorresio. 

Satyayajna — The  observance  of  truth  ;  one  of  the  great  obli- 
gations of  brahmans. 

Saubhari — A  devout  sage,  learned  in  the  Vedas,  of  whom  the 
following  extraordinary  legend  is  narrated.  He  spent  twelve 
years  immersed  in  a  lake,  the  sovereign  of  the  fish  in  which,  named 
Sammada,  had  a  very  numerous  progeny.  His  children  and  his 
grandchildren  were  wont  to  frolic  around  him,  in  all  directions  ;  and 
he  lived  amongst  them  happily,  playing  with  them  night  and  day. 
Saubhari,  the  sage,  being  disturbed,  in  his  devotions,  by  their  sports, 
contemplated  the  patriarchal  felicity  of  the  monarch  of  the  lake,  and 
reflected  :  "  How  enviable  is  this  creature,  who,  although  born  in  a 
degraded  state  of  being,  is  ever  thus  sporting  cheerfully  amongst 
his  otFspringand  their  young  !  Of  a  truth,  he  awakens,  in  my  mind, 
the  wish  to  taste  such  pleasure  ;  and  I,  also,  will  make  merry  araid.^t 


572  SAU 

my  children."  Having  thus  resolved,  the  Muni  came  up,  hastily, 
from  the  water,  and,  desirous  of  entering  upon  the  condition  of  a 
householder,  went  to  Mandhatri,  to  demand  one  of  his  daughters 
as  his  wife.  As  soon  as  he  was  informed  of  the  arrival  of  the 
sage,  the  king  rose  up  from  his  throne,  offered  him  the  customary 
libation,  and  treated  him  with  the  most  profound  respect.  Having 
taken  a  seat,  Saubhari  said  to  the  Raja  :  "  I  have  determined  to 
marry.  Do  you,  king,  give  me  one  of  your  daughters,  as  a  wife  ? 
Disappoint  not  my  affection.  It  is  not  the  practice  of  the  princes 
of  the  race  of  Kakutstha  to  turn  away  from  compliance  with  the 
wishes  of  those  Avho  come  to  them  for  succour.  There  are,  O 
monarch,  o  Jier  kings  of  the  earth  to  whom  daughters  have  been 
born  ;  but  your  family  is,  above  all,  renowned  for  observance  of 
liberulity  in  your  douations  to  those  who  ask  your  bounty.  You 
have,  0  prince,  fifty  daughters.  Give  one  of  them  to  me  ;  that 
so  I  may  be  relieved  from  the  anxiety  I  suffer  through  fear  that 
my  suit  may  be  denied." 

When  Maudhatri  heard  this  request,  and  looked  upon  the  person 
of  the  sage,  emaciated  by  (austerity  and)  old  age,  he  felt  dis- 
posed to  refuse  his  consent :  but,  dreading  to  incur  the  auger  and 
imprecation  of  the  holy  man,  he  was  much  perplexed,  and, 
declining  his  head,  was  lost  awhile  in  thought.  The  Rishi, 
observing  his  hesitation,  said  :  "  On  what,  0  Raja,  do  you  medi- 
tate ?  I  have  asked  for  nothing  which  may  not  be  readily  accorded. 
And  what  is  there  that  shall  be  unattainable  to  you,  if  my  desires 
be  gratified  by  the  damsel  whom  you  must  needs  give  unto  me  ?" 
To  this,  the  king,  apprehensive  of  his  displeasure,  answered  and 
said  :  "  Grave  sir,  it  is  the  established  usage  of  our  house  to  wed 
our  daughters  to  such  persons  only  as  they  shall,  themselves,  select 
from  suitors  of  fitting  rank  ;  and,  since  this  your  request  is  not 
yet  made  known  to  my  maidens,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
it  may  be  equally  agreeably  to  them  as  it  is  to  me.  This  is  the 
occasion  of  my  perplexity  ;  and  I  am  at  a  loss  what  to  do."  This 
answer  of  the  king  was  fully  understood  by  the  Rishi,  who  said  to 
himself  :  "  This  is  merely  a  device  of  the  Raja,  to  evade  com- 
pliance with  my  suit.  He  has  reflected  that  I  am  an  old  man, 
having  no  attractions  for  women,  and  not  likely  to  be  accepted  by 


SAU  573 

any  of  his  daughters.  Even  be  it  so  :  I  will  be  a  match  for  him." 
And  he  then  spake  aloud,  and  said  :  "  Since  such  is  the  custom, 
mighty  prince,  give  orders  that  I  be  admitted  into  the  interior  of 
the  palace.  Should  any  of  the  maidens,  your  daughters,  be 
-willing  to  take  me  for  a  bridegroom,  I  will  have  her  for  my  bride. 
If  no  one  be  willing,  then  let  the  blame  attach  alone  to  the  years 
that  I  have  numbered."     Having  thus  spoken,  he  was  silent. 

Mandhatri,  unwilling  to  jDrovoke  the  indignation  of  the  Muui, 
was  accordingly,  obliged  to  command  the  eunuch  to  lead  the  sage 
into  the  inner  chambers  ;  who,  as  he  entered  the  apartments, 
put  on  a  form  and  features  of  beauty  far  exceeding  the  personal 
charms  of  mortals,  or  even  of  heavenly  spirits.  His  conduc- 
tor, addressing  the  princesses,  said  to  them  :  "  Your  father, 
young  ladies,  sends  you  this  pious  sage,  who  has  demanded  of 
him  a  bride  ;  and  the  Raja  has  promised  him,  that  he  will  not 
refuse  him  any  one  of  you  who  shall  choose  him  for  her  husband." 
When  the  damsels  heard  this,  and  looked  upon  the  person  of  the 
Rishi,  they  were  equally  inspired  Avith  passion  and  desire,  and, 
like  a  troop  of  female  elephants  disputing  the  favours  of  the 
master  of  the  herd,  they  all  contended  for  the  choice.  "  Away, 
away,  sister  !"  said  each  to  the  other  :  "this  is  my  election  ;  he 
is  my  choice  ;  he  is  not  a  meet  bridgeroom  for  you  ;  he  has  been 
created,  by  Brahma,  on  purpose  for  me,  as  I  have  been  created  in 
order  to  become  his  wife  ;  he  has  been  chosen,  by  me,  before  you  ; 
you  have  no  right  to  prevent  his  becoming  my  husband."  In  this 
way  arose  a  violent  quarrel  amongst  the  daughters  of  the  king, 
each  insisting  upon  the  exclusive  election  of  the  Rishi  ;  and,  as 
the  blameless  sage  was  thus  contended  for  by  the  rival  princesses, 
the  superintendent  of  the  inner  apartments,  with  a  downcast  look, 
reported  to  the  king  what  had  occurred.  Perplexed,  more  than 
ever,  by  this  information,  the  Raja  exclaimed  :  "  What  is  all  this  ? 
And  what  am  I  to  do  now  ?  What  is  it  that  I  have  said  ?  And,  at 
last,  although  with  extreme  reluctance,  he  was  obliged  to  agree  that 
the  Rishi  should  marry  all  his  daughters. 

Having  then  wedded,  agreeably  to  law,  ail  the  princesses,  the 
sage  took  them  home  to  his  habitation,  where  he  employed  the 
chief  of  architects,   Visvakarman,— equal,  in   taste  and  skill,    to 


574  SAU 

Erahma  himself, — to  construct  separate  palaces  for  each  of  his 
wives :  he  ordered  him  to  provide  each  building  v^ith  elegant 
couches,  and  seats,  and  furniture,  and  to  attach  to  them  gardens 
and  groves,  with  reservoirs  of  water,  where  the  Avild-duck  and  the 
swan  should  sport  amidst  beds  of  lotus  flowers.  The  divine  artist 
obeyed  his  injunctions,  and  constructed  splendid  apartments  for  the 
wives  of  the  Rishi  ;  in  which,  by  command  of  Saubhari,  the 
inexhaustible  and  divine  treasure  called  Nanda  took  up  his 
permanent  abode  ;  and  the  princesses  entertained  all  their  guests 
and  dependants  with  abundant  viands  of  every  description  and 
the  choicest  quality. 

After  some  period  had  elapsed,  the  heart  of  king  Mandhatri 
yearned  for  his  daughters  ;  and  he  felt  solicitous  to  know  whether 
tliey  were  happily  circumstanced.  Setting  off,  therefore,  on  a 
visit  to  the  hermitage  of  Saubhari,  he  beheld,  upon  his  arrival,  a 
row  of  beautiful  crystal  palaces,  shining  as  brilliantly  as  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  and  situated  amidst  lovely  gardens  and  reservoirs  of 
pellucid  water.  Entering  into  one  of  these  magnificent  palaces,  he 
found  and  embraced  a  daughter,  and  said  to  her,  as  the  tears  of 
affection  and  delight  trembled  in  his  eyes  :  "  Dear  child,  tell  me 
how  it  is  with  you.  Are  you  happy  here,  or  not  ?  Does  the  great 
sage  treat  you  with  tenderness  ?  Or  do  you  revert,  with  regret,  to 
your  early  home  ?"  The  princess  replied  :  "  You  behold,  my  father, 
how  delightful  a  mansion  I  inhabit, — surrounded  by  lovely  gardens 
and  lakes,  where  the  lotus  blooms,  and  the  wild  swans  murmur. 
Here  I  have  delicious  viands,  fragrant  unguents,  costly  ornaments, 
splendid  raiment,  soft  beds,  and  every  enjoyment  that  affluence  can 
procure.  Why,  then,  should  I  call  to  memory  the  place  of  my 
birth  ?  To  your  favour  am  I  indebted  for  all  that  I  possess.  I 
have  only  one  cause  of  anxiety,  which  is  this  :  my  husband  is  never 
absent  from  my  dwelling  ;  solely  attached  to  me,  he  is  always  at 
my  side  ;  he  never  goes  near  my  sisters  ;  and  I  am  concerned  to 
think  that  they  must  feel  mortified  by  his  neglect  :  this  is  the  only 
circumstance  that  gives  me  uneasine.-s." 

Proceeding  to  visit  another  of  his  daughters,  the  king,  after 
embracing  her,  and  sitting  down,  made  the  same  enquiry,  and 
received  the  same  account  of  the  enjoyments  with  which  the  prmcess 


8AU  575 

was  provided.  There  was,  also  the  same  complaint,  that  the  Rishi 
was  wholly  devoted  to  her,  and  paid  no  attention  to  her  sisters.  In 
every  palace,  Mandhatri  heard  the  same  story,  from  each  of  liis 
daughters,  in  reply  to  his  questions  ;  and,  with  a  heart  overflowing 
with  wonder  and  delight,  he  repaired  to  the  wise  Saubhari,  whom 
he  found  alone,  and  after  paying  homage  to  him,  thus  addressed 
him  :  "  Holy  sage,  I  have  witnessed  this  thy  marvellous  power. 
The  like  miraculous  faculties  I  have  never  known  any  other  to 
possess.  IIow  great  is  the  reward  of  thy  devout  austerities  !" 
Having  thus  saluted  the  sage,  and  been  received  by  him,  with 
respect,  the  Eaja  resided  with  him  for  some  time,  partaking  of  the 
pleasures  of  the  place,  and  then  returned  to  his  capital. 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  daughters  of  Mandhatri  bore  to 
Saubhari  a  hundred  and  fifty  sons  ;  and,  day  by  day,  his  affection 
for  his  children  became  more  intense,  and  his  heart  was  wholly 
occupied  Avith  the  sentiment  of  self.  "  These  my  sons,"  he  loved  to 
think,  "  will  charm  me  with  their  infant  prattle  ;  then  they  will 
learn  to  walk  ;  they  will,  then,  grow  up  to  youth,  and  to  manhood  ; 
I  shall  see  them  married,  and  they  will  have  children  ;  and  I  may 
behold  the  children  of  those  children."  By  these  and  similar  reflec- 
tions, however,  he  perceived  that  his  anticipations  every  day  out- 
stripped the  course  of  time  ;  and,  at  last,  he  exclaimed  :  "  What 
exceeding  folly  is  mine  !  There  is  no  end  to  my  desires.  Though 
all  1  hope  should  come  to  pass  for  ten  thousand  or  a  hundred 
thousand  years,  still  new  wishes  would  spring  up.  When  I  have 
seen  my  infants  walk  ;  when  I  have  beheld  their  youth,  their 
manhood,  their  marriage,  their  progeny  ;  still  my  expectations  are 
unsatisfied,  and  my  soul  yearns  to  behold  the  descendants  of  their 
descendants.  Shall  I  even  see  them,  some  other  wish  will  be 
engendered  ;  and,  when  that  is  accomplished,  how  is  the  birth  of 
fresh  desires  to  be  prevented  ?  I  have  at  last,  discovered,  that  there 
is  no  end  to  hope,  until  it  terminates  in  death  ;  and  that  the  mind 
which  is  perpetually  engrossed  by  expectation  can  never  be  attached 
to  the  supreme  spirit.  My  mental  devotions,  whilst  immersed  in 
water,  were  interrupted  by  attachment  to  my  friend  the  fish.  The 
result  of  that  connexion  was  my  marriage  ;  and  insatiable  desires 
are  the   consequences  of  ray  married    life.     The    pain  attendant 


576  SAU 

upon  the  birth  of  my  single  body  is  now  augmented  by  the  cares 
attached  to  fifty  others,  and  is  further  multiplied  by  the  numerous 
children  whom  the  princesses  have  borne  to  me.  The  sources  of 
affliction  will  be  repeatedly  renewed  by  their  children,  and  by  their 
espousals,  and  by  their  progeny,  and  will  be  infinitely  increased  : 
a  married  life  is  a  mine  of  individual  anxiety.  My  devotions, 
first  disturbed  by  the  fish  of  the  pool,  have  since  been  obstructed 
by  temporal  indulgence  ;  and  I  have  been  beguiled  l)y  that  desire 
for  progeny  which  was  communicated  to  me  by  association  with 
Sammada.  Separation  from  the  world  is  the  only  path  of  the  sage 
to  final  liberation  :  from  commerce  with  mankind  innumerable  errors 
proceed.  The  ascetic  who  has  accomplished  a  course  of  self-denial 
falls  from  perfection,  by  contracting  worldly  attachments.  How 
much  more  likely  should  one  so  fall,  whose  observances  are  incom- 
plete I  My  intellect  has  been  a  prey  to  the  desire  of  married  hap- 
piness :  but  I  will,  now,  so  exert  myself,  for  the  salvation  of  my  soul, 
that  exempt  from  human  imperfections,  1  may  be  exonerated  from 
human  sufferings.  To  that  end,  I  will  propitiate,  by  arduous 
penance,  Vishnu,  the  creator  of  the  universe,  whose  form  is 
inscrutable,  who  is  smaller  than  the  smallest,  larger  than  the 
largest,  the  source  of  darkness  and  of  light,  the  sovereign  god  of 
gods.  On  his  everlasting  body,  which  is  both  discrete  and 
indiscrete  substance,  illiraitably  mighty,  and  identical  with  the 
universe,  may  my  mind,  wholly  free  from  sin,  be  ever  steadily 
intent,  so  that  I  may  be  born  no  more  !  To  him  I  fly  for  refuge  ; 
to  that  Vishnu  who  is  the  teacher  of  teachers,  who  is  one  with 
all  beings,  the  pure  eternal  lord  of  all,  without  beginning,  middle, 
or  end,  and  besides  whom  is  nothing."     V.  P. 

Saudasa — A  prince,  the  son  of  Sudasa  ;  named  also  Mitrasaha, 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  the  legend  of  his  life. 

Sauniitri — A  teacher  of  the  Sama  Veda. 

Saumya — A  division  of  the  Varsha  of  Bharata. 

Saunahotra — A  Rishi,  the  sou  of  Suuahotra.  On  one  occasion 
Indra  himself  went  to  a  sacrifice  of  the  Rishi  in  order  to  please 
him.  The  great  A^-uras,  thinking  that  Indra  was  above,  and 
wishing  to  take  him,  surrounded  the  sacrificial  enclosure.     Indra. 


SAU— SAV  577 


however,  perceived  it,  and  taking  the  guise  of  the  Rishi,  he  went 
away.  The  Asuras,  treeing  the  sacrificer  again,  seized  Saunahotra, 
taking  him  for  Indra.  He  pointed  out  Tndra  to  tliem  and  was 
released  by  the  Asuras. — A.  S.  L.,  23} . 

Saunaka—l,  A  teacher  of  the  Atharva  Veda  ;  2,  The  sou  of 
Ghritsamada  according  to  the  Vishnu  Purana,  but  Professor 
Wilson  remarks  that  this  is  probably  an  erroi",  as  several  other 
Puranas  agree  in  making  him  the  son  of  Sunaka.  It  was  Saunaka 
who  established  the  distinctions  of  the  four  castes.  See  A.  S.  L., 
232-36. 

Saurashtras— The  people  of  Surat ;  the  Surastrene  of  Ptolemy. 

Sauvirai — The  nations  of  Sindh,  and  Western  Raj pu tana. 

Savala — One  of  the  sons  of  Priyavrata,  who  was  nominated  by 
his  father  to  be  the  monarch  of  the  Dwipa  of  Pushkara. 

Savalaswas — Daksha,  at  the  command  of  Brahma,  is  said  to 
have  created  various  living  creatures.  His  first  four  thousand  sons, 
termed  Haryaswas,  were  dissuaded  by  Narada  from  propagating 
offspring,  and  dispersed  themselves  throughout  the  universe. 
Daksha  then  created  a  thousand  other  sons,  named  Savalaswas, 
Avho  were  desirous  of  engendering  posterity,  but  were  dissuaded 
by  Narada,  in  a  similar  manner.  They  said  to  one  another  "  what 
the  sage  has  observed  is  perfectly  just."  We  must  follow  the  path 
that  our  brothers  have  travelled,  and  when  we  have  ascertained  the 
extent  of  the  universe,  we  will  multiply  our  race.  Accordingly 
they  scattered  themselves  through  the  regions,  and,  like  rivers 
flowing  into  the  sea,  they  returned  not  again. 

Savana— One  of  the  seven  sons  of  the  Muni  Vasishtha. 

Savarna — l,  The  daughter  of  the  ocean  who  was  married  to 
king  Prachinaverhis,  to  whom  she  had  been  previously  betrothed. 
She  was  the  mother  of  the  Prachetasas,  q.  v.  ;  2,  The  "  female  of 
like  appearance"  who  was  substituted  by  Saranyu,  when  she  fled 
from  Vivaswat.  Savarna  became  the  mother  ofManu.  —  0.  S.  7\, 
Vol.  r,  p.  228. 

Savarni — A  Manu,  the  son  of  the  sun  by  his  maid  Chhaya. 
He  is  to  be  the  Manu  of  the  eighth  Mauwautara. 

73 


578  SAV 

Savibhasa — One  of  the  seven  suns  into  which  the  solar  rays 
dilate  at  the  end  of  the  day  of  Brahma  when  the  world  is  destroyed. 
Savitri — "  A  king,  named  Aswapati.  sighed  for  offspring,  and 
after  praying  in  vain  for  eighteen  years,  the  gods  of  heaven  sent 
him  a  daughter,  who  grew  up  so  "  bright  in  her  beauty,"  that  she 
appeared  like  a  child  of  the  Immortals  ;  and  the  princes  around 
were  so  dazzled,  that  none  dared  to  ask  for  her  as  a  bride. 
"  So  passing  fair  the  young  Savitri  grew 
That  all  adored  her  but  none  thought  to  woo. 
JS'o  lovelier  nymph  e'er  left  her  native  skies 
To  dazzle  mortals  Avith  her  heavenly  eyes  ; 
And  how  might  e'en  the  proudest  chieftain  dare, 
To  woo  a  Princess  so  divinely  fair." 
This  distressed  her  father,  and  he  said  that  she  must  go  now  and 
make  choice  herself. 

"  Meekly  bowed  the  modest  maiden,  with  her  eyes  upon  the  ground. 
And  departed,  as  he  bade  her,  with  attendants  troop'd  around. 
Many  a  hermitage  she  travers'd,  riding  in  a  gold-bright  car  ; 
Many  a  wilderness  and  forest,  holy  places  near  and  far." 

"  When  she  came  back  she  told  of  a  blind  old  king,  driven  from 
his  throne  by  a  ruthless  kinsman,  living  with  his  beloved  wife  in  a 
grove  ;  and  his  brave  son,  Satyavan,  her  heart  has  chosen. 
"  Satyavan,"  she  says,  "  has  all  my  love." 

At  this  announcement  a  Rishi,  who  happened  to  be  present, 
exclaims,  in  distress,  that  she  would  choose  care  and  grief,  in 
choosing  Satyavan.     He  is 

"  Learned  as  the  gods'  own  teacher,— glorious  as  the  sun  is  he  ; 
With  the  earth's  untiring  patience,  and  great  Indra's  bravery." 

He  is  noble, 

"  True,  and  great  of  soul, 
Bountiful  is  he,  and  modest,— every  sense  does  he  controul. 
Gentle,  brave,  aU  creatures  love  him,— keeping  in  the  righteous  way, 
Kumber'd  with  the  holy  hermits, —pure  and  virtuous  as  they." 

But  alas  !  in  a  year,  counting  from  this  day,  "  Satyavan  will 
die."  On  hearing  this,  the  king  considers  a  marriage  out  of  the 
question,  and  says  :  "  Go,  then,  my  dearest  child,  and  choose 
again."     But  his  daughter  replies  : 

"  Be  he  virtuous  or  worthless,— many  be  his  days,  or  few,— 
Once  for  all  I  choose  my  husband  :  to  that  choice  will  I  be  true," 


SAY  579 

The  sage  and  her  father  ^Ive  way  to  her  decided  wishes  :  and  in 
due  time  the  young  couple  are  married,  and  live  in  great  happiness 
with  the  hermits  in  the  grove.  Savitri,  the  bride,  put  aside  her 
jewels,  and  wore  the  coarse  raiment  usually  adopted  by  hermits  ; 
and,  by  her  meekness  and  affection,  won  the  hearts  of  all  with 
whom  she  dwelt. 

"  Sadly,  sadly  as  she  counted,  day  by  day  flew  swiftly  by. 
And  the  fated  time  came  nearer  when  her  Satyavan  must  die. 
Yet  three  days  and  he  must  perish,  sadly  thought  the  loving  wife. 
And  she  vowed  to  fast,  unresting,  for  his  last  three  days  of  life. " 

Her  husband's  father  feared  that  the  trial  would  be  too  great  for 
her,  but  she  answered  :  ''  Firm  resolve  has  made  me  vow  it  ;  firm 
resolve  will  give  me  strength,"  She  kept  her  vow,  and  maintained 
her  fast  ;  and  when  the  third  day  dawned,  and  the  fire  of  worship 
was  kindled,  and  the  morning  rites  performed,  she  reverently 
saluted  the  aged  Brahmans  and  her  husband's  honoured  parents, 
but  still  refused  food.  Presently,  her  husband  takes  his  axe  upon 
his  shoulder  to  perform  his  daily  task  of  felling  trees.  She  begs 
him  to  let  her  go  also  ;  he  replies  : 

"  All  unknown  to  thee  the  forest ;  rough  the  part  and  weary  thou  : 
How,  then,  will  thy  feet  support  thee,  fainting  from  thy  fasting  vow  ?" 

"  Nay,  I  sink  not  from  my  fasting,  and  no  weakness  feel  to-day  ; 
I  have  set  my  heart  on  going  :  oh  !  forbid  me  not,  I  pray  !" 

Savitri  has  always  kept  her  sad  secret  from  her  husband  ;  and 
he  has,  therefore,  no  idea  of  her  real  reason  for  wishing  to 
accompany  him.  He,  however,  consents,  and  calls  her  attention  to 
the  lovely  woods,  stately  peacocks,  and  flowers  of  brilliant  hue  ; 
but  she  can  look  only  upon  him,  and  mourn  for  him  as  one  about  to 
die.  She  gathers  cooling  fruits,  and  he  makes  the  woods  resound 
with  the  strokes  of  his  hatchet.     But,  soon  a  thrilling  agony  shoots 

through  his  temple She  sits  down  upon  the  ground,  and  he 

rests  his  head  upon  her  breast,  and  sleeps.     But, — 

"  Sudden,  lo  !  before  Savitri  stood  a  great  and  awful  One  ; 
Eed  as  blood  was  his  apparel,  bright  and  glo-vving  as  the  sun. 
In  his  hand  a  noose  was  hanging  ;  he  to  Satyavan  stood  nigh, 
And  upon  the  weary  sleeper  fix'd  his  fearful,  glittering  eye. " 

This  awful  apparition  was  Yama,  god  of  Death,  come  to  bind  and 
take  the  spirit  of  Satyavan.  Having  done  this,  he  moved  towards 
the  south,  Savitri  closely  following.     Yama  tries  to  persuade  her 


580  SAV— SEN 


to  go  back  ;  but  she  says,  no  :  wherever  her  husband  goes,  there 
she  will  go  also.  Yama  praises  her  sweet  speech,  and  offers  her 
any  boon  except  the  life  of  Satyavan  ;  and  she  begs  tliat  the  blind 
king,  her  father-in-law,  may  be  restored  to  sight,  but  without 
relinquishing  her  first  request.  Yama  tries  again  and  again  to  get 
rid  of  her,  and  says  she  will  faint. 

"  Can  I  faint  when  near  my  husband  ?  where  he  goes  my  path  shall  be. 
I  will  follow  where  thou  leadest ;— listen  once  again  to  me." 

Nothing  can  induce  her  to  return  without  Satyavan  ;  and  at 
length  "  love  conquers  death."  Yama  relents  ;  the  happy  wife 
hastens  to  where  her  husband's  dead  body  lay,  and,  leaning  upon 
her  faithful  bosom  he  awakes  again  to  sense  and  life.  A  very 
touching  conversation  follows,  during  which  he  graduall}''  recovers 
his  recollection  ;  but  his  wife,  avoiding  any  full  explanation  of 
what  had  been  occurring,  says  : 

' '  Night's  dark  shadows  round  us  fall ; 
When  the  morrow's  light  returneth,  dearest !  I  will  tell  thee  all. 
Up,  then,  and  away,  I  pray  thee,— come  unto  thy  parents,  love  ! 
See  !  the  sun  long  time  has  vanish'd,  and  the  night  grows  black  above." 

And  accordingly  they  return  to  the  hermitage,  when  Satyavan 
finds  his  father  no  longer  blind  ;  and  every  kind  of  happiness 
awaits  them."* — See  Satyavan. 

Savitri — l,  One  of  the  twelve  Adityas,  the  sun.  "  Savitri 
has  established  the  earth  by  supports  ;  Savitri  has  fixed  the  sky 
in  unsupported  space  :  Savitri  has  milked  the  atmosphere,  restless 
(or  noisy)  as  a  horse  [or,  Savitri  has  extracted  from  the  atmosphere 
the  ocean,  &c.,  reslless  as  a  horse  ;] — the  ocean  fastened  on  the 
unpassable  expanse.  Savitri,  son  of  the  waters,  knows  the  place 
where  the  ocean  supported,  issued  forth.  From  him  the  earth, 
from  him  the  atmosphere,  arose  ;  from  him  the  heaven  and  earth 
extended."  The  sun  also  whose  place  is  on  the  sky  is  called 
Savitri.     2,  The  Vyasa  of  the  fifth  Dwapara  age. 

Senajit— One  of  the  kings  of  Hastinapura,  the  son  of  Viswajit. 

Senani — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras  according  to  the  enumeration 
in  the  Matsya  Purana. 

*  A.  &  M.  I.     Indian  Epic  Poetry. 


SER— SES  581 


Serpents— These  are  represented  in  the  Vishnu  Puraua  as  the 
prof2;eny  of  Kadru,  they  are  described  as  powerful  and  many-headed  ; 
and  some  as  fierce  and  venomous.  The  chief  are  mentioned 
by  name. 

Sesha — Eternal  matter  in  which  Vishnu  reposes  during  the 
night  of  Eramha  when  the  destructive  power  only  is  in  operation. 
It  is  represented  as  an  immense  snake,  forming  by  its  many  coils, 
a  bed  on  which  Vishnu  sleeps,  and  with  its  thousand  heads  erect, 
to  form  a  canopy  over  Vishnu's  head,  and  to  present  the  idea  of 
defence  against  any  invasion  of  the  sleeper's  repose.    Sesha  is  also 
said  to  support  the  eight  elephants  which  support  the  world.    The 
name  Sesha  is  considered   by   Sir  William  Jones  and  others  to 
designate  abstract  eternity,  but  the  emblem  does  not  altogether 
correspond  with  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  literal  meaning  is  primal  serpent,  and  many  of  the   Hindu 
legends  introduce  this  snake.     In  the  Puranas  there  is  an  account 
of  a  dispute  between  it  and  Vaijit,  regent  of  the  wind.    The  latter 
blew  with  all  his  strength  against  the  thousand  peaks  of  Mount 
Meru,  and   Sesha  covered  every  one  of  the  peaks,  each  by  one  of 
his  thousand  heads.     The  sanctity  of  Tripiti,  a  hill  in  the  north  of 
Mysore    is  derived  from  a  traditionary    version   of  this  legend. 
Vayu  is  said  to  have  ceased  blowing  for  a  time  when  Sesha  lifted 
up  one  head  to  ascertain  the  cause,  and  Vayu  suddenly  blew  off  the 
exposed  peak,  which  was  carried  through  the  air  and  fell  at  Tripiti, 
conferring  on  the  place  the  sanctity  of  Mount  Meru.  At  the  Seven 
Pagodas,  near  Madras,  there  is  a  good  sculpture  of  Sesha  in  one  of 
the  hill  caves.     The  subject  is  a  favorite  one  with  the  Vaishnavas. 
Sir  C.  Wilkins  thus  describes  one  in  the  north  of  India,  the  rock  of 
Ichangiri  in  the  province  of  Behar.     Among  the  images  carved  in 
relief  in  the  surface  of  the  rock,  is  one  of  Hari,  (a  title  of  Vishnu) 
of  gigantic  dimensions,  recumbent  upon  a  coiled  serpent,  whose 
heads,  which  are  numerous,  the  artist  has  contrived  to  spread  into 
a  kind  of  canopy  over  the  sleeping  god  ;  and  from  each  of  its 
mouths  issues  a  forked  tongue,  seeming  to  threaten  instant  death 
to  any  whom  rashness  might  prompt  to  disturb  him.     The  whole 
lies  almost  clear  of  the  block  on  which  it  is  hewn.     It  is  finely 
imagined  and  is  executed  with  great  skill.     The  Hindus  believe 


582  SES— SIK 


tliat  at  the  end  of  every  kalpa  (creatioD)  all  things  are  absorbed  in 
the  deity,  and  that  in  the  interval  of  another  creation  he  reposeth 
himself  upon  the  serpent  Sesha  (duration).  Avho  is  also  called 
A?ia7ifa,  (endless),  q.  v. 

"  Sesha,  worshipped  by  all  the  gods,  supports  the  whole  region 
of  the  earth  like  a  diadem,  and  is  the  foundation  of  Patala.  The 
Siddhantas,  or  scientific  astronomical  works  of  India,  however, 
maintain  that  the  earth  is  unsupported." — 0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  96. 

Sesha —One  of  the  Prajapatis. 

Siddhartha— A  prince  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku.  He  was 
king  of  Pavana  in  Bharatakshetra  when  by  supernatural  agency  he 
was  made  the  fjither  of  the  great  Tirthankara  Mahavira,  q.  v. 

SiddhaS — Pure  and  holy  beings,  exempt  from  covetousuess  and 
concupiscence,  love  and  hatred,  taking  no  part  in  the  procreation  of 
living  beings,  and  detecting  the  unreality  of  the  properties  of 
elementary  matter.  The  Vishnu  Purana  states  that  eighty-eight 
thousand  of  these  chaste  beings  tenant  the  regions  of  the  sky,  north 
of  the  sun,  until  the  destruction  of  the  universe. 

Siddhi — Perfection  ;  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  married 
to  Dharma. 

Siddhis — The  eight  perfections  ;  1,  Rasolldsa,  the  spontaneous 
or  prompt  evolution  of  the  juices  of  the  body,  independently  of 
nutriment  from  without  ;  2,  Tripti,  mental  satisfaction,  or  freedom 
from  sensual  desire  ;  3,  Samya,  sameness  of  degree  ;  4,  Tulyata, 
similarity  of  life,  form,  and  feature  ;  5,  Visoka,  exemption  alike 
from  infirmity  or  grief  ;  6,  Consummation  of  penance  and  medita- 
tion, by  attainment  of  true  knowledge  ;  7,  The  poAver  of  going 
everywhere  at  will  ;  8,  The  faculty  of  reposing  at  any  time  or  iu 
any  place.  These  attributes  are  alluded  to,  though  obscurely,  in 
the  Vayu,  and  are  partly  specified  in  the  Markandeya  Purana. 

Sighra — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Agnivara,  descendant  of  Kusa  ; 
2,  A  river. 

Sikhandini — The  wife  of  Antarddhana,  descendant  of  Prithu. 

Siksha — An  Anga,  or  subsidiary  portion  of  the  Vedas,  con- 
taining the  rules  of  reciting  the  prayers,  the  accents  and  tones  to 
be  observed,  &c. 


SIN— SIS  583 


Sindhu — A  river  of  Bhdrata  Varslia  ;  there  are  several  rivers 
of  this  name,  as  well  as  the  ludus  ;  there  is  one  of  some  note,  the 
Kali  Siudh  in  Malwa. 

Sindhu — A  country  near  the  forest  of  Kama.     It  was  the  Raja 

of  Sindhu,  Jayadrathu,  who  visited  Draupadi,  in  the  absence  of 
her  husbands,  and  attempted  to  carry  her  away. 

Sindhudwipa — One  of  the  kings  of  Ayodhya,  the  son  of 
Ambarisha. 

Sinhika — Oue  of  the  daughters  of  Kasyapa,  and  wife  of  Vipra- 
chitti.     She  was  the  sister  of  the  celebrated  Dauava  Hiranyakasii^u. 

Sini — One  of  the  Bhoja  princes  of  Mrittikavati,  the  son  of 
Sumitra. 

Sinivali — l,  The  name  of  the  day  when  the  new  moon  is  first 
visible  ;  2,  One  of  the  daughters  of  Angiras. 

Sipraka — The  first  Andhra  king  ;  and  founder  of  the  Andhra- 
bhritya  dynasty.  He  had  previously  been  minister  to  Susannan, 
the  last  of  the  Kanwa  kings  of  Magadha,  against  whom  Siprak 
conspired,  and  assumed  the  sovereignty  himself. 

Siradhwaja — A  name  of  Janaka,  king  of  Mithila,  celebrated 
as  the  father  of  Sita. 

Sisira — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Sisumara — Porpoise.  The  symbol  for  the  celestial  sphere. 
The  porpoise-like  figure  of  the  celestial  sphere  is  upheld  by 
Narayana,  who  himself,  in  planetory  radiance,  is  seated  in  its 
heart  ;  whilst  the  son  of  Uttanapada,  Dhruva,  in  consequence  of 
his  adoration  of  the  lord  of  the  world,  shines  in  the  tail  of  the 
stellar  porpoise.     Vishnu  Purana,  230. 

Sisunaga — One  of  the  kiugs  of  Magadha,  who  relinquished 
Benares  to  his  son,  and  established  himself  at  Girivraja,  in  Behar. 

Sisupala — The  son  of  Damaghosha,  king  of  Chedi.  This  prince 
was  in  a  former  existence  the  unrighteous  but  valiant  monarch 
of  the  Daityas,  Hiranyakasipu,  who  was  killed  by  the  divine 
guardian  of  the  creation  (in  the  man-lion  Avatara.)  He  was  next 
the    ten-headed   sovereign    Ravana,    whose   unequalled   prowess, 


584  SIS 

strength,  and  power,  were  overcome  by  the  lord  of  the  three 
worlds  Rama  ;  when  born  again  as  Sisupala,  he  renewed  with 
greater  inveteracy  than  ever,  his  hostile  hatred  towards  the  god 
surnamed  Pundarikaksha,  a  portion  of  the  Supreme  Being  who 
had  descended  to  lighten  the  burden  of  the  earth,  and  was  in 
consequence  slain  by  him  :  but  because  his  thoughts  were 
constantly  engrossed  by  the  Supreme  Being,  Sisupala  was  united 
with  him  after  death  ;  V.  P.  The  death  of  Sisupala  is  thus 
related  in  the  Mahabharata  :  "  now  the  custom  was  at  the  be^-inning 
of  a  Rajasuya  to  declare  who  was  the  greatest  and  strongest  of  all 
the  Rajas  there  assembled,  in  order  that  the  Argha  might  be  given 
to  him  ;  and  Bhishma,  as  ruler  of  the  feast,  declared  that  the 
honour  was  due  to  Krishna,  who  was  the  greatest  and  strongest 
of  them  all.  But  Sisupala,  the  Raja  of  Chedi,  was  exceedingly 
wroth  Avith  Krishna,  for  when  he  was  betrothed  to  the  beautiful 
Rukmini,  Krishna  had  carried  her  away  and  made  her  his  own 
wife.  So  Sisupala  arose  and  threw  the  whole  assembly  into  an 
uproar,  and  he  said  with  a  loud  voice  : — "  If  the  honour  be  due  to 
age,  it  should  have  been  given  to  Vasudeva  ;  if  it  be  due  to  him 
who  has  the  greatest  Raj,  it  should  have  be  given  to  Raja 
Drupada  ;  if  it  be  due  to  the  youth  of  loftiest  mind,  it  should  have 
been  given  to  Raja  Duryodhana  ;  if  it  be  due  to  the  greatest 
preceptor,  it  should  have  been  given  to  Droua  ;  and  if  it  be  due 
to  the  greatest  saint,  it  should  have  been  given  to  Vyasa  :  but 
shame  be  upon  this  assembly,  who  hath  given  that  honour  to  a 
cowherd,  who  was  the  murderer  of  his  own  Raja."  Having  thus 
spoken,  Sisupala  and  his  friends  who  were  with  him  made  a  great 
tumult.  Yudhishthira  and  Bhishma  then  reasoned  with  Sisupala, 
but  he  would  not  heed  their  words,  and  drew  his  sword,  and 
threatened  to  slay  all  the  guests  and  spoil  the  sacrifice.  Yudhish- 
thira and  his  brethren  then  rose  to  fight  against  Sisupala,  but 
Bhishma  withheld  them  ;  and  Sisupala  in  his  rage  abused  Bhishma 
and  Krishna  in  such  opprobrious  terms  that  the  whole  assembly 
were  alarmed.  At  last  Krishna  said  : — "  I  have  hitherto  restrained 
my  hand,  because  this  man  is  my  own  kinsman,  but  I  can  bear 
with  his  words  no  longer."  And  thus  speaking  he  whirled  his 
chakra  furiously  at  Sisupala,  and  severed  his  head  from  his  body  ,• 


SIT  585 

and  Sisupala  fell  dead  upon  the  ground,  and  his  sons  carried  away 
his  body  and  burnt  it  upon  the  funeral  pile.  Thus  Krishna  saved 
the  Rajasuya  of  Yudhislithira  by  the  slaughter  of  Sisupala  ;  for 
had  Raja  Yudhishthira  been  set  at  defiance  by  a  Raja  who  had 
not  been  conquered,  the  Rajasuya  would  have  been  imperfect  and 
of  no  avail." 

Sita — The  daughter  of  Janaka,  king  of  Mithila,  (Siradhwaja.) 
She  is  called  earth-born,  as  having  been  turned  up  from  the  soil 
by  a  plough,  as  Janaka  was  ploughing  a  spot  to  prepare  for  a 
sacrifice.  She  was  promised  in  marriage  to  the  Raja  who  could 
bend  the  great  bow  of  Siva  ;  many  distinguished  Rajas  attempted 
the  feat,  but  could  not  succeed  ;  "  now  when  Rama  saw  the 
bow  he  lifted  it  with  one  hand  from  the  ground  playfully, 
while  a  great  multitude  looked  on  in  amazement.  Then  Rama 
bent  the  bow  till  it  broke  in  the  midst,  and  the  noise  was  like  the 
crash  of  a  falling  mountain,  so  that  the  bystanders  were  stunned 
and  fell  down.  After  this  Sita  was  married  to  Rama.  The 
story  of  their  honeymoon  in  the  Ramayana,  is  supposed  to  be 
an  interpolation  of  recent  date.  When  Rama  had  to  go  into  exile 
Siti-i  avowed  her  determination  to  accompany  him  to  the  jungle. 
Rama  objected  to  this,  but  at  length  yielded  to  her  earnest 
entreaties.  They  met  with  many  adventures  in  their  jungle  life 
which  are  described  in  great  detail  in  the  Ramayana.  They  rested 
in  the  cave  of  the  sage  Atri,  whose  wife  Anasuya  gave  Sita  au 
ointment  to  render  her  young  and  "  beautiful  for  ever."  On  one 
occasion  she  besought  Rama  to  pursue  a  beautiful  deer,  his  brother 
Lakshmana  remaining  behind  for  her  protection.  Sounds  of  distress 
were  heard  as  if  proceeding  from  Rama,  and  Sita  taunted 
Lakshmana  with  unconcern  for  his  brother  until  he  left  her.  Then 
Ravana,  by  whose  contrivance  all  this  had  come  about,  entered  the 
hut  as  a  brahman  mendicant,  assumed  his  true  form,  and  addressed 
Sita,  who  replied  to  him  with  anger,  and  Ravana  carried  her  off  by 
force  to  Lanka,  where  she  was  discovered  by  Hanumau  iu  the 
Asoka  garden.  While  being  carried  by  Ravana  through  the  air, 
which  she  filled  with  cries  and  lamentations,  she  saw  five  monkeys 
sitting  iu  the  mountain  named  Risha-mukha,  and  threw  down  her 
ornaments  amongst  them  iu   the  hope  that  they  might  find  their 

74 


586  SIT— SIV 


way  to  Rama.  They  were  found  by  Sugriva  and  by  him  shown  to 
Rama.  Sita  wrathfully  refused  to  receive  the  addresses  of  Ravana, 
who  threatened  to  slay  her.  She  had  an  interview  with  Hauuman, 
and  was  finally  rescued  by  Rama  ;  but  had  to  pass  through  a  severe 
ordeal  before  she  was  received  as  pure  after  being  imprisoned  in 
the  palace  of  Ravana.  She  entered  the  fire  and  the  god  Agni 
attested  her  purity.  She  was  then  installed  as  Rani  with  great 
splendour.     She  had  two  children  Lava,  and  Kusa. 

SiteyUS — a  prince,  the  son  of  Usanas,  (q.  v.) 

Siva — The  third  deity  in  the  Hindu  triad.  Wilson  says  that 
Siva  is  the  same  as  Vishnu  in  the  charact*^-  of  destroyer  of  creation. 
He  also  personifies  reproduction,  as  Hindu  philosophy  excludes  the 
idea  of  total  annihilation  without  subsequent  regeneration.  Hence 
he  is  sometimes  identified  with  Brahma  the  first  person  in  the  triad. 

Siva  is  the  particular  god  of  the  Tantrikas,  or  followers  of  the 
books  called  Tantras.  His  worshippers  are  termed  Saivas,  and 
although  not  so  numerous  as  the  Vaishnavas,  exalt  their  god  to  the 
highest  place  in  the  heavens,  and  combine  in  him  many  of  the 
attributes  which  properly  belong  to  the  other  deities.  According 
to  them,  Siva  is  Time,  Justice,  Fire,  Water,  the  Sun,  the  Destroyer 
and  Creator.  As  presiding  over  generation,  his  type  is  the  Linga, 
or  Phallus,  the  origin  probably  of  the  Phallic  emblem  of  Egypt  and 
Greece.  As  the  god  of  generation  and  of  justice,  which  latter 
character  he  shares  with  the  god  Yama,  he  is  represented  riding  a 
white  bull.  His  own  colour,  as  well  as  that  of  the  bull,  is  generally 
white,  referring  probably  to  the  unsullied  purity  of  justice.  His 
throat  is  dark-blue  ;  his  hair  of  a  light  reddish  colour,  and  thickly 
matted  together,  and  gathered  above  his  head  like  the  hair  of  an 
ascetic.  He  is  sometimes  seen  with  two  hands,  sometimes  with 
four,  eight,  or  teu,  and  with  five  faces.  He  has  three  eyes,  one 
being  in  the  centre  of  his  forehead,  pointing  up  and  down.  These 
are  said  to  denote  his  view  of  the  three  divisions  of  time,  past, 
present,  and  future.  He  holds  a  trident  in  his  hand  to  denote,  as 
some  say,  his  relationship  to  water,  or  according  to  others,  to  show 
that  the  three  great  attributes  of  Creator,  Destroyer,  and  Re- 
generator are  combined  in   him.     His  loins  are  enveloped    in  a 


SIV  587 

tiger's  skin.  In  his  character  of  Time,  he  not  only  presides  over 
its  extinction,  but  also  its  astronomical  regulation.  A  crescent  or 
half-moon  on  his  forehead  indicates  the  measure  of  time  by  the 
phases  of  the  moon  ;  a  serpent  forms  one  of  his  necklaces  to  denote 
the  measure  of  time  by  years,  and  a  second  necklace  of  human 
skulls  marks  the  lapse  and  revolution  of  ages,  and  the  extinction 
and  succession  of  the  generations  of  mankind.  He  is  often 
represented  as  entirely  covered  with  serpents,  which  are  the 
emblems  of  immortality.  They  are  bound  in  his  hair,  round  his 
neck,  wrists,  waist,  arms,  and  legs  ;  they  serve  as  rings  for  his 
fingers,  and  earrings  for  his  ears,  and  are  his  constant  companions. 
Siva  has  more  than  a  thousand  names,  which  are  detailed  at  length 
in  the  sixty-ninth  chapter  of  the  Siva  Parana.  The  following  list 
of  the  principal  of  these  will  give  the  best  idea  of  his  character  and 
attributes.  The  auspicious  one.  The  Lord  of  the  Universe.  The 
Destroyer,  a  personification  of  time  that  destroys  all  things.  The 
Reproducer,  the  Conqueror  of  life  and  death,  and  Cause  of  life  and 
being.     The  Disperser  of  the  Tears  of  mortals." — Williams. 

Siva — 1,  The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Isana  ;  2,  The  wife  of  Anila, 
(Wind.) 

Sivas — A  class  of  deities  in  the  third  Manwantara. 

Sivaskandha — One  of  the  Andhra  kings,  the  son  of  Sivasri 
Satakarni. 

Sivasti— Another  of  the  Andhra  kings. 

Siva-Upa-Purana — The  Siva  Upa-purana  contains  about  six 
thousand  stanzas,  distributed  into  two  parts.  It  is  related  by 
Sanatkumara  to  V^yasa  and  the  Rishis  at  Naimisharanya  ;  and 
its  character  may  be  judged  of  from  the  questions  to  which  it  is  a 
reply.  "  Teach  us,"  said  the  Rishis,  '*'  the  rules  of  w^orshipping 
the  Linga,  and  of  the  god  of  gods  adored  under  that  type  :  describe 
to  us  his  various  forms,  the  places  sanctified  by  him,  and  the 
prayers  with  which  he  is  to  be  addressed."  In  answer,  Sanat- 
kumara repeats  the  Siva  Purana,  containing  the  birth  of  Vishnu 
and  Brahma  ;  the  creation  and  divisions  of  the  universe  ;  the 
origin  of  all  things  from  the  Linga  ;  the  rules  of  worshipping  it 
and  Siva  :  the  sanctity  of  times,  places,  and  things,  dedicated  to 


588  SIV— SKA 


him  ;  the  delusion  of  Brahma  and  Vishnu  by  the  Linga  ;  the 
rewards  of  offering  flowers  and  the  like  to  a  Linga  ;  rules  for 
various  observances  in  honour  of  Mahadeva  ;  the  mode  of  practis- 
ing the  Yoga  ;  the  glory  of  Benares  and  other  Saiva  Tirthas  ; 
and  the  perfection  of  the  objects  of  life  by  union  with  Maheswara. 
These  objects  are  illustrated,  in  the  first  part,  with  very  few 
legends  ;  but  the  second  is  made  up,  almost  wholly,  of  Saiva  stories, 
as  the  defeat  of  Tripurdsura  ;  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha  ;  the  births 
of  Karttikeya  and  Ganesa,  (the  sons  of  Siva),  and  Nandi  and 
Bhringariti  (his  attendants),  and  others  ;  together  with  descriptions 
of  Benares  and  other  places  of  pilgrimage,  and  rules  for  observing 
such  festivals  as  the  Sivaratri.  This  work  is  a  Saiva  manual,  not 
a  Parana. —  Wilson. 

Sivi — 1,  A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Sanhrada  ;  2,  The  Indra  of  the 
fourth  Manwantara  ;  3,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Usinara. 

Skambha — The  Supporter  or  Upholder  ;  an  appellation  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  In  a  hymn  of  the  Atharva  Veda,  Skambha 
is  considered  like  Purusha,  as  a  vast  embodied  being  co-extensive 
with  the  universe,  and  comprehending,  in  his  several  members, 
not  only  the  different  parts  of  the  material  world,  but  a  variety  of 
abstract  conceptions,  such  as  austere  fervour  (tapas,)  faith,  truth, 
and  the  divisions  of  time.  He  is  distinct  from,  and  superior  to, 
Prajapati,  who  founds  the  worlds  upon  him.  The  thirty-three 
gods  are  comprehended  in  him,  and  arose  out  of  nonentity,  which 
forms  his  highest  mejnber,  and,  as  well  as  entity,  is  embraced 
within  him.  The  gods  who  form  jiart  of  him,  as  branches  of  a 
tree,  do  him  homage,  and  bring  him  tribute.  He  is  identified 
Avith  Indra  ;  and  perhaps  also  with  the  highest  Brahma,  who  is 
mentioned  in  verses  32-34,  36,  and  in  the  first  verse  of  the  next 
hymn,  x.  8,  1.  In  verse  36,  however,  this  Brahma  is  represented 
as  being  born  (or,  perhaps,  developed)  from  toil  and  tapas,  whilst 
in  X.  8,  1,  the  attributes  of  the  Supreme  Deity  are  assigned  to 
him.  In  compositions  of  this  age,  however,  we  are  not  to  expect 
very  accurate  or  rigorous  thinking,  or  perfect  consistency  : — 

In  Skambha  are  contained  the  worlds,  austere  fervour,  and  the 
ceremonial.     Skambha,  I  clearly  know  thee  to  be  contained  entire 


SKA  589 

ill  ludra.  In  Iiulra  are  contained  the  worlds,  anstere  fervour,  and 
the  ceremonial.  Indra,  1  clearly  know  thee  to  be  contained  entire 
in  Skanibha.  When  the  Unborn  first  spi'ang  into  being,  lie 
attained  to  that  independent  dominion,  than  that  which  nothing 
liigher  has  ever  been.  Reverence  be  to  that  greatest  Brahmd,  of 
whom  the  earth  is  the  basis,  the  atmosphere  the  belly,  who  made 
the  sky  his  head,  of  whom  the  sun  and  the  ever-renewed  moon 
are  the  eye  ;  who  made  Agni  his  mouth,  of  whom  the  wind  formed 
two  of  the  vital  airs,  and  the  Angirasas  the  eye,  who  made  the 
regions  his  organs  of  sense.  Skambha  established  both  these 
[worlds],  earth  and  sky,  the  wide  atmosphere,  and  the  six  vast 
regions  ;  Skambha  pervaded  this  entire  universe.  Reverence  to 
that  greatest  Brahma  who,  born  from  toil  and  austere  fervour 
(tapas,)  penetrated  all  the  worlds,  who  made  soma  for  himself 
alone.  How  is  it  that  the  wind  does  not  rest  ?  How  is  not  the 
soul  quiescent  ?  Why  do  not  the  waters,  seeking  after  truth,  over 
repose  ?  The  great  being  [is]  absorbed  in  austere  fervour  in  the 
midst  of  the  world,  on  the  surface  of  the  waters.  To  him  all  the 
gods  are  joined,  as  the  branches  around  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  Say 
who  is  that  Skambha  to  whom  the  gods,  with  hands,  feet,  voice, 
ear,  eye,  present  continually  an  unlimited  tribute  ?  By  him 
darkness  is  dispelled  ;  he  is  free  from  evil  ;  in  him  are  all  the 
three  luminaries  which  reside  in  Praj^pati.  He  who  knows  the 
golden  reed  standing  in  the  waters  is  the  mysterious  Prajapati. 

Professor  Goldstiicker  adds  that  Skambha  "  seems  to  mean  the 
fulcrum  of  the  whole  world,  in  all  its  physical,  religious,  and  other 
aspects.  The  object  of  the  hymn  being  to  inquire  Avhat  this  fulcrum 
is,  from  the  answer  given  to  the  various  questions  it  seems  to 
follow  that  it  is  there  imagined  to  be  the  primitive  deity,  or  the 
primitive  Veda,  the  word  brahman  in  the  neuter  implying  both. 
From  this  primitive  Veda,  yot  visibly  but  really  (sat)  existing, 
not  only  all  the  gods,  worlds,  religious  rites,  &c.  were  derived,  but 
also  the  existing  three  Yedas  and  the  Atharvan  were  '  fashioned.'  " 
—  0.  S.  7\,  F,  384. 

Skanda— 1,  A  name  of  Kartikeya,  the  son  of  SivaandParvati, 
and  the  INIars  of  Hindu  mythology.  For  the  legend  of  his  birth, 
see  Kartikeya.     In  a  note  to  the  Megha  Duta,   Professor  Wilson 


o90  SKA 

writes,  "  Several  instances  of  the  solitary  production  of  offspring 
occur  in  the  Hindu  as  well  as  in  the  Grecian  mythology.  Thus 
as  Pallas  sprang  from  the  brow  of  Jupiter,  we  have  Skanda 
generated  solely  by  the  deity  Siva  :  Ganga  springs  from  the  head 
of  the  same  deity,  and  Ganesa  is  the  self-born  son  of  the  goddess 
Parvati.  The  miraculous  birth  of  the  warrior  deity,  Skanda,  was 
for  the  purpose  oi"  destroying  Taraka,  an  Asura  or  demon,  who, 
by  the  performance  of  continued  and  severe  austerities,  had 
acquired  powers  formidable  to  the  gods.  Theexcentric  genius  of 
Southey  has  rendered  it  unnecessary,  by  his  poem  '  The  curse 
of  Kehama,'  for  me  to  explain  the  nature  or  results  of  these  acts 
of  devotion.  The  germ  of  Skanda  was  cast  by  Siva  into  the  flame 
of  Agni,  the  god  of  fire  ;  who,  being  unable  to  sustain  the  increas- 
ing burden,  transferred  it  to  the  goddess  Ganga  :  she  accordingly 
was  delivered  of  the  deity,  Skanda  ;  who  was  afterwards  received 
and  reared,  among  thickets  of  the  Sara  reed  (Saccharum  Sara),  by 
the  six  daughters  of  a  king,  named  Krittika  ;  or  according  to 
other  legends,  by  the  wives  of  seven  great  Risshis  or  Saints.  In 
either  case,  they  form  in  astronomy  the  asterisra  of  the  Pleiades. 
Upon  his  coming  to  maturity,  Skanda  encountered  and  killed  the 
demon,  who  had  filled  the  reign  of  Indra  with  dismay  : — 

Emissumque  ima  de  sede  Typhoea  terra, 
Coelitibus  fecisse  metum. —  Worhs  IV,  353. 

Skanda — 2,  The  son  of  the  Rudra  Pasupati,  by  his  wife  Swaha. 

Skanda  Purana — "  The  Skanda  Purana  is  that  in  which  the 
six-faced  deity  (Skanda)  has  related  the  events  of  the  Tatpurusha 
Kalpa,  enlarged  with  many  tales,  and  subservient  to  the  duties 
taught  by  Maheswara.  It  is  said  to  contain  eighty-one  thousand 
one  hundred  stanzas  :   so  it  is  asserted  amongst  mankind." 

It  is  uniformly  agreed  that  the  Skanda  Purana,  in  a  collective 
form,  has  no  existence  ;  and  the  fragments,  in  the  shape  of 
Sanhitas,  Khandas,  and  Mahatmyas,  which  are  affirmed,  in  various 
parts  of  India,  to  be  portions  of  the  Purana,  present  a  much  more 
formidable  mass  of  stanzas  than  even  the  immense  number  of 
which  it  is  said  to  consist.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  portions, 
in  Hindusthan,  is  the  Hasi  Khanda,  a,  very  minute  desoriptioa  of 


SLI— SOM  591 


the  temples  of  Siva  in  or  adjacent  to  Benares,  mixed  with  direc- 
tions for  worshipping  Maheswara,  and  a  great  variety  of  legends 
explanatory  of  its  merits  and  of  the  holiness  of  Kayi.  Many  of 
them  are  puerile  and  uninteresting  ;  but  some  are  of  a  higher 
character.  The  story  of  Agastya  records,  probably  in  a  legendary 
style,  the  propagation  of  Hinduism  in  the  south  of  India  ;  and,  in 
the  history  of  Divodasa,  king  of  Ktisi,  we  have  an  embellished 
tradition  of  the  temporary  depression  of  the  worship  of  Siva,  even 
in  its  metropolis,  before  the  ascendancy  of  the  followers  of 
Buddha.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  the  greater  part  of  the 
contents  of  the  Kasi  Khanda  anterior  to  the  first  attack  upon 
Benares  by  Mahniud  of  Ghizni.  The  Kasi  Khanda  alone  contains 
fifteen  thousand  stanzas, —  IVilson. 

Slishti — One  of  the  sous  of  the  great  sage  Dhruva,  by  his  wife 
Sambhu. 

Smaya — Wonder.     A  son  of  Dharma. 

Smriti — Tradition,  as  distinguished  from  Sruti,  revelation. 
The  Veda  is  regarded  as  revelation  ;  and  what  is  called  the  whole 
body  of  the  law  is  regarded  as  tradition.  "  This  distinction  may 
be  of  some  importance  as  an  illustration  of  the  national  belief  in 
inspiration  ;  and  it  may  throw  some  light  on  that  era  in  the  history 
of  Sanskrit  literature  Avhen  inspiration  was  supposed  to  end  and 
tradition  to  begin."*  Mr.  Max  Miiller  makes  a  similar  remark,  and 
discusses  the  subject  in  his  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature. 

Smriti— 1,  Memory.  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  mar- 
ried to  the  Muni  Augiras  ;  2,  The  faculty  of  recognising  all  things, 
past,  present,  or  to  come. —  Wilsoit's  Notes  to  Vishnu  Parana. 

Soka — Sorrow:  one  of  the  children  of  Mritya  (Death.) 

Soma — Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  important 
share  which  the  exhilarating  juice  of  the  soma-plant  assumes  in 
bracing  ludra  for  his  conflict  with  the  hostile  powers  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  to  the  eagerness  of  all  the  gods  to  partake 
in  this  beverage. 


*  Talbovs  "Wheeler. 


592  SOM 

Soma  is  the  god  who  represents  and  animates  this  juice,  an 
intoxicating  draught  which  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Vedic  age.  He  is,  or  rather  was  in  former  times, 
the  Indian  Dionysus  or  Bacchus.  Not  only  are  the  whole  of  the 
hymns  in  the  ninth  book  of  the  Rig  Veda,  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  in  number,  besides  a  few  in  other  places,  dedicated  to  his 
honour,  but  constant  references  to  the  juice  of  the  Soma  occur  in 
a  large  proportion  of  the  other  hymns.  It  is  clear  therefore,  as 
remarked  by  Prof.  Whituey,  that  his  worship  must  at  one  time, 
have  attained  a  remarkable  popularity.  '  The  simple-minded 
Arian  people,  whose  whole  religion  was  a  worship  of  the  wonderful 
powers  and  phenomena  of  nature,  had  no  sooner  perceived  that  this 
liquid  had  power  to  elevate  the  spirits,  and  produce  a  temporary 
frenzy,  under  the  influence  of  which  the  individual  was  prompted 
to,  and  capable  of,  deeds  beyond  his  natural  powers,  than  they 
found  in  it  sometJiiug  divine  ;  it  was  to  their  apprehension  a  god 
endowing  those  into  whom  it  entered  with  god-like  powers  ;  the 
plant  which  afforded  it  became  to  them  the  king  of  plants  ;  the 
process  of  j^repariug  it  was  a  holy  sacrifice  ;  the  instruments  used 
therefore  were  sacred.  The  high  antiquity  of  this  cultus  is  attested 
by  the  references  to  it  found  occurring  in  the  Persian  Avesta  ;  it 
seems  however  to  have  received  a  new  impulse  on  Indian  territory.' 

With  the  decline  of  the  Vedic  worship  however,  and  the 
introduction  of  new  deities  and  new  ceremonies,  the  popularity  of 
Soma  gradually  decreased,  and  has  long  since  passed  away  ;  and 
his  name  is  now  familiar  to  those  few  Erahmans  only,  who  still 
maintain  in  a  few  places  the  early  Vedic  observances. 

A  great  variety  of  divine  attributes  and  operations  are  ascribed 
to  Soma.  '  He  is  addressed  as  a  god  in  the  highest  strains  of 
adulation  and  veneration  ;  all  powers  belong  to  him  ;  all  blessings 
are  besought  of  him  as  his  to  bestow.*  In  a  passage  where  the 
joys  of  paradise  are  more  distinctly  anticipated  and  more  fervently 
implored  than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  Rig  Veda,  Soma  is 
addressed  as  the  god  from  whom  the  gift  of  future  felicity 
is  expected. 

*  Whitney,  J.  A.  0.  S.,  Ill,  299. 


SOM.  593 

Soma  exhilarates  Varuna,  Mitra,  Indra,  Vislmn,  the  Maruts,  the 
other  gods,  Vayii,  Heaven  and  Earth.  Both  gods  and  men  resort 
to  him  saying  that  his  juice  is  sweet,  by  him  the  Adityas  are  strong 
and  the  earth  vast.  He  is  the  friend,  helper,  and  soul  of  Indra, 
whom  he  succours  in  his  conflicts  with  Vrittra.  He  rides  in  the 
same  chariot  with  Indra,  but  has  winged  mares  of  his  own 
and  a  team-like  Vayu.— O.  S.  T.,  F,  258-67. 

In  the  post-vedic  age  the  name  Soma  came  to  be  commonly 
applied  to  the  moon  and  its  regent,  who  is  represented  as  the  son  of 
Atri  ;  the  monarch  of  the  stars  and  planets,  of  brahmans  and  of 
plants,  of  sacrifices  and  of  penance.  The  Vishnu  Puraua  has  the 
following  legend  :  Soma  celebrated  the  Rajasuya  (sacrifice)  ;  and, 
from  the  glory  thence  acquired,  and  the  extensive  dominion  with 
which  he  had  been  invested,  he  became  arrogant  (and  licentious,) 
and  carried  off  Tara,  the  wife  of  Brihaspati,  the  preceptor  of  the 
gods.  In  vain  Brihaspati  sought  to  recover  his  bride  ;  in  vain 
Brahma  commanded,  and  the  holy  sages  remonstrated  :  Soma 
refused  to  relinquish  her.  Usanas,  out  of  enmity  to  Brihaspati,  took 
part  with  Soma.  Rudra,  who  had  studied  under  Angiras,  (the 
father  of  Brihaspati,)  befriended  his  fellow-student.  In  consequence 
of  ITsanas,  their  preceptor,  joining  Soma,  Jambha,  Kujambha,  and 
all  the  Daityas,  Danavas,  and  other  foes  of  the  gods,  came  also  to 
his  assistance  ;  whilst  Indra  and  all  the  gods  were  the  allies  of 
Brihaspati. 

Then  there  ensued  a  fierce  contest,  which,  being  on  account  of 
Taraka  (or  Tara,)  was  termed  the  Tarakamaya  or  Taraka  war. 
In  this,  the  gods,  led  by  Rudra,  hurled  their  missiles  on  the 
enemy  ;  and  the  Daityas  with  equal  determination  assailed  the 
gods.  Earth,  shaken  to  her  centre  by  the  struggle  between  such 
foes,  had  recourse  to  Brahma,  for  protection  ;  on  which  he  inter- 
posed, and,  commanding  Usanas,  with  the  demons,  and  Rudra, 
with  the  deities,  to  desist  from  strife,  compelled  Soma  to  restore 
Tara  to  her  husband.  Finding  that  she  was  pregnant,  Brihaspati 
desired  her  no  longer  to  retain  her  burthen  ;  and,  in  obedience  to 
his  orders,  she  was  delivered  of  a  son,  whom  she  deposited  in  a 
clump  of  long  Munja-grass.  The  child,  from  the  moment  of  its 
birth,  was  endued  with  a  splendour  that   diramc-l   the  radiance  of 

75 


594  SOM 

every  other  divinity  ;  and  both  Brihaspati  and  Soma,  fascinated 
by  his  beauty,  claimed  him  as  their  child.  The  gods,  in  order  to 
settle  the  dispute,  appealed  to  Tara  ;  but  she  was  ashamed,  and 
would  make  no  answer.  As  she  still  continued  mute  to  their 
repeated  applications,  the  child  (became  incensed,  and)  was  about 
to  curse  her,  saying  :  "  Unless,  vile  woman,  you  immediately 
declare  who  is  my  father,  I  will  sentence  you  to  such  a  fate  as 
shall  deter  every  female,  in  future,  from  hesitating  to  speak  the 
truth."  On  this,  Brahma  again  interfered,  and  pacified  the  child, 
and  then,  addressing  T^ra,  said  :  "  Tell  me,  daughter,  is  this 
the  child  of  Brihaspati  or  of  Soma  ?"  "  Of  Soma,"  said  Tara, 
blushing.  As  soon  as  she  had  spoken,  the  lord  of  the  constella- 
tions— his  countenance  bright,  and  expanding  with  rapture, — 
embraced  his  sou,  and  said  :  "  Well  done,  my  boy  !  Verily,  thou 
art  wise."     And,  hence,  his  name  was  Budha. 

*  lie  who  knows.'  Much  erroneous  speculation  has  originated 
in  confounding  this  Budha,  the  son  of  Soma,  and  regent  of  the 
planet  Mercury, — '  he  who  knows,'  '  the  intelligent,' — with 
Buddha,  any  defied  mortal,  or  '  he  by  whom  truth  is  known  ;'  or 
as  individually  applicable,  Gautama  or  Sakya,  son  of  Raja  Suddho- 
dana,  by  whom,  the  Buddhists  themselves  aver,  their  doctrines 
were  first  promulgated.  The  two  characters  have  nothing  in 
common  ;  and  the  names  are  identical,  only  when  one  or  other  is 
mis-spelt.  This  Budha  was  the  founder  of  the  lunar  race.  The 
Brahm^  Purana  and  Hari  Vansa  have  a  legend  of  the  birth  of 
Soma,  the  moon,  from  the  Rishi  Prabhakara  of  the  race  of  Atri. — 
Wilson. 

Soma — One  of  the  deities  called  Vasus,  because  they  are 
always  present  in  luminous  irradiation. 

Somadatta — A  king  of  Vaisali,  the  sou  of  Krisaswa.  He  is 
famed  for  his  having  celebrated  ten  times  the  sacrifice  of  a  horse. 

9omaka — One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Sahadeva. 
Somapas — A  class  of  Pitris,  "  drinkers  of  the  acid  juice." 
Soma-plant — A  plant  constantly  mentioned  in  the  vedic  ritual, 
and  corrcf^ponding  to  the  Homa  of  the  Zendavesta,  but  it  is  uucer- 


SOM  595 

fain  what  plant  was  originally  intended  by  the  name.  "  It  is 
described  as  '  a  creeper,  of  a  dark  colour,  sour,  without  leaveh, 
milky,  and  pulpy  externally  ;  it  causes  phlegm  and  vomiting,  and 
is  a  favourite  food  of  goats,'  see  Miiller,  Zeitscher,  d.  D.  M.  G.  ix. 
It  is  said  to  come  from  the  north,  and  to  be  bought  of  barl)arian 
tribes  ;  but  the  soma  of  the  '  Veda'  is  no  longer  known  in  India. 
Dr.  Haug  says  that  '  the  plant  at  present  used  by  the  sacrificial 
priests  of  the  Dekkhan  is  not  the  soma  of  the  Vedas,  but  appears 
to  belong  to  the  same  order.  It  grows  on  hills  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Poona,  to  the  height  of  about  four  or  five  feetj  and  forms 
a  kind  of  bush,  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  shoots,  all  coming 
from  the  same  root  ;  their  stem  is  solid  like  wood,  the  bark  greyish, 
they  are  without  leaves,  the  sap  appears  whitish,  has  a  very 
stringent  taste,  is  bitter  but  not  sour  ;  it  is  a  very  nasty  drink,  but 
has  some  intoxicating  effect.'  (Ait.  Br.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  489).  "  The 
ceremonial  writers  allow  the  plant  putiha,  Guilandina  Bonduc,  to 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  soma.  The  Parsees  of  Bombay  use 
the  branches  of  a  particular  tree,  obtained  from  Persia  in  a  dried 
state."* 

In  the  Rig  Veda  the  soma  plant  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to 
the  earth  by  a  falcon.  In  another  passage  it  is  declared  to  have 
been  brought  by  the  daughter  of  the  Sun  from  the  place  where  it 
Iiad  been  nourished  by  Parjanya,  the  rain-god,  when  the  Gand- 
harvas  took  it  and  infused  into  it  sap. 

Somasarmman— One  of  the  Mauryau  kings  of  Magadha. 

Somasushmapana— The  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-third  Dwa- 
para  age. 

Soma-tirtha — A  place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  west  of  Indin,  on 
the  coast  of  Guzerat,  uear  the  celebrated  temple  of  Somanath,  and 
town  of  Pattau  Somanath.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  legend 
that  Soma  the  moon,  was  there  cured  of  the  consumption  brought 
upon  him  by  the  imprecation  of  Daksha,  his  father-in-law.  The 
place  is  also  called  Prabhasa. 

Somayajna — Offerings  and  libations  of  the  juice  of  the  acid 
asclepias. 

*  Quarterly  Review,  July  1870. 


m  SON— SRA 


Sona — The  Sone  river  rising  iu  Mainaka  or  Amarakantak,  and 
flowing  east  to  the  Ganges. 

Sonitapura— The  city  of  Bana,  considered  to  be  the  modern 
Devicotta  in  the  Carnatic. 

Sraddha— Faith  :  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  married  to 
Dharma,  or  according  to  some  authorities  to  Angiras. 

Sraddha — An  obsequial  or  funeral  sacrifice  ;  but  it  also  implies 
offerings  to  the  progenitors  of  an  individual  and  of  mankind,  and 
always  forms  part  of  a  religious  ceremony  on  an  occasion  of 
rejoicing  or  an  occasion  of  prosperity,  this  being  termed  the 
Abhyudaya  or  Vriddhi  Sraddha. 

"  The  offerings  of  the  Hindus  to  the  Pitris  partake  of  the 
character  of  those  of  the  Romans  to  the  lares  and  manes,  but  bear 
a  more  conspicuous  part  in  their  ritual.  They  are  said  indeed  by 
Manu  to  be  of  more  moment  than  the  worship  of  the  gods.  These 
ceremonies  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  merely  obsequial  ;  for 
independently  of  the  rites  addressed  to  a  recently  deceased 
relative, — and,  in  connexion  with  him,  to  remote  ancestors,  and  to 
the  progenitors  of  all  beings, — which  are  of  a  strictly  obsequial  or 
funeral  description,  offerings  to  deceased  ancestors,  and  the  Pitris 
in  general,  form  an  essential  ceremony,  on  a  great  variety  of 
festive  and  domestic  occasions.  The  Nirnaya  Sindhu,  in  a 
passage  referred  to  by  Mr.  Colebrooks*  specifies  the  following 
Siaddhas  ;  1,  The  Nitya,  or  perpetual ;  daily  offerings  to  ancestors 
in  general  ;  2,  The  Naimittika,  or  occasional  ;  as  the  Ekoddishta, 
or  obsequial  offerings  on  account  of  a  kinsman  recently  deceased  ; 
3,  The  Kamya,  voluntary  :  performed  for  the  accomplishment 
of  a  special  design  ;  4,  The  Vriddhi  ;  performed  on  occasions  of 
rejoicing  or  prosperity  ;  5,  The  Sapindana  ;  offerings  to  all 
individual  and  to  general  ancestors  ;  6,  The  Parvana  Sraddha  ; 
offerings  to  the  manes,  on  certain  lunar  days  called  Pdrvans,  or  day 
of  full-moon  and  new-moon,  and  the  eighth  and  fourteenth  days  of 
the  lunar  fortnight  ;  7,  The  Goshthi  ;  for  the  advantage  of  a 
number    of  learned    persons,   or    of  an   assembly    of  Brahmans, 

*  Asiatic  Researches,  Vol.  VII. 


SRA  597 

invited  for  the  purpose  ;  8,  The  Suddhi  ;  one  performed  to  purify 
a  person  from  some  defilement, — an  expiatory  Sr^ddha  ;  9,  The 
Karraanga  ;  one  forming  part  of  the  initiatory  ceremonies,  or 
Saraskaras,  observed  at  conception,  birth,  tonsure,  &c.  ;  10,  The 
Daivika  ;  to  which  the  gods  are  invited  ;  11,  The  Yatra  Sraddha  ; 
hekl  by  a  person  going  a  journey  ;  and,  12,  The  Pushti  Sraddha  ; 
one  performed  to  promote  health  and  wealth.  Of  these,  the  four 
which  are  considered  the  most  solemn  are  the  rite  performed  for  a 
parent,  or  near  relative,  lately  deceased  ;  that  which  is  performed 
for  kindred,  collectively  ;  that  observed  on  certain  lunar  days  ; 
and  that  celebrated  on  occasions  of  rejoicing. 

The  following  extract  from  Mr.  Talboys  Wheeler's  History  of 
India,  Vol.  II,  gives  a  very  complete  view  of  this  subject. 

"  The  Sraddha,  or  feast  of  the  dead,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
primitive,  as  it  certainly  is  one  of  the  most  simple,  of  all  the  Vedic 
rites  that  have  been  handed  down  from  a  period  of  remote  antiquity 
to  the  present  day.  It  originated  in  the  crude  idea  already 
indicated,  that  the  spirit  or  ghost  had  a  separate  existence  after 
death,  and  that  it  might  be  gratified  or  propitiated  with  offerings 
of  food.  This  idea  certainly  involved  a  belief  in  the  prolonged 
existence  of  the  spirit  in  a  future  state  of  being  ;  but  in  its  origin 
it  had  no  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments.  It  is  rather  to  be  traced  to  the  old  world  belief, 
which  has  existed  in  all  ages,  and  which  still  liugers  in  the 
imagination  of  even  a  philosophic  and  material  generation,  that  the 
spirits  of  the  departed  hover  at  times  near  those  persons  and 
places  which  were  associated  with  their  earthly  careers,  and  are 
gratified  by  any  tribute  of  respect  which  may  be  ,'paid  to  their 
memory. 

The  Sraddha,  or  feast  of  the  dead,  was  thus  in  its  earliest  form 
a  pleasing  expression  of  natural  religion,  which  long  preceded  the 
advent  of  a  priestly  caste,  or  the  introduction  of  a  systematic 
ritual.  But,  like  every  other  popular  ceremonial  Avhich  has  been 
handed  down  amongst  the  Hindus  from  the  Vedic  period,  it  has 
been  recast  in  a  Brahman ical  mould  ;  and  it  is  in  this  latter  form 
that  the  institution  appears  in  the  Epics  as  well  as  in  the  laws  of 
Manu.     It  consists  of  three  distinct  rites  : — 


598  SRA 

1st — The  daily  Sraddha,  to  be  performed  iu  propitiation  of  the 
Pitris,  or  ghosts  of  remote  ancestors. 

2ud — The  monthly  Sraddha,  to  be  performed  in  propitiation  of 
the  more  immediate  paternal  ancestors. 

3rd — The  funeral  Sraddha,  to  be  performed  within  a  certain 
period  after  death,  or  the  hearing  of  the  death,  of  a  near  kinsman. 

It  should  also  be  remarked  that  Sraddhas  are  likewise  performed 
on  other  occasions,  and  notably  at  the  celebration  of  any  marriage 
ceremony. 

The  daily  Sraddha  was  an  offering  either  of  boiled  rice,  or  of 
milk,  roots,  and  fruit,  or  of  water  only,  to  the  Pitris,  or  remote 
ancestors.  This  ceremonial  has  been  already  described,  and  it  will 
be  only  necessary  to  add  that  in  modern  practice  it  is  considered 
sufficient  to  pour  water  out  of  a  particular  vessel  every  day  as  a 
drink-offering  to  the  Pitris. 

The  monthly  Sraddha  may  be  considered  under  four  separate 
heads  : — 

1st — Ceremonies  to  be  performed  at  a  monthly  Sraddha. 

2nd— Persons  to  be  entertained  at  the  monthly  Sraddha. 

3rd — Persons  to  be  excluded  from  the  monthly  Sraddha. 

4th — Relative  merits  of  the  different  kinds  of  victuals  which  may 
be  offered  at  a  monthly  Sraddha. 

The  ceremonies  at  the  monthly  Sraddha,  as  described  in  the 
Institutes  of  Manu,  are  of  a  very  intelligible  character  ;  and  seem 
to  have  been  laid  down  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  old  Vedic 
offering  of  food  and  water  into  a  great  feast  to  the  Brahmans, 
Tlie  monthly  Sraddha  was  performed  on  the  dark  dny  of  the  moon, 
that  is,  when  the  sun  and  moon  are  iu  conjunction.  A  sequestered 
spot  was  selected,  such  as  was  supposed  to  be  pleasing  to  the 
ghosts  ;  and  then  the  invited  Brahmans  were  conducted  to  their 
allotted  seats,  which  had  been  purified  with  kusa  grass,  and  were 
presented  with  garlands  of  flowers  and  sweet  perfumes.  The 
officiating  Brahman  then  satisfied  the  three  Vedic  deities, — Agni, 
Soma,  and  Yama, — by  pouring  an  oblation  of  ghee  upon  the  sacred 
fire.     He  then  proceeded   to  satisfy  the  ancestors  of  the  giver  of 


SRA  599 

the  Sraddha.  He  first  sprinkled  water  on  the  ground  with  his 
right  hand,  and  then  formed  three  balls  or  cakes  of  boiled  rice, 
which  are  called  pindas.  One  of  these  cakes  is  presented  to  each 
of  the  three  immediate  paternal  ancestors,  namely,  the  father,  the 
grandfather,  and  the  great-grandfather.  The  offering  of  pindas, 
however,  is  said  to  be  extended  to  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
degrees  of  paternal  ancestors  in  the  ascending  line,  by  the  simple 
process  of  wiping  the  hand  with  kusa  grass  after  offering  the  pindas 
to  the  ancestors  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  degree.  This 
ceremony  was  followed  by  a  great  feast  to  the  Brahmans,  consisting 
of  vessels  filled  with  rice,  together  with  broths,  potherbs,  milk  and 
curds,  ghee,  spiced  puddings,  milky  messes  of  various  sorts,  roots 
of  herbs,  ripe  fruits,  and  savoury  meats  ;  and  during  the  feast, 
passages  were  read  from  the  Sastras.  The  remains  of  the  cakes 
were  to  be  eaten  by  a  cow,  a  Brahman,  or  a  kid  ;  or  to  be  cast  into 
water  or  fire  ;  but  the  wife  of  the  householder  w^as  to  eat  the  middle 
of  the  three  cakes,  in  order  that  she  might  become  the  mother  of  a 
son,  who  should  be  long-lived,  famous,  strong-minded,  wealthy,  and 
the  father  of  many  sons.  When  the  Brahmans  had  duly  feasted, 
the  householder  gave  a  feast  to  the  kinsmen  of  his  father,  and 
afterwards  to  the  kinsmen  of  his  mother.  In  cases  of  poverty, 
however,  the  ofl^ering  of  water  seems  to  be  considered  a  sufficient 
satisfaction  of  the  spirits  of  the  six  paternal  ancestors. 

As  regards  the  persons  to  be  invited  to  the  monthly  Sraddha, 
great  stress  is  laid  by  the  code  upon  the  entertainment  of  learned 
Brahmans,  and  the  exclusion  of  ignorant  ones  from  the  Sraddha  ; 
but  it  is  added  that  if  such  learned  Brahmans  cannot  be  found, 
certain  relatives  may  be  entertained.  This  last  expression  is 
somewhat  obscure,  and  may  possibly  imply  that  the  Sraddha  was 
originally  eaten  by  the  kinsmen,  and  that  the  introduction  of 
learned  Brahmans  was  a  later  idea. 

Manu's  catalogue  of  the  persons  who  were  to  be  excluded  from 
a  monthly  Sraddha  is  of  a  very  miscellaneous  character  ;  and  is 
chiefly  valuable  from  the  illustrations  which  it  furnishes  of  the 
Brahmanical  notion  of  impure  or  immoral  characters.  Tlie  cata- 
lofiue  mav  be  re-distributcd  under  four  general  heads,  according 


600  SUA 

to  the  four  different  grounds  upon  which  the  individuals  specified 
have  been  respectively  excluded,  namely,  moral,  religious,  physical 
and  professional. 

The  persons  to  be  excluded  from  a  Sraddha  on  moral  grounds, 
are : — 

"  A  Brahmachari  who  has  not  read  the  Veda;  a  Brahman  who 
has  committed  theft  ;  one  who  opposes  his  preceptor  ;  a  younger 
brother  married  before  the  elder  ;  an  elder  brother  not  married 
before  the  younger  ;  one  who  subsists  by  the  wealth  of  many 
relatives  ;  the  husband  of  a  Sudra  ;  the  son  of  a  twice-married 
woman  ;  a  husband  in  whose  house  an  adulterer  dwells  ;  one  who 
teaches  the  Veda  for  wages  ;  one  who  gives  wages  to  such  a  teacher  ; 
the  pupil  of  a  Siidra  ;  the  Sudra  preceptor  ;  a  rude  speaker  ;  the 
son  of  an  adulteress  born  either  before  or  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  ;  a  forsaker  of  his  mother,  father,  or  preceptor  without 
just  cause  ;  a  man  who  forms  a  connection  with  great  sinners  ; 
a  house-burner  ;  a  giver  of  poison  ;  an  eater  of  food  offered  by  the 
son  of  an  adulterer  ;  a  suborner  of  perjury  ;  a  wrangler  with  his 
father  ;  a  drinker  of  intoxicating  spirits  ;  one  of  evil  repute  ;  a 
cheat  ;  the  husband  of  a  younger  sister  married  before  the  elder  ; 
an  injurer  of  his  friend  ;  a  father  instructed  in  the  Veda  by  his 
own  son  ;  one  who  diverts  watercourses  ;  a  seducer  of  damsels  ;  a 
man  who  delights  in  mischief  ;  a  Brahman  living  as  a  Sudra  ;  one 
who  observes  neither  approved  customs  nor  prescribed  duties  ;  a 
constant  and  importunate  asker  of  favours  ;  one  who  is  despised 
by  the  virtuous  ;  the  husband  of  a  twice-married  woman  ;  a 
Brahman  of  bad  manners  ;  and  an  ignorant  Brahman." 

The  persons  to  be  excluded  from  a  Sraddha  on  religious  grounds, 
are  : — 

"  Those  who  profess  to  disbelieve  in  a  future  state  ;  a  Brahman 
who  has  performed  many  sacrifices  for  other  men  ;  those  who 
worship  images  for  gain  ;  one  who  deserts  the  sacred  fire  ;  one 
who  omits  the  five  great  sacraments  ;  a  contemner  of  Brahmans  ; 
a  despiser  of  scripture  ;  and  one  who  sacrifices  only  to  the  inferior 
gods." 


SRA  601 

The  persons  to  be  excluded  from  a  Sraddha  on  physical  grounds, 
are  : — 

"  Those  with  whitlows  on  their  nails  ;  those  with  black -yellow 
teeth  ;  a  consumptive  man  ;  a  man  who  has  lost  an  eye  ;  a  man 
with  elephantiasis  ;  an  impotent  man  ;  an  epileptic  man  ;  one 
with  erysipelas  ;  a  leper  ;  a  lunatic  ;  a  blind  man  ;  a  club-footed 
man." 

The  persons  to  be  excluded  from  a  Sraddha  because  of  their 
trade  or  profession,  are  : — 

"  Physicians  ;  gamesters  ;  usurers  ;  dancers  ;  sellers  of  meat  ; 
those  who  live  by  low  traffic  ;  a  public  servant  of  the  whole  town  ; 
a  public  servant  of  the  Rdja  ;  a  feeder  of  cattle  ;  a  seller  of  the 
moon-plant  ;  a  navigator  of  the  ocean  ;  a  political  economist  ;  an 
oil  man  ;  one  who  employs  gamesters  for  his  own  benefit  ;  a  seller 
of  liquors  ;  a  maker  of  bows  and  arrows  ;  the  keeper  of  a  gambling- 
house  ;  a  common  informer  ;  a  tamer  of  elephants,  bulls,  horses,  or 
camels  ;  one  who  subsists  by  astrology  ;  a  keeper  of  birds  ;  one 
who  teaches  the  use  of  arms  ;  one  who  builds  houses  for  gain  ;  a 
messenger  ;  a  planter  of  trees  for  pay  ;  a  breeder  of  sporting  dogs ; 
a  falconer  ;  one  who  supports  himself  by  tillage  ;  a  shepherd  ;  a 
keeper  of  buffaloes  ;   and  one  who  removes  dead  bodies  for  pay." 

The  food  that  is  given  to  such  men  at  a  Sraddha  becomes  base 
and  impure  ;  and  the  giver  of  the  Sraddha  will  be  punished  in  the 
next  life. 

The  foregoing  catalogues  of  persons  who  are  to  be  excluded 
from  a  Sraddha  are  very  suggestive.  In  the  first  place  it  will  be 
noticed  that  Manu  classifies  immorality,  heresy,  and  deviation 
from  caste  rule,  with  physical  evils,  such  as  leprosy,  blindness,  and 
elephantiasis  ;  and  this  intermingling  is  more  perceptible  in  the 
original  text,  where  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  separate  the 
precepts  under  different  heads.  This  strange  confusion  of  sin  and 
disease  appears  to  have  originated  in  the  old  idea,  connected  with 
the  dogma  of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  that  disease  was  the 
punishment  of  sins  committed  either  in  this  life  or  in  a  previous 
state  of  existence. 

76 


602  SEA 

The  peculiar  usages  which  seem  to  have  originated  some  of  the 
precepts  are  also  well  worthy  of  notice.  Thus  it  has  been  seen 
that  it  was  considered  wrong  for  a  younger  brother  or  a  younger 
sister  to  be  married  before  an  elder  brother  or  an  elder  sister  ;  a 
notion  which  could  only  find  a  place  amongst  a  people  who  believed 
that  the  marriage  of  a  daughter  was  a  duty  which  every  parent 
was  bound  to  fulfil.  It  has  also  been  seen  that  a  woman  who 
married  a  second  husband  was  held  in  great  abhorrence  ;  and  to 
the  present  day  the  marriage  of  a  Hindu  widow,  even  when  her 
first  husband  has  died  before  the  marriage  has  been  consummated, 
is  regarded  with  a  national  antipathy  which  education  and  legis- 
lation have  done  but  little  to  remove.  It  is  also  somewhat  curious 
that  Manu  should  exclude  a  constant  and  importunate  asker  of 
favours  from  a  Sraddha  ;  from  which  it  would  appear  that  askers 
of  favours  were  as  constant  and  importunate  in  the  age  of  Manu 
as  they  are  in  our  own  time. 

Amongst  the  persons  whom  Manu  directed  should  be  excluded 
on  religious  grounds  are  to  be  found  those  who  sacrifice  only  to 
the  "  inferior  gods."  This  expression  of  "  inferior  gods"  seems 
to  suggest  a  religious  opposition.  Indeed  it  is  not  impossible  that 
Manu  is  alluding  to  the  old  Vedic  deities,  who  were  treated  by  the 
Brahmans  as  subordinate  to  their  god  Brahma.  The  injunction 
against  the  Brahmans  who  performed  many  sacrifices  for  other 
men,  may  have  been  aimed  at  the  mercenary  priests  who  sacrificed 
for  hire.  The  injunction  against  those  who  worshipped  images 
for  the  sake  of  gain  is  involved  in  more  obscurity,  inasmuch  as 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  satisfactory  reference  to  images  in 
the  hymns  of  the  Eig  Veda  ;  although  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
such  a  form  of  worship  must  sooner  or  later  find  expression. 

The  exclusion  of  men  who  followed  certain  trades  or  professions 
from  the  entertainment  given  at  a  Sraddha,  furnishes  in  like 
manner  some  striking  illustrations  of  the  old  opposition  between 
the  priest  and  the  soldier,  the  Brahman  and  the  Kshatriya,  which 
seems  to  be  more  or  less  identical  with  the  opposition  between  the 
Brahmans  and  the  Vedic  Aryans.  Thus  amongst  the  ancient 
Kshatriyas,  gambling  was  a  favourite  pastime,  and  certainly  was 
not  regarded  as  a  vice,  excepting  when  carried  to  a  vicious  excess 


SRA  G03 

aud  terminating  in  the  ruin  of  a  family.  Even  Yudhishthira,  who 
is  represented  in  tlie  Mahabharata  as  an  incarnation  of  Dharma,  or 
goodness,  and  who  was  apparently  regar^led  as  a  model  Raja,  is 
actually  said  to  have  disguised  himself  as  a  Brahman,  aud  in  that 
guise  to  have  taught  the  art  of  dice  to  the  Raja  of  Virata.  But 
Manu  excludes  from  the  Sraddha  every  gambler,  and  every  man 
who  keeps  a  gambling-house  or  employs  gamblers.  Then  again 
the  Kshatryias  revelled  in  wine  and  flesh-meat  ;  but  Manu  excludes 
the  sellers  of  wine  aud  meat  from  the  Sraddha.  The  most  signi- 
ficant precepts  however  are  those  which  exclude  the  makers  of 
bows  and  arrows,  the  tamers  of  horses,  and  those  who  taught  the 
use  of  arms  ;  for  the  bow  Avas  the  favourite  weapon  of  the  Ksha- 
triyas,  and  the  taming  of  horses  w^as  regarded  as  a  royal  accom- 
plishment ;  whilst  two  of  the  most  patriarchal  characters  in  the 
Mahabharata,  Bhishma  and  Drona,  are  said  to  have  trained  Pandu 
and  Dritarashtra,  and  their  sons,  the  Pandavas  aud  Kauravas,  in 
the  use  of  different  kinds  of  weapons.  The  exclusion  of  navigators 
is  equally  curious.  Navigation  was  certainly  known  to  the  Vedic 
Aryans,  and  is  even  recognised  by  Manu  ;  but  it  has  always  been 
regarded  with  peculiar  horror  by  the  Brahmans  ;  aud  consequently 
it  is  referred  to  the  three  first  Yugas  or  ages,  but  discountenanced 
in  the  age  of  Kali.  The  exclusion  of  physicians  seems  to  have 
originated  in  the  idea  that  they  must  be  impure  from  having  to 
deal  with  impure  things. 

As  regards  the  food  to  be  offered  to  the  gliosts  at  the  monthly 
Sraddha,  the  precepts  in  Manu  are  also  significant.  The  old 
primitive  custom  of  offering  fish  and  flesh  is  sufficiently  recognized? 
but  at  the  same  time  it  is  urged  that  the  ghosts  prefer  a  more 
simple  and  Brahmanical  diet,  such  as  milk  and  honey.  At  a  later 
period  it  was  declared  that  the  feasting  on  flesh-meat  at  a  Sraddha 
was  forbidden  in  the  Kali  age. 

The  funeral  Sraddha,  which  is  performed  after  the  death  of  a 
kinsman,  is  in  every  respect  similar  to  the  monthly  Sraddha,  aud 
consequently  calls  for  no  detailed  description.  The  code  lays 
down  certain  laws  as  regards  the  purification  of  the  survivors,  but 
they  arc  devoid  of  historical  significance.     The  ceremonies  which 


604  SUA 

accompanied  and  followed  the  death  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha 
suiSeieutly  illustrate  the  popular  ideas  and  customs  which  still 
prevail. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  data  that  the  old  Vedic  belief 
in  the  worship  of  ancestors  has  been  strangely  Brahmanized  by 
the  compilers  of  the  code.  The  monthly  Sraddha,  whilst  ostensibly 
celebrated  in  honour  of  deceased  ancestors,  is  in  reality  nothing 
more  than  an  entertainment  given  to  the  Brahmans.  Again,  the 
original  idea  appears  to  have  originated  in  a  child-like  belief  that 
the  food  and  water  sustain  and  refresh  the  spirit  of  the  departed  ; 
whilst,  according  to  the  more  modern  Brahmanical  doctrine,  the 
performance  of  a  Sraddha  delivers  the  soul  of  the  dead  person  from 
the  custody  of  Yama,  the  judge  of  the  dead,  and  translates  it  to  the 
heaven  of  the  Pitris,  or  ancestors  ;  there  to  remain  until  the 
merits  of  its  previous  life  on  earth  are  all  exhausted,  and  then  to 
return  again  to  earth  and  re-animate  another  body.  Thus  it  is  the 
current  belief  that  without  the  Sraddha  the  soul  of  the  deceased 
cannot  ascend  to  the  heaven  of  the  Pitris  and  take  up  its  abode 
there."     Chapter  IX. 

Sraddha — Religious  Faith.  Personifications  of  abstract  ideas 
are  not  uncommon  in  the  Rig  Veda,  one  hymn  of  which,  x.  151,  is 
addressed  to  Sraddha,  or  religious  faith.  By  her  it  is  said  the 
sacrificial  fire  is  kindled,  and  by  her  the  oblation  is  offered  up. 
She  is  asked  to  prosper  the  liberal  worshippers  of  the  gods,  and 
to  impart  faith  ;  and  is  said  to  be  an  object  of  adoration  in  the 
morning,  at  noon,  and  at  sunset.  In  the  Vaj  Sanhita  it  is  said  that 
faith  is  obtained  by  gifts,  and  truth  by  faith.  In  the  same  work 
it  is  declared  that  '  Prajapati  beholding,  made  a  distinction  between 
the  forms  of  truth  and  falsehood,  connecting  disbelief  with  the 
latter,  and  faith  or  belief  with  the  former.'  This  declaration  that 
truth  is  the  only  proper  object  of  faith,  has  a  far  deeper  significa- 
tion than  this  ancient  Avriter  could  possibly  have  assigned  to  it,  viz., 
that  it  is  the  ultimate  truth,  and  not  the  so-called  orthodoxy  of 
any  proposition,  which  can  alone  entitle  it  to  reception. 

Sraddha  is  also  celebrated  in  the  Taitt.  Br.,  where  we  are  told 
that  through  Sraddha,  a  god  obtains  his  divine  character  ;  that  the 
divine  Sraddha  is  the  support  of  the  world,  that  she  has  Rama 


SRA— SRI  605 


(or  the  fulfilment  of  desire)  for  her  calf,  auJ  yields  immortality 
as  her  milk  ;  that  she  is  the  first-born  of  the  religious  ceremonial, 
and  the  sustaiuer  of  the  whole  world  ;  and  she,  who  is  the  supreme 
mistress  of  the  world,  is  besought  to  bestow  immortality  on  her 
worshippers. —  0.  S.  T.,  V,  347. 

Sravaka — (From  the  Sanskrit  h-u,  to  hear)  is  the  name  of  the 
disciples  of  Buddha,  who,  through  the  'hearing'  of  his  doctrine, 
and  by  practising  the  four  great  Buddhistic  truths,  attain  to  the 
qualification  of  an  Arhat,  or  Buddhist  saint.  From  among  the 
number  of  the  disciples  of  Buddha,  80  are  called  the  MahasravakaSf 
or  the  great  Sravakas.  The  Sravakas  are  entitled  to  the  predicate 
Ayushniat,  or  '  one  possessed  of  (long)  life.' 

Sravana — l,  The  lunar  month  which  nearly  corresponds  with 
July  ;  2,  A  lunar  mansion  in  Mrigavithi  in  the  southern  Avash- 
thana. 

Sravasta — A  prince,  the  son  of  Yuvauaswa,  who  built  the  city 
of  Sravasti,  in  Kosala  or  Oude  ;  a  city  of  some  sanctity  in  the 
estimation  of  the  Buddhists. 

Sri — A  name  of  Lakshmi,  q.  v. 

"  In  the  Vishnu,  Garuda,  Liuga,  and  Padma  Puranas,  Sri  is 
said  to  have  been  born  the  daughter  of  the  divine  sage  Bhrigu,  the 
son  of  Marichi,  who  sprang  from  the  mind  of  Brahma,  and  to  have 
obtained  Vishnu  for  her  husband.  But  she  is  more  generally 
considered  to  be  the  female  energy  of  that  god,  and  therefore  to 
be  exempt  from  birth.  'Sri  is  inseparable  from  Vishnu,  for 
wherever  Vishnu  is  there  also  is  Sri  ;  he  is  the  sun  and  she  its 
splendour  ;  he  is  the  moon  and  she  its  radiance  ;  Govinda  is  the 
ocean  and  Kamala  the  tide  ;  he  is  the  day  and  she  the  night  :  all 
that  is  masculine  is  Vishnu,  and  all  that  is  feminine  is  Sri.'"* 

Srideva — One  of  the  daughters  of  Devaka,  married  to  Vasudeva. 

Sridhara  Swami — A  commentator  in  the  Bhagavata  and  in 
the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Srijavana — One  of  the  sons  of  Dyutimat. 


*  Col.  Vans  Kennedy.   A.  and  H.  M. 


COG  SRI— SKU 


Sringa — A  Rishi,  the  story  of  whose  life  is  related  iu  the 
Ramayana.  He  passed  the  earlier  years  of  his  life  in  the  hermitage 
of  his  father,  in  the  jungle,  and  had  consequently  never  seen  the 
face  of  a  woman.  He  was  enticed  from  his  father's  hermitage  by 
damsels  sent  from  the  Raja  of  Auga  :  on  his  arrival  there  he 
caused  rain  to  fall  in  abundance  ;  and  was  married  to  Santa  the 
daughter  of  the  Raja  ;  and  was  subsequently  engaged  to  perform 
the  Aswamedha  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha. — [Rishyasringa.] 

Sringavera — The  modern  Suugroor,  the  frontier  town  between 
Kosala  and  the  Bhil  country.  When  Rama  was  going  into  exile, 
he  and  Sita  halted  there,  and  were  hospitably  received  by  Guha,  the 
Raja  of  the  Bhils. 

Sringi — A  rauge  of  mountains  to  the  north  of  Meru. 

Srinjaya — l,  The  fourth  kiug  of  Vaisali,  son  of  Dhumaraswa  ; 
2,  A  son  of  Sura,  and  brother  of  Vasudeva  ;  3,  The  son  of 
Kalanara  ;  4,  A  king  of  Magadha,  son  of  Haryaswa. 

Srinjayas — A  people  from  the  north-west,  among  the  warriors 
of  the  Mahabharata. 

Srisaila — A  mountain  near  the  Krishna. 

Sritala— One  of  the  seven  regions  of  Pdtala,  according  to 
the  enumeration  in  the  Vayu. 

Sruta — 1,  (Sacred  tradition)  A  son  of  Dharma  by  Medha  ; 
2,  The  son  of  Bhagiratha  ;  3,  A  son  of  Krishna  by  Kalindi. 

Srutadeva — A  daughter  of  Sura,  and  wife  of  Vriddhasarman, 
kiug  of  Karusha— the  parents  of  the  fierce  Asura  Dantavaktra. 

Srutakarman— One  of  the  Pd^ndavas,  the  son  of  Sahadeva, 
the  youngest  of  the  Pandava  princes. 

Srutakirtti— A  daughter  of  Sura,  married  to  Dhrishtaketu, 
Raja  of  Kaikeya. 

Srutakirtti — One  of  the  P^ndavas  the  son  of  Arjuna. 
Srutanjaya — One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Senajit. 
Srutasena— One  of  the  sons  of  Parikshit. 
Srutasoma — The  son  of  the  Pandava  prince  Bhima. 


SRU— STO  GOT 


Srutasuras — The  daughter  of  Sura,  who  was  married  to 
Damaghosha,  king  of  Clicdi. 

Srutavat — One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Somapi. 
In  some  lists  called  Srutasura«,  and  said  to  have  reigned  67  years. 

Srutayus — l,  One  of  the  kings  of  Ayodhya,  the  son  of 
Bhanumitra,  a  descendant  of  Kusa  ;  2,  A  king  of  Mithila,  son 
of  Arishtanemi  ;  3,   The  youngest  son  of  Pururavas. 

Sruti — (From  the  Sanscrit  ^rtt,  hear,  hence,  literally,  the  hear- 
ing, or  that  which  is  heard)  is,  in  Sanscrit  Literature,  the  technical 
term  for  all  those  works  which  are  considered  to  have  been  revealed 
by  a  deity.  It  applies,  therefore,  properly  speaking,  only  to  the 
Mantra  and  Brahmana  portion  of  the  Vedas  ;  but  at  a  later  period, 
it  is  applied  likewise,  if  uot  especially,  to  the  Upanishads.  It 
means  Revelation,  as  distinguished  from  Smriti,  Tradition.  "  The 
distinction"  says  Max  Miiller,  "  between  Sruti,  (revelation),  and 
Smriti,  (tradition)  is  a  point  of  vital  importance  for  the  whole 
Brahmanic  system,  and  will  be  found  significant  in  a  historical 
point  of  view."  "  The  distinction  between  Sruti  and  Smriti, 
revelation  and  tradition,  had  been  established  by  the  Brahmans 
previous  to  the  rise  of  Buddhism,  or,  at  all  events,  previous  to  the 
time  when  the  Sutra  style  began  to  be  adopted  in  Indian  literature. 
There  existed,  previous  to  the  Sutra  period,  a  body  oF  literary 
works  propagated  by  oral  tradition,  which  formed  the  basis  of  all 
later  writings  on  sacred  subjects,  and  which  by  the  Brahmans  was 
believed  to  be  of  divine  origin.  The  idea  expressed  by  the  word 
srUy  to  hear,  i.  e.,  to  receive  by  inspiration,  is  known  in  the 
Brahmanas."—^.  S.  L.,  107. 

Sruti — The  daughter  of  Atri,  married  to  the  Prajapati  Kardama. 

Stambha — l,  A  phonetic  variety  of  the  same  dhatu  or  root  as 
Skambha,  (q.  v.)  ;  2,  One  of  the  seven  Rishis  of  the  second  Man- 
wantara. 

Sthaleyu  Sthandileyu — Two  of  the  ten  sons  of  Raudraswa, 
king  of  Mithila. 

Stoma   and    Stuti — Hymns  and   prayers,  created   from    the 

eastern  and  other  mouths  of  Brahma. 


608  SUB— SUD 


Subahu — A  king  of  Mathura,  the  son  of  Satrughna. 

Subala — A  mountain  in  the  island  of  Lanka,  on  which  Hanuroan 
ah'ghted  when  he  "  took  a  gigantic  spring,  and  by  his  prodigious 
strength  leaped  over  the  wide  ocean,"  as  described  in  the  Ramayaria. 

Subhadra — The  sister  of  Krishna.  Arjuna  fell  in  love  with 
her,  and  with  the  consent  of  Krishna  eloped  with  her,  but  after- 
wards returned  to  Dwaraka  where  they  were  formally  married 
with  great  splendour.  She  was  easily  reconciled  to  Draupadi  and 
became  the  mother  of  Arjuna's  son  Abhimanyu,  (q.  v.) 

Subhasa — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  sou  of  Sudhanwau. 
Subhumi — One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena. 
Suchandra — A  king  of  Vaisali,  son  of  Hemchandra. 
SucharU — One  of  the  sons  of  Krishna  by  his  wife  Rukmini. 
Suchchaya — The  wife  of  Slishti,  a  son  of  Dhruva. 

Suchi — 1,  One  of  the  sous  of  the  Agni  named  Abhimani, 
the  eldest  born  of  Brahma  :  Suchi  was  one  of  the  three  fires  ; 
the  genealogy  is  different  in  the  Bhagavata  ;  2,  The  son  of 
Satadyumna,  king  of  Mithila  ;  3,  One  of  the  sons  of  Andhaka  ; 
4,  The  sou  of  Vipra,  king  of  Magadha  ;  5  The  Indra  of  the 
fourteenth  Mauwautara. 

Suchi — The  parent  of  water-fowl ;  daughter  of  Kasyapa  by  his 
wife  Tamra, 

SuchiravaS — One  of  the  twelve  Prajapatis. 

Sudarsana — A  prince  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku,  and  sovereign 
of  Ayodhya. 

Sudasa — The  son  of  Sarvakama,  a  descendant  of  Sagara  ;  2, 
A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Chyavana. 

Suddhodana — A  prince  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku  who,  from 
his  connection  with  Sakya,  the  author  or  reviver  of  Buddhism,  is 
ascertained  to  have  lived  in  the  seventh  century  before  Christ. 

Sudeshna— One  of  the  sons  of  Krishna  by  Rukmini. 

Sudeva — l,  A  son  of  Chunchu  ;  2,  A  son  of  Devaka,  of  the 
Yadava  race- 


SUD  609 

Sudhaman — A  Lokapiila,  regent  of  the  east  quarter,  the  son  of 
Virajas  and  Gauri. 

Sudhamas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  third  and  tenth  Manwau- 
taras. 

Sudhamans — A  class  of  thirty-three  gods  in  the  thirteenth 
Manwantara. 

Sudhanush — A  son  of  the  patriarch  Kuru  who  gave  his  name 
to  the  holy  district  Kurukshetra. 

Sudhanwan — l,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Saswata  ;  2,  A 
king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Satyadhrita. 

Sudharman — The  hall  of  Indra,  which  was  given  by  Krishna 
to  Ugrasena,  for  the  assemblage  of  the  race  of  Yadu  :  it  was 
conveyed  by  Vayu  to  the  Yadavas,  the  chiefs  of  whom  thenceforth 
possessed  this  celestial  court,  emblazoned  with  jewels,  and  defended 
hj  the  arms  of  Govinda.  After  the  death  of  Krishna  the  Sudharman 
palace  returned  to  heaven  along  with  the  Parijata  tree. 

Sudharmas — A  class  of  divinities  of  the  ninth  Manwantara  ; 
the  class  consisted  of  twelve, 

Sudhis— A  class  of  twenty-seven  deities  belonging  to  the  fourth 
Manwantara. 

Sudhriti — A  prince  of  the  solar  dynasty,  the  son  of  Rajgavard- 
dhana. 

Sudra  dynasty — This  was  founded  by  Chandragupta  in  the 
first  half  of  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  The  dynasty  lasted  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  years.  Chandragupta  is  the  same  person 
as  Saudracottus,  who,  according  to  Justin,  had  seized  the  throne  of 
India  after  the  prefects  of  Alexander  had  been  murdered.  Seleucus 
found  him  as  sovereign  of  India  when,  after  the  taking  of  Babylon, 
and  the  conquest  of  the  Bactrians,  he  passed  on  into  India. 
Seleucus  however  did  not  conquer  Saudracottus,  but  after 
concluding  a  league  with  him,  marched  on  to  make  war  against 
Antigonus. 

Sudraka— The  first  Andhra  prince,  who  reigned  seventy-three 

years  at  Miigadha. 

77 


610  SUD— SUG 


Sudras — The  lowest  of  the  four  castes,  said  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana  to  have  been  produced  from  the  feet  of  Brahma  ;  but  in 
another  part  of  the  same  work  the  distinctions  are  ascribed  to 
voluntary  election,  to  accident,  or  to  positive  institutions  ;  their 
duties  are  said  to  be  to  wait  on  the  three  upper  castes  ;  and  by 
that  means  to  earn  their  subsistence  ;  they  may  also  eugage  in  trade 
and  mechanical  labour. 

Sudyunina — See  Ila  ;  who  was  transformed  into  a  man  named 
Sudyumua  ;  at  a  subsequent  period  he  was  again  transformed  to  a 
woman,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hermitage  of  Budha,  who  saw  and 
espoused  her,  and  had  by  her  a  son  named  Pururavas.  After  his 
birth  the  Rishis  prayed  to  Vishnu,  and  through  his  favour  Ila  once 
more  became  Sudyumna.  In  consequence  of  his  having  been 
formerly  a  female,  Sudyumna  was  excluded  from  any  share  in  his 
paternal  dominions  ;  but  his  father,  at  the  suggestion  of  Vasishtha, 
bestowed  upon  him  the  city  of  Pratishthana,  and  he  gave  it  to 
Pururavas,    V.  P. 

Sugandhi — One  of  the  bond  maids  of  Vasudeva. 

Sugriva — The  monkey  chieftain  in  the  Rishya-mukha  mountain, 
who  received  Rama  and  Lakshmana  when  they  were  trying  to 
discover  Sita,  and  showed  her  ornaments,  which  she  had  purposely 
dropped  in  her  flight,  to  Rama.  He  then  related  the  story  of  his 
grievances  against  his  brother  Bali,  and  solicited  Rama's  aid, 
Rama  had  afforded  evidence  of  his  superhuman  strength  and  skill. 

"  Then  high  Sugriva's  spirit  rose, 
Assured  of  conquest  o'er  his  foes. 
With  his  new  champion  by  his  side. 
To  vast  Kishkindhya's  cave  he  hied. 
Then  summoned  by  his  awful  shout, 
King  Bali  came  in  fury  out, 
First  comforted  his  trembling  wife, 
Then  sought  Sugriva  in  the  strife. 
One  shaft  from  Rama's  deadly  bow, 
The  monarch  in  the  dust  laid  low. 
Then  Rama  bade  Sugriva  reign 
In  place  of  royal  Bali  slain." — Griffiths. 


SUG— SUH  Gil 


When  Bali  was  dying  he  acknowledged  his  fault,  and  asked  his 
brother's  forgiveness,  commending  his  son  Anga  and  his  wife  Tara 
to  Sugriva's  care.  The  latter,  when  reinstated  on  the  throne  at 
Kishkiudhya  invited  Rama  and  Lakshmana  to  live  with  him  there. 
This  invitation  Rama  was  unable  to  accept  on  account  of  his  vow  ; 
but  after  the  rainy  season,  Sugriva  summoned  his  armies  to  assist 
Rama  in  conquering  the  Kakshasas  and  recovering  Sita.  He 
marshalled  his  troops  in  four  great  divisions.  The  first  he  sent 
north  under  Vinata.  The  second,  south,  under  various  generals, 
especially  Hanuman,  and  Jambavat.  The  third,  west,  under 
Sushena.     The  fourth,  east,  under  Satabali. 

When  Hanuman  returned  with  tidings  that  Sita  was  a  prisoner 
in  Lanka,  Sugriva  set  forth  at  the  head  of  his  army  to  aid  in 
effecting  her  deliverance.  Sugriva  was  wounded  by  Eavana,  and 
afterwards  suffered  greatly  from  the  wounds  inflicted  by  the 
magical  weapons  of  Indrajit,  the  brave  son  of  Ravaria.  Sugi'ivu  was 
restored  by  the  medicinal  herbs  brought  by  Hanuman  from  Kailasa. 
After  the  death  of  Ravaria,  Sugriva  accompanied  Rama  and 
Lakshmana  on  their  return  to  Ayodhya  on  the  self-moving  car 
Pushpaka. 

Sugrivi--One  of  the  "  six  illustrious  daughters"  of  Kasyapa, 
who  became  the  parent  of  horses,  camels,  and  asses. 

Suhma — A  sou  of  Bali,  who  gave  his  name  to  his  descendants 
and  the  country  they  inhabited.  Of  Suhma  it  may  be  remarked 
that  it  is  specified  in  the  Siddhanta  Kaumudi  as  an  example  of 
Paniui's  rule,  by  which  Nagara,  compounded  with  names  of  coun- 
tries in  the  east  becomes  Nagara,  as  Sauhmanagara  produced,  &c., 
in  a  city  of  Suhma.      Wilso7i's  Notes  to  V.  P. 

Suhmas — The  Suhmas  and  Prasahmas  were  found  in  the  east 
by  Bhima  ;  and  Suhma  is  elsewhere  said  to  be  situated  east  of 
Bengal,  towards  the  sea,  the  king  and  the  people  bein^^  Mlech- 
chhas,  that  is,  not  Hindus  ;  it  would  correspond  therefore  with 
Tiperah  and  Arracan. 

Suhotra — Three  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu 
Puraua,  and  in  all  the  best  authorities  ;  1,  Suhotra,  great  grandson 
of  Amavasa,  father  of  Jahnu,  (q.  v.)  and  ancestor  of  Visvaraitra 


612  SUJ— SUK 


and  the  Kausikiis  ;  2,  Suhotra,  son  of  Kshattravriddha,  grandson 
of  Ayus  and  progenitor  of  the  Kasi  kings  ;  3,  Suhotra,  the  son  of 
Vrihatkshatra,  grandson  of  Vitatha,  and  parent  of  Hastin.  The 
Brahma  Purana  in  some  degree,  and  the  Hari  Vansa  in  a  still 
gi-eater,  have  made  most  extraordinary  confusion  in  the  instance 
of  this  name. —  PVilsofi's  Notes  to  V.  P.  Another  Suhotra  is 
mentioned  as  the  son  of  Sudhanush,  and  another  as  the  son  of 
Sahadeva,  both  in  the  same  line  of  Hastin. 

Sujati — A  Yadava  prince,  the  son  of  Vitihotra.  The  Sujatas 
form  a  tribe  in  Central  India  at  the  present  day. 

Sujyeshta — A  king  of  Magadha,  the  sou  of  Agnimitra. 

Suka — One  of  the  ministers  of  Ravana,  who,  having  assumed 
the  form  of  a  monkey,  was  sent  by  his  master,  with  another 
minister,  Sarana,  to  go  and  spy  out  the  army  of  Rama,  and  bring 
him  word  as  to  the  names  and  characters  of  his  chief  heroes  and 
counsellors.  They  were  seized  and  carried  into  the  presence  of 
Rama,  who  ordered  them  to  return  and  tell  all  they  had  seen  to 
Ravana  ;  he  also  threatened  to  follow  himself  and  reduce  Lanka 
to  a  heap  of  ashes.  When  Ravana  heard  the  message,  he  exclaimed, 
*  Not  though  all  the  world  came  out  to  fight  against  me,  will  I  ever 
restore  Sita  to  Rama  ?'  When  Suka  counselled  a  different  course, 
he  was  dismissed  from  the  service,  and  went  to  the  jungle  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  as  a  devotee. 

Sukala — The  wife  of  a  Vaisya,  who,  having  gone  on  a  pilgrim- 
age, left  her  in  great  affliction,  and  her  female  friends  came  to 
console  her  ;  Sukala  continuing  to  mourn  for. her  absent  lord, 
K^madeva  and  Indra  attempted  to  seduce  her  but  were  foiled,  and 
she  remained  faithful  to  her  husband,  who  returned  from  pilgrim- 
age and  received  blessings  from  heaven  in  recompense  of  the 
virtues  of  his  wife.  This  story  is  said  in  the  Padma  Purauas  to 
have  been  recited  by  Vishnu  to  king  Vena,  in  illustration  of  the 
truth  that  a  wife  may  be  considered  as  a  Tirtha. —  Wilsoii's 
Works,  III,  35. 

Sukalins— Sons  of  Vasishtha,  and  Pitris  of  Sudras.  The 
Matsya  specifics  them  as  amongst  the  incorporeal  Pitris. 


SUK  613 

Sukanya — The  daughter  of  the  Raja  Saryati,  who  was  married 
to  the  sage  Chyavana  ;  (q.  v.) 

Sukara  — One  of  the  Narakas  ;  the  swine  hell,  for  the  murderer 
of  a  brahman,  the  stealer  of  gokl,  and  drinker  of  wine. 

Sukarman— A  teacher  of  the  Saraa-veda  :  he  and  his  father 
Sumantri,  studied  the  same  vSanhita  under  Jaimini. 

Sukarmans,  Sukarmas— Two  classes  of  deities  of  the 
thirteenth  and  twelfth  Manwautaras  respectively. 

SuketU — 1,  One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  sou  of  Nandward- 
dhana  ;  2,  One  of  the  Kasi  princes,  the  son  of  Sunitha. 

Sukha — Enjoyment  ;  the  son  of  Dharma,  by  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Daksha,  Siddhi,  Perfection. 

Suki — The  daughter  of  Tamra  and  wife  ofKasyapa,  who  gave 
birth  to  parrots,  owls,  and  crows. 

Sukra  —  l,  The  son  of  Bhava  ;  2,  One  of  the  seven  sages  of 
the  third  Mauwantara,  sons  of  Yasishtha  ;  3,  One  of  the  sons  of 
ITavirdhana  ;  4,  The  planet  Venus,  (or  her  regent)  whose  vast  car 
is  drawn  by  earth-born  horses,  is  equipped  Avith  a  protecting  fender 
and  a  floor,  armed  with  arrows,  and  decorated  by  a  banner  ;  5, 
The  name  of  a  month  occurring  in  the  Yedas,  belonging  to  a 
system  now  obsolete. 

Sukra — The  priest  and  preceptor  of  the  Daityas.  In  days  of 
old  when  the  Daityas  and  Devatus  were  at  war,  Sukra  was  the 
priest  and  preceptor  of  the  Daityas,  and  Vrihaspati,  the  priest  of 
the  Devatas,  and  Kanju,  the  son  of  Vrihaspati,  became  a  pupil  in 
the  house  of  Sukra.  He  passed  his  time  very  pleasantly  with 
Devayani,  the  daughter  of  Sukra  ;  they  were  constantly  together 
singing,  conversing,  &c.,  until  Devayaui  began  to  feel  a  deep  love 
for  her  fathers  pupil.  The  Daityas  were  angry  that  their  priest 
Sukra  should  teach  the  son  of  the  priest  of  their  enemy  :  and  one 
day  when  Kanju  was  taking  his  tutor's  cows  to  pasture,  the 
Daityas  carried  him  off.  Sukra  compelled  them,  at  the  request  of 
Devayani,  to  restore  him.  When  Kanju  had  finished  his  studies 
and  was  about  to  return  to  his  father's  house,  Devayani  suggested 
that  he  should  demand  her  of  her  father  in  marriage  :  but  Kanju 


614  SUK— SUM 


refused  saying  he  regarded  her  as  his  sister.  (See  Devayani.) 
The  daughtej'  of  the  Raja  of  the  Daityas  pushed  Devaydua  into  a 
well,  at  which  Sukra's  anger  was  excited,  and  he  threatened  to 
forsake  the  Daityas.  The  Raja  was  alarmed  ;  he  and  his  council 
humbled  themselves  to  Sukra,  and  made  his  daughter  servant  to 
Devayani.  The  aid  of  Sukra  was  implored  by  Ravarja  before  he 
took  the  field  against  Rama.  Sukra  taught  him  certain  mantras, 
and  directed  him  to  offer  sacrifice  in  a  secret  place,  and  repeat  the 
mantras,  whereupon  certain  weapons  would  come  out  of  the  fire, 
and  render  him  invincible  ;  but  Sukra  warned  him  that  he  must 
observe  a  strict  silence  throughout,  or  the  sacrifice  would  be 
devoid  of  all  power.  Ravana  arranged  accordingly  ;  but  Rama, 
hearing  what  his  enemy  was  about  to  do,  sent  Angada  and  Hauu- 
m^n  with  an  army  of  monkeys  to  obstruct  the  sacrifice,  which 
they  succeeded  in  doing. 

Sukriti — The  son  of  Prithu,  a  descendant  of  Hastin. 
Sukshatra—- A  king  of  Magadha,  the  sou  of  Niramitra, 

Suktimat — One  of  the  seven  chains  of  mountains  in  Bharata  ; 
the  east  and  north  portions  of  the  Vindhya  range. 

Suktimati — A  river  in  Cuttack. 

Sukumara — A  prince,  the  son  of  Dharmaketu,  a  descendant 
of  Alarka. 

Sulapani — The  sovereign  of  the  Bhutas,  or  evil  spirits  ; 
appointed  when  the  various  provinces  of  creation  were  assigned  to 
different  beings. 

Sulomadhi — The  name,  according  to  the  Bhfigavata,  of  the 
last  Audhra  prince. 

Sumalya — One  of  the  nine  Nandas,  kings  of  Magadha. 

Sumanas — l,  The  son  of  Ura  and  grandson  of  the  Manu 
Chakshusha  ;  2,  The  son  of  Haryaswa. 

Sumanasas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  twelfth  Manwantara. 

Sumantra — The  chief  counsellor  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha,  who 
made  known  the  ancient  prophecy  that  the  Aswamedha  was  to  be 
performed  by  the  Rishi  Sringa.     He  pacified  the  infant  Rama  with 


SUM— SUN  615 


a  mirror.  He  was  sent  by  Vasielitha  to  summon  the  Maharaja  to 
the  installation  of  li^ma  ;  but  Kaikeyi  desired  him  to  bring  Rama 
into  their  presence,  and  on  his  arrival  she  informed  him  of  a  pre- 
vious promise  of  the  Maharaja's,  and  stated  that  he  was  to  go  into 
exile.  Sumantra  reproached  her  but  to  no  purpose  ;  he  then  drove 
Rama  and  Sita  out  of  Ayodhya  in  the  royal  chariot,  and  on  his 
return  to  the  palace  delivered  Rcima's  parting  message  to  Dasaratha. 

SumantU — l,  A  teacher  of  the  Atharva-veda,  who  had  studied 
under  the  learned  Vyasa.  He  was  the  son  of  Jaimiui  ;  2,  A 
prince,  the  sou  of  Jahnu. 

Sumati— 1,  The  fifth  Tirthankara,  or  Jain  saint  of  the  present 
era  ;  2,  A  son  of  Bharata,  a  most  virtuous  prince  ;  he  resigned  the 
kingdom  for  the  life  of  an  ascetic,  and  died  at  the  holy  place 
Salagrama  ;  he  is  said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  have  been  after- 
wards born  again  as  a  Brahman  in  a  distinguished  family  of  ascetics  ; 
3,  A  son  of  Janamejaya,  king  of  Vaisali  ;  4,  The  son  of  Suparswa, 
king  of  Hastin  ;  5,  The  son  of  Dridhasena,  king  of  Magadha  ;  6, 
A  teacher  of  the  Purauas. 

Sumati — l,  A  daughter  of  the  sage  Kratu,  married  to  Yajna- 
vdma,  the  founder  of  a  Gotra  ;  2,  A  daughter  of  Vinata,  and  wife 
of  Sagara,  who  gave  birth  to  sixty  thousand  sons,  who  were  all 
destroyed  by  the  sage  Kapila. — [Sagara.] 

Sumedhasas— A  class  of  deities  of  the  fifth  Mauwantara. 

Sumitra— 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  Vrishni  ;  2,  The  last  of  the 
descendants  of  Ikshvaku. 

Sumitra — One  of  the  wives  of  Maharaja  Dasaratha,  and  mother 
of  Lakshmana  and  Satrughna. 

Sun — The  Vishnu  Purana  contains  a  long  description  of  the 
sun's  chariot,  and  horses,  his  diurnal  course,  his  northern  and 
southern  declinations,  the  way  in  which  his  destruction  is  daily 
attempted  by  the  Mandehas,  (q.  v.)  It  also  shows  that  the  sun 
is  the  cause  of  rain  by  evaporation.  A  mystical  account  is 
furnished  of  the  functions  of  the  sun  :  his  wives  and  children 
are  enumerated.  Then  it  is  stated  that  to  diminish  his  intensity, 
Visvakarman   placed    the    luminary    on    his    lathe,    and    ground 


616  SUN 

off  some  of  his  effulgence,  in  this  way  reducing  it  an  eighth. 
The  sun  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Aditi,  a  daughter  of  Daksha  ; 
and  as  the  father  of  Vaivaswata,  the  founder  of  the  Solar  dynasty. 
He  is  said  to  have  revealed  the  white  Yajush  to  Yajnawalkya,  and 
to  have  given  the  Syamantaka  gem  to  Satr^jit.  At  the  end  of  the 
world  he  is  to  dilate  into  seven  suns,  and  set  the  universe  on  fire. 

Sunahotra — A  great  Muni,  the  son  of  Bharadvaja.  See  a 
passage  quoted  in  A.  S.  L.  for  "  a  strange  and  startling  mixture 
of  legendary  and  historical  matter,"  connected  with  the  family  of 
this  Muni. 

SunahsephaS — The  story  of  Sunahsepha  is  told  by  different 
authorities,  with  several  variations.  As  the  author  of  various 
Suktas  in  the  Rich,  he  is  called  the  son  of  Ajigarta.  The  Rama- 
yana  makes  him  the  middle  son  of  the  sage  Richika,  sold  to  Amba- 
risha,  king  of  Ayodhya  by  his  parents,  to  be  a  victim  in  a  human 
sacrifice  offered  by  that  prince.  He  is  set  at  liberty  by  Visva- 
mitra  ;  but  it  is  not  added  that  he  was  adopted.  The  Bhagavata 
concurs  in  the  adoption,  but  makes  Sunahsepha  the  son  of  Visva- 
mitra's  sister,  by  Ajigarta,  of  the  line  of  Bhrigu,  and  states  his 
being  purchased,  as  a  victim,  for  the  sacrifice  of  Harischandra. 
The  Vayu  makes  him  a  son  of  Richika,  but  alludes  to  his  being 
the  victim  at  Harischandra's  sacrifice.  According  to  the  Rama- 
yana,  Yisvamitra  called  upon  his  sons  to  take  the  place  of  Sunah- 
sepha, and,  on  their  refusing,  degraded  them  to  the  condition  of 
Chandalas.  The  Bhagavata  says,  that  fifty  only  of  the  hundred 
sons  of  Visvamitra  were  expelled  their  tribe,  for  refusing  to 
acknowledge  Sunahsepha  or  Devarata,  as  their  elder  brother.  The 
others  consented  ;  and  the  Bhagavata  expresses  this  :  — 

"  They  said  to  the  elder,  profoundly  versed  in  the  Mantras,  "  We 
are  your  followers  :"  The  Ramayana  also  observes,  that  Sunahse- 
pha, when  bound,  praised  Indra  with  Richas,  or  hymns  of  the 
Rig  Veda,  The  origin  of  the  story,  therefore,— whatever  may  be 
its  correct  version, — must  be  referred  to  the  Vedas  ;  and  it,  evi- 
dently, alludes  to  some  innovation  in  the  ritual,  adopted  by  a  part 
only  of  the  Kausika  families  of  Brahmans." 

Sunaka— A  king  of  Kasi,  the  son  of  Ghritsamada. 


SUN— SUP  (317 


Sunakshatra— The  sou  of  Marudeva,  of  the  family  of  Iksh- 
vaku. 

Sunanda — A  servant  of  Vishnu,  who  was  sent  by  that  deity  to 
couvey  king  Bharata,  after  resigning  his  crown  to  his  son,  to 
Vaikuntha.  On  the  way  Bharata  asked  him  to  describe  the  regions 
which  they  traversed,  and  Sunanda  accordingly  told  him  the 
situation  and  extent  of  the  different  Lokas  or  spheres  above  the 
earth. 

Sunanda — The  sister  of  the  Ra'ja  of  Chedi,  who  received 
Damayanti  as  a  companion. 

Sunaman — One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena. 

Sunaya — l,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Rita  ;  2,  The  son 
of  Pariplava,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Snnda — One  of  the  Daityas,  the  son  of  Nisuuda,  and  father  of 
Maricha  and  Taraka. 

Sundara— One  of  the  thirty  Andhrabhritya  kings,  the  son  of 
Pravilasena. 

SungaS — A  dynasty  of  ten  kings  who  ruled  in  Magadha  for  a 
hundred  and  twelve  years. 

Sunika— The  prime  minister  of  Ripunjaya,  king  of  Magadha^ 
who  having  killed  his  sovereign  placed  his  son  Pradyota  upon 
the  throne. 

Sunita — One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Suvala. 

Sunitha — l,  A  king  of  Kasi,  the  son  of  Santali  and  grandson  of 
the  celebrated  Alarka  :  2,  The  son  of  Sushena,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Sunitha — The  daughter  of  Mrityu,  who  was  married  to  Anga, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Vena,  who  was  inaugurated  by  the 
Rishis  as  monarch  of  the  earth. 

Sunrita — The  wife  of  Uttauapada,  son  of  Dhruva. 

Sunyabandhu — A  son  of  Trinavinda,  by  the  celestial  nymph 
Alambusba. 

Suparna — A  name  of  Garuda,  the  king  of  the  feathered  tribes. 

Suparswa — A  mountain  in  Jambudwipa,  forming  the  northern 
buttress  of  Mount  Meru. 

78 


618  SUP— SUR 


Suparswa — l,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Srutayus  ;  2,  A 
king  of  Hastinapura,  the  son  of  Dridhanemi. 

Suprattha  — A  king  of  the  country  south  of  Meru,  the  son  of 
Bhanuratha,  descendant  of  Ikshvaku. 

Sura — 1,  The  eldest  son  of  Karttavirya,  the  Yadava  prince  ; 
2,  The  son  of  Devamidhusha  who  was  married  to  Marishu,  and 
became  the  father  of  Vasudeva  ;  3,  A  sou  of  Vidurathu,  also  a 
Yadava. 

Surabhi-^The  name  of  the  coav  produced  from  the  churning  of 
the  ocean,  the  fountain  of  milk  and  curds,  worshipped  by  the 
divinities,  and  beheld  by  them  with  minds  disturbed  and  eyes 
glistening  with  delight.  V.  P.  It  is  termed  the  cow  of  plenty, 
able  to  grant  every  wish  ;  2,  4.  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife 
of  Kasyapa. 

Surasa — l,  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was  married 
to  Kasyapa  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  river  not  identified. 

Surasena — l,  The  son  of  Satrughua,  who,  with  his  brother 
Subahu,  reigned  at  Mathura,  after  the  ascent  of  their  father  to 
heaven  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Karttavirya. 

Surasenas — The  inhabitants  of  Mathura,  the  Suraseni  of  Arrian. 

Suratha — l,  The  son  of  Jahnu,  descendant  of  Kuru  ;  2,  The 
son  of  Kundaka,  of  the  line  of  Ikshvaku. 

Sureswara— One  of  the  eleven  Rudras  according  to  some  of 
the  lists.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  appellations  of  the 
Rudras,  arising  from  the  writers  applying  to  them  indifferent  names 
of  the  common  prototype,  or  synonyms  of  Rudra  or  Siva,  selected 
at  will  from  his  thousand  and  eight  names  according  to  the  Linga 
Purana. 

Surochish— One  of  the  seven  sons  of  the  sage  Vasishtha, 
according  to  the  enumeration  in  the  Bhagavata. 

Surpa-nakha — The  sister  of  Ravana,  who  admired  the  beauty 
of  Rama,  and  used  various  efforts  to  induce  him  to  marry  her. 
Rama  jestingly  advised  her  to  marry  his  younger  brother  Laksh- 
mana.  She  threatened  to  devour  Sita,  and  rushing  on  her  in  a 
phrensy   of  passion,  Lakshmana  had   to  interfere,  and  with   his 


SUR  619 

scemitar  cut  off  the  ears  and  nose  of  Surpa-uakha.  She  then  fled 
to  her  brother  Khara,  who  vowed  vengeance  for  the  treatment  she 
had  received  :  but  he  and  his  army  of  Kakshasas  all  perished  in 
the  attempt,  being  slain  by  Rama.  vSurpa-nakha  then  went  to 
Ravana,  and  urged  him  to  carry  off  Sita. 

Surupas — A  class  of  divinities  of  the  fourth  Mauwantara. 

Surya — The  Sun.  The  mythical  ancestor  of  the  Rajas  of 
Kosala.  This  deity  seems,  "  under  different  names  to  have 
always  held  a  high  place  amongst  the  primitive  gods  of  every  nation, 
by  virtue  of  its  prominence  in  the  heavens  and  the  extent  to  which 
its  influence  is  felt  upon  earth.  Its  daily  course  and  its  annual 
course,  its  welcome  rising  in  the  morning,  and  its  glorious  setting 
in  the  evening,  must  all  have  excited  the  keenest  curiosity  amongst 
a  child-like  and  inquisitive  people  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the 
imagination  was  left  to  account  for  the  existence  of  phenomena 
whicli  in  a  non-scientific  age,  are  altogether  beyond  human  ken. 
Thus  it  seems  extremely  probable  that  one  of  the  earliest  efforts  of 
poetical  genius  was  to  personify  the  sun  as  the  deity  of  light, 
travelling  through  the  blue  ether  in  a  golden  chariot  which  all  men 
might  see,  drawn  however  by  steeds  which  were  invisible  to  the 
outward  eye,  but  which  were  easily  assumed  to  be  white, 
resplendent,  and  beautiful  beyond  expression.  In  the  Vedas  the 
attributes  of  this  deity  are  frequently  the  same  as  those  of  Agni, 
especially  that  of  originating  and  diffusing  light  ;  but  still  the  sun 
stands  forward  as  a  deity  altogether  distinct  from  Fire,  when 
described  as  journeyiog  through  the  firmament  in  an  upward  and 
downward  course,  and  especially  in  his  character  of  measuring  days 
and  nights.  This  god  is  apparently  addressed  under  a  variety  of 
names — but  in  the  Epics  he  is  chiefly  known  by  the  name  of  Siiryn, 
and  was  regarded  as  the  great  ancestor  of  the  solar  race  who 
appear  in  the  Ramayana." —  ff heeler. 

1 .  By  lustrous  heralds  led  on  high, 
The  omniscient  Sun  ascends  the  sky. 
His  glory  drawing  every  eye. 

2.  All-seeing  Sun,  the  stars  so  bright. 

Which  gleamed  throughout  the  sombre  night, 


620  SUS 

Now  scared,  like  thieves,  sliuk  fast  away, 
Queuclied  by  the  splendour  of  thy  vay. 

3.  Thy  beams  to  men  thy  presence  shew  ; 
Like  blazing  fires  they  seem  to  glow. 

4.  Conspicuous,  rapid,  source  of  light, 
Thou  makest  all  the  welkin  bright. 

o.     In  sight  of  gods,  and  mortal  eyes. 

In  sight  of  heaven  thou  scal'st  the  skies. 

6.  Bright  god,  thou  scann'st  with  searching  ken 
The  doings  all  of  busy  men. 

7.  Thou  stridest  o'er  the  sky  ;  thy  rays 
Create,  and  measure  out,  our  days  ; 
Thine  eye  all  living  things  surveys. 

8.  9.  Seven  lucid  mares  thy  chariot  bear, 
Self-yoked  athwart  the  fields  of  air, 
Bright  Surya,  god  with  flaming  hair. 

10.     That  glow  above  the  darkness  we 
Beholding,  upward  soar  to  thee, 
For  there  among  the  gods  thy  light 
Supreme  is  seen,  divinely  bright. 

—  0.  S.  T.,  V.  160. 

Susandhi — A  prince,  the  son  of  Prasusruta,  a  descendant  of 
Kusa. 

Susanti — l,  The  son  of  Santi,  king  of  Hastinapura  ;  2,  The 
Indra  of  the  third  Manwantara. 

Susarman — One  of  the  four  kings  of  Magadha  of  the  Kanwa 
dynasty. 

Susarman — The  Eaja  of  Trigarta.  He  proposed  to  the 
Kauravas  to  invade  the  kingdom  of  Virata.  After  the  plan  of  the 
campaign  had  been  decided  on,  he  challenged  the  Raja  Virata  to 
single  combat,  defeated  and  captured  him.  Susarmas  was  after- 
wards taken  prisoner  himself  by  Bhima.  In  the  great  war  he  and 
his  four  brothers  challenged  Arjuna  to  battle  in  the  first  day  of 
Droua's  command.  The  five  brothers  were  vanquished  by  Arjuna  ; 


SUS  621 

OQ  the  followiDg  day  Susarman  sent  a  second  challenge  to  Aijuna 
to  fight  in  the  southern  quarter  of  the  plain  ;  Arjuna  accepted  the 
challenge,  and  it  was  during  his  absence  on  this  occasion  that  his 
sou,  the  young  and  heroic  Abbimanyu  was  slain. 

Sushena — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva,  who  was  killed  by 
Kansa  ;  2,  The  son  of  Vrishnimat,  of  the  race  of  Puru  ;  3,  One 
of  the  sous  of  Krishna  by  his  wife  Rukmini  ;  4,  A  distinguished 
physician  in  the  Raraayana,  who  restored  the  dead  monkeys  to 
life  by  herbs  brought  from  the  Himalaya  mountains. 

Sushna — A  name  of  Vrittra,  the  demon  who  personifies 
drought,  and  is  also  called  Ahi. 

"  The  lightnings  then  began  to  flash, 
The  direful  thunderbolts  to  crash, 

By  Indra  proudly  hurled. 
The  gods  themselves  wdth  awe  were  stilled 
And  stood  aghast  ;  and  terror  filled 

The  universal  world. 

7F  7^  Tf!  TT  y^  ^  ^  'fF 

Now  bound  by  Sushna's  spell  no  more. 
The  clouds  discharge  their  liquid  store  ; 
And  long  by  torrid  sunbeams  baked. 
The  plains  by  copious  showers  are  slaked  ; 
The  rivers  swell  and  sea-wards  sweep 
Their  turbid  torrents  broad  and  deep. 
The  peasant  views  with  deep  delight, 
And  thankful  heart,  the  auspicious  sight, 
His  leafless  fields  so  sere  and  sad, 
Will  soon  with  waving"  crops  be  clad, 
And  mother  earth  now  brown  and  bare, 
A  robe  of  brilliant  green  will  wear." 

—  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  13o. 

Sushumna — One  of  the  seven  principal  rays  of  the  sun  ;  that 
which  supplies  heat  to  the  moon. 

Susravas — One  of  the  Prajapatis,  according  to  the  enumeration 
in  the  Vayu  Puraua, 


622  SUS— SUT 


Susruta — l,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Subhasa  ;  2,  A 
teacher  of  medical  science,  the  reputed  author  of  a  celebrated  work 
in  Sanskrit  still  extant. 

Susti — A  goddess,  who  is  propitiated  with  offerings  when 
children  are  troublesome.  When  the  infant  Rama  cried  for  the 
moon  and  could  not  be  quieted,  it  was  said  the  goddess  Susti  was 
unpropitious. 

Susuma — A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  king  Dharma. 

Suta — A  generic  term  for  chroniclers  and  bards.  The  bard 
and  herald  of  the  Hindus,  being  attached  to  the  state  of  all  men 
of  rank  to  chaunt  their  praises,  celebrate  their  actions,  and  com- 
memorate their  ancestry.  Also  the  name  of  a  celebrated  pupil  of 
Vyasa,  from  whom  he  learned  many  historical  and  legendary  tradi- 
tions. It  was  to  Suta  that  the  great  Muni  communicated  the 
Puranas.     Suta  had  himself  six  scholars  who  acquired  distinction. 

Sutala — One  of  the  seven  divisions  of  Palala,  that  with  a  stony 
soil,  but  embellished  with  magnificent  palaces. 

Sutanu. — One  of  the  five  daughters  of  Ugraseua. 

Sutapas — One  of  the  seven  pure  sages  according  to  the  enu- 
meration in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  sons  of  the  great  sage  Vaishtha. 

Sutapas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  eighth  Manwantara. 

Sutara — The  daughter  of  Swaphalka. 

Sutikshana — An  ascetic  who  figures  in  the  Ramayana,  as  of 
extraordinary  merit  on  account  of  his  austerities.  When  Rama 
and  Sita  visited  him  in  his  hermitage  in  the  forest  they  found  him 
covered  with  mud,  and  his  head  covered  with  matted  hair  ;  his 
body  reduced  to  bones  and  skin.  He  was  absorbed  in  profound 
forgetfulness  of  all  things  earthly  ;  but  when  Rama  paid  his 
respects  the  sage  at  once  embraced  him,  and  bestowed  his  blessings 
on  him. 

Sutra — "  (From  the  Sanscrit  siv,  to  sew,  literally,  therefore,  a 
thread  or  string)  is,  in  Sanscrit  Literature,  the  technical  name  of 
aphoristic  rules,  and  of  works  consisting  of  such  rules.  The 
importance  of  the  term  will  be  understood  from  the  fact,  that  the 
groundworks   of   the    whole   ritual,    grammatical,    metrical,   and 


SUT  623 

philosophical  literature  of  India  are  written  in  such  aphorisms, 
which  therefore  constitute  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  Hindu 
authorship.  The  object  of  the  Sutras  is  extreme  brevity  ;  and, 
especially  in  the  oldest  works  of  this  class,  this  brevity  is  carried 
to  such  an  excess,  that  even  the  most  experienced  would  find  it 
extremely  difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible,  to  understand  these 
aphorisms  without  the  aid  of  commentaries,  which,  however,  are 
fortunately  never  wanting,  wherever  a  work  is  written  in  this 
style.  Though  there  is  no  positive  evidence  as  to  the  cause  or 
causes  which  gave  rise  to  this  peculiarity  of  Hindu  composition, 
the  method  of  teaching  in  ancient  India — an  account  of  which  is 
afforded  in  some  of  the  oldest  works — renders  it  highly  probable 
that  these  Sutras  were  intended  as  memorial  sentences  which  the 
pupil  had  to  learn  by  heart,  in  order  better  to  retain  the  fuller  oral 
explanation  Avhich  his  teacher  appended  to  them.  But  it  is  likewise 
probable  that  this  method  of  instruction  itself  originated  in  the 
scarcity  or  awkwardness  of  the  writing  material  used,  and  in  the 
necessity,  therefore,  of  economising  this  material  as  much  as 
possible  ;  for  that  wiiting  was  known  and  practised  at  the  remotest 
period  of  Hindu  antiquity,  is  now  placed  beyond  a  doubt,  though 
a  startling  theory  was  propounded,  some  years  ago,  to  the  effect 
that  writing  was  unknown  in  India,  even  at  the  time  of  the  great 
grammarian  Panini.  The  manner,  however,  in  which  up  to  this 
day,  the  Hindus  are  in  the  habit  of  keeping  the  leaves  of  their  books 
together,  seems  to  throw  some  light  on  the  name  given  to  this 
aphoristic  literature.  The  leaves — generally  narrow,  and  even  at 
the  present  time  often  being  dried  palm  leaves,  on  which  the  words 
are  either  written  with  ink  or  scratched  with  a  style — are  piled 
up,  and,  according  to  the  length  of  the  leaves,  pierced  in  one  or 
two  places,  when,  through  the  hole  or  holes,  one  or  two  long  strings 
are  passed  to  keep  them  together.  The  name  of  Sutra  was 
probably,  therefore,  applied  to  works,  not  because  they  represent 
a  thread  or  string  of  rules,  but  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
these  works  were  rendered  fit  for  practical  use  ;  just  as  in  German 
a  volume  is  called  Band,  from  its  being  '  bound.'  That  a  habit 
deeply  rooted  outlives  necessity,  is  probably  also  shewn  by  these 
Siitra  works  ;  for  while  the  oldest  works  of  tliis  class  mav  be  called 


624  SUT 

Sutras  by  necessity,  there  are  others  which  convey  the  suspicion 
that  they  merely  imitated  the  Sutra  style  after  the  necessity  had 
passed  away,  more  especially  as  they  do  not  adhere  to  the  original 
brevity  of  the  oldest  Sutras  ;  and  the  Sutras  of  the  Buddhists, 
conspicuous  for  their  prolixity,  could  scarcely  lay  claim  to  the 
term,  if  compared  with  the  Sutra  of  the  Brahmanical  literature." — 

GOLDSTUCKEK. 

The  Sutra  period  of  Sanscrit  literature  is  fixed  by  Max  MUller 
at  fi-om  600  to  200,  b.  c,  the  characteristic  of  the  period  is  that  the 
Brahmanical  writers  used  very  curt  and  dry  sentences,  or  Sutras, 
for  expressing  their  thoughts.  Numerous  Sutra  works  by  different 
authors  are  still  extant,  among  which  the  Vyakarna  Sutras  of 
Panini,  and  the  Vedauta  Sutras  of  Vyasa,  occupy  a  prominent 
place. 

Suttee — "  (An  English  corruption  from  the  Sanscrit  sati,  a 
virtuous  wife)  means  the  practice  which  prevailed  in  India,  of  a 
wife  burning  herself  on  the  fuueral  pile,  either  with  the  body  of 
her  husband,  or  separately,  if  he  died  at  a  distance. 

The  practice  of  Suttee  is  based  by  the  orthodox  Hindus  on  the 
injunctions  of  their  Sastras,  or  sacred  books,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  various  passages  in  their  Purd-nas  (q.  v.,)  and  codes  of 
law  countenance  the  belief  which  they  entertain  of  its  meritorious- 
ness  and  efficacy.  Thus,  the  Brahma- Pur  ana  says  :  *  No  other 
way  is  known  for  a  virtuous  woman  after  the  death  of  her  husband  ; 
the  separate  cremation  of  her  husband  would  be  lost  (to  all  religious 
intents).  If  her  lord  die  in  another  country,  let  the  faithful  wife 
place  his  sandals  on  her  breast,  and,  pure,  enter  the  fire.  The 
faithful  widow  is  pronounced  no  suicide  by  the  recited  text  of  the 
Rig  Veda.'  Or  the  code  of  Vydsa  :  '  Learn  the  power  of  that 
widow  who,  learning  that  her  husband  has  deceased,  and  been 
burned  in  another  region,  speedily  casts  herself  into  the  fire,'  &c. 
Or  the  code  of  Angiras  :  '  That  woman,  who,  on  the  death  of  her 
husband,  ascends  the  same  burning  pile  with  him,  is  exalted  to 
heaven,  as  equal  in  virtue  to  Arundhati  (the  wife  of  Vasishtha). 
She  who  follows  her  husband  (to  another  world)  shall  dwell  in  a 
region  of  joy  for  so  many  years  us  there  are  hairs  on  the  human 


SUT  625 

bo<]y,  or  3o  millions.  As  a  serpent-catcher  forcibly  draws  a  snake 
from  his  liole,  thus  drawing  her  lord  (from  a  region  of  torment), 
she  enjoys  delight  together  with  him.  The  woman  who  follows 
her  husband  to  the  pile  expiates  the  sins  of  three  generations  on 
the  paternal  and  maternal  side  of  that  family  to  which  she  was 
given  as  a  vh'gin...No  other  effectual  duty  is  known  for  virtuous 
women,  at  any  time  after  the  death  of  their  lords,  except  casting 
themselves  into  the  same  fire.  As  long  as  a  woman  (in  her 
successive  transmigrations)  shall  decline  burning  herself,  like  a 
faithful  wife  on  the  same  fire  with  her  deceased  lord,  so  long  shall 
she  be  not  exempted  from  springing  again  to  life  in  the  body  of 
some  female  animal.  When  their  lords  have  departed  at  the 
fated  time  of  attaining  heaven,  no  other  way  but  entering  the 
same  fire  is  known  for  women  whose  virtuous  conduct  and  whose 
thoughts  have  been  devoted  to  their  husbands,  and  who  fear  the 
dangers  of  separation.'  But  however  emphatically  these  and 
similar  passages  recommend  a  wife  to  burn  herself  together  with 
her  deceased  husband,  it  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  observed, 
that  Mann,  who,  among  legislators  of  ancient  India,  occupies  the 
foremost  rank,  contains  no  words  which  enjoin,  or  even  would 
seem  to  countenance,  this  cruel  practice  ;  and,  secondly,  that  no 
injunction  of  any  religious  work  is  admitted  by  the  orthodox 
Hindus  as  authoritative,  unless  it  can  shew  that  it  is  taken  from, 
or  based  on,  the  revealed  books,  the  Vedas.  An  attempt  has  of 
late  years  been  made  by  Raja  Radhakaut  Deb,  to  shew  that,  in  a 
text  belonging  to  a  particular  school  of  the  Black  Yajurveda,  there 
is  really  a  passage  which  would  justify  the  practice  of  suttee  ;  but 
in  the  controversy  which  ensued  on  this  subject  between  him  and 
the  late  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson,  it  clearly  transpired  that  the  ieyit 
cited  by  the  learned  Raja  is  of  any  thing  but  indubitable  canonicity  ; 
moreover,  that  there  is  a  verse  in  the  Rig  Veda  which,  if  properly 
read,  would  enjoin  a  widow  not  to  burn  herself,  but,  after  having 
attended  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  her  husband,  to  return  to  her 
home,  and  to  fulfil  her  domestic  duties  ;  and  it  seems,  at  the  same 
time,  that  merely  from  a  misreading  of  a  single  word  of  this  verse 
from  the  Rig  Veda,  that  interpretation  arose  which  ultimately  led 
to  a  belief  and  an  injunction  so  disastrous  in  their   results.     That 

79 


626  SUV— SUY 


an  immense  number  of  widows  have  fallen  victims  to  this  erroneous 
interpretation  of  the  oldest  Vedic  text,  is  but  too  true.  Some 
thirty  years  ago,  however,  the  East  India  Company  took  energetic 
measures  to  suppress  a  practice  which  it  was  perfectly  justified  in 
looking  upon  as  revolting  to  all  human  feelings,  and  which  it 
would  have  likewise  been  entitled  to  consider  as  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Vedic  religion.  This  practice  may  now  be  said  to 
have  been  successfully  stopped  ;  for  though,  from  habit  and 
superstition,  even  now-a-days  cases  of  suttee  occur,  they  are 
extremely  rare  ;  and  all  reports  agree  that  the  enlightened  natives 
everywhere,  except,  perhaps,  in  certain  native  states,  support  the 
action  of  government  to  repress  this  evil  of  bygone  times. — 
Chambers'  Encyclopcedia. 

Suvala — A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Sumati. 

Suvama — The  beautiful  river  ;  identified  by  Wilford  with  the 
Ram-ganga. 

Suvarchala — The  wife  of  Rudra,  the  Rudra  who  was  the  first 
of  the  eight  manifestations. 

Suvarna — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Antariksha,  of  the  family  of 
Ikshvaku. 

Suvarnaroman — One  of  the  kings  of  Mithila,  the  son  of 
Maharoman. 

Suvibhu — One  of  the  Kasya  princes,  the  sixth  in  descent  from 
Alarka,  raja  of  Benares. 

Suvira — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Sivi  ;  2,  One  of  the  Kaurava 
princes,  the  son  of  Kshemya. 

Suvrata — A  king  of  Magadha,  whose  reign  is  said  to  have 
lasted  60  years  :  he  was  the  son  of  Raja  Kshemya. 

Suyasas— One  of  the  kings  of  Magadha,  son  of  the  Buddhist 
king  Asokavarddhana,  (q.  v.) 

Suyodhana  —  A  name  sometimes  given  (euphemistically)  to 
Duryodhana,  the  eldest  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Dhritar^shtra,  and 
who  as  the  representative  of  the  others  is  painted  in  the  darkest 


SWA  627 

colours,  and  embodies  all  their  bad  qualities.  Many  Hindus 
regard  him  as  the  visible  type  of  Vice,  or  the  evil  principle  in 
human  nature,  for  ever  doing  battle  with  Virtue,  or  the  good  and 
divine  principle,  symbolised  by  the  five  sons  of  Pandu.  At 
Duryodhaua's  birth  various  evil  omens  of  the  usual  hackneyed 
description  occurred  ;  jackalls  yelled,  donkeys  brayed,  whirlwinds 
blew,  and  the  sky  seemed  on  fire.  Dhritarashtra  alarmed,  called 
his  ministers  together,  who  recommended  hiin  to  abandon  the  child, 
but  could  not  persuade  him  to  do  so.* 

Swabhavas — The  characteristics,  or  inherent  properties,  of 
the  Gunas  (or  qualities)  by  which  they  act,  as  soothing,  terrify- 
ing, stupifyiug,  &c. 

Swabhojana — One  of  the  Nai-akas  ;  that  for  the  punishment 
of  the  religious  student  who  sleeps  in  the  day  ;  and  for  those  who 
though  mature,  have  to  be  instructed  in  sacred  literature  by  their 
children. 

Swadha — l,  Oblation  :  one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  and 
wife  of  the  Pitris  ;  2,  One  of  the  wives  of  Angiras  ;  3,  The  wife 
of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Swaha — l,  Offering  :  one  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  who  was 
married  to  Agni  ;  2,  The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Pasupati. 

Swahi — One  of  the  Kroshtri  princcs,^^  son  of  Vrijinivat,  and 
grandson  of  Yadu. 

Swamabhak— One  of  the  seven  suns,  into  which  the  seven 
solar  rays  dilate  at  the  end  of  the  day  of  Brahma. 

Swaphalka— A  sage  of  great  sanctity  ;  wherever  he  dwelt, 
there  famine,  plague,  dearth,  and  other  visitations  were  unknown  ; 
wherever  rain  was  wanted  his  presence  secured  the  blessing.  He 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  Kasiraja,  named  Gandini,  (q.  v.), 
whose  remarkable  birth  has  already  been  related.  Gandini,  as 
long  as  she  lived,  gave  a  cow  to  the  brahmans  every  day.  Akrura 
was  their  son  ;  and  his  birlh  therefore  proceeded  from  a  combina- 
tion of  uncommon  excellence.     V.  P.,  432. 


*  Williams'  Indian  Epic  Poetry, 


628  SWA 

Swaraj — One  of  the  seven  principal  solar  rays,  that  which 
supplies  heat  to  the  planet  Saturn. 

Swarat — Brahma,  the  Creator. 

Swarbhanu— 1,  A  renowned  Danava,  son  of  Kasyapa  ;  2,  One 
of  equal  celebrity,  the  son  of  Viprachitti. 

Swarga—  I,  The  sou  of  Rudra  Bhima  ;  2,  Paradise,  on  Mount 
Meru,  the  seat  of  the  righteous,  and  where  the  wicked  do  not 
arrive  even  after  a  hundred  births. 

Swar-loka — The  planetary  sphere,  extending  from  the  sun  to 
Dhruva,  explained  in  the  Puranas  to  be  heaven, 

Swarnaprastha — One  of  the  eight  minor  Dwipas,  situated 
beyond  the  sea,  and  inhabited  by  Mlecchas,  but  who  worship 
Hindu  divinities. 

Swarochisha~The  Manu  of  the  second  Manwantara  ;  so 
named  from  the  splendour  of  his  appearance  when  born.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  nymph  Varuthini  by  the  Gandharba  Kali.  The 
seven  Rishis  of  the  period  were  the  Manu's  sous. 

Swarupas — Forms  of  things  :  the  distinctions  of  biped,  qua- 
druped, bi-ute,  bird,  fish,  and  the  like. 

Swastyatreyas — A  race  of  brahmans,  celebrated  for  their 
sanctity  ;  a  branch  of  the  lunar  race. 

Swati — A  lunar  mansion  in  Govithi,  in  the  Central  Avashthana. 
Swayambhoja — A  Yadava  chief,  the  son  of  Pratikshatra. 

Swayambhu — l,  Brahma  ;  a  synonym  of  Mahat,  so  termed 
from  its  being  ungenerated  ;  2,  the  Vyasa  of  the  first  Dwapara. 

Swayambhuva — The  Manu,  born  of  aud  one  with  Brahma  ; 
Brahma  converted  himself  into  two  persons,  the  first  male,  or  the 
Manu  Swayambhuva,  and  the  first  woman  or  Satarupa. 

Swayamvara — Self-choice.  The  public  choice  of  a  husband. 
The  most  popular  of  all  the  forms  of  marriage  which  prevailed 
amongst  tlie  Vedic  Aryans.     The  Swayamvara,  says  Mr.  Wheeler, 


SWE  629 

was  evidently  au  institutiou  of  the  Kshatiiyas,  resembliDg  iu  a 
remarkable  degree  the  tournaments  of  the  age  of  chivahy. 

The  man  who  gained  the  day  became  the  husband  of  the  damsel. 
The  Mahabharata  contains  a  long  narrative  of  the  Swayamvara  of 
Draupadi.  The  Swayamvara  emphatically  belongs  to  the  old 
Vedic  period,  and  is  distinctly  recognised  in  the  hymns  of  the 
Rig  Veda.  The  institution  is  au  exaggerated  expression  of  the 
age  of  chivalry. —  Wheeler. 

"  The  Swayamvara,  the  free,  or  self-election  of  a  husband,  was 
a  not  uncommon  practice  amongst  the  Hindus,  and  forms  the 
subject  of  frequent  description  both  in  ancient  and  modern  poetry  : 
the  Princes  being  assembled  in  a  public  place  with  appropriate 
ceremonies,  the  Princess  performed  the  tour  of  the  circle,  and 
signihed  her  preference  by  throwing  a  garland  of  flowers  upon  the 
neck  of  the  successful  competitor  ;  the  marriage  rite  was  subse- 
quently performed  as  usual.  It  may  be  easily  supposed  that  the 
preference  was  not  always  the  suggestion  of  the  moment,  and 
grew  out  of  previous  acquaintance  :  thus  Damayanti  adopted  this 
mode  of  choosing  Nala  iu  concert  with  her  lover  ;  Taravati  chose 
Chandrasekara  by  the  guidance  of  her  nurse  ;  and  the  Princess  of 
Kauoj  invited  Pritha  Rai  to  her  Swayamvara.  The  consequences 
may  also  be  easily  conjectured,  and  mortified  vanity,  or  disap- 
pointed expectation  must  often  have  engendered  personal  hostility  : 
the  result  may  not  uufreciuently  have  been  long  and  widely  felt  ; 
and  though  neither  the  Swayamvaras  of  Draupadi  or  Damayanti 
may  have  been  attended  with  any  remarkable  events,  the  choice 
of  the  Princess  of  Kanoj  was  less  innoxious  :  for  the  animosity 
which  it  excited  between  her  father  and  her  lord,  laid  India  bare 
to  Mohammedan  aggression,  and  paved  the  way  for  European 
ascendancy." —  Wilson's  W^orks,  III,  324. 

Sweta — 1,  A  serpent  king,  one  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru  ;  2, 
A  range  of  mountains  north  of  Mcru. 

Sweta-dwipa — The  white  or  silver  island,  the  abode  of 
Vishnu.  Colonel  Wilford  bestowed  great  pains  on  the  verification 
of  these  fictitious  Dwipas,  which  he  imagined  to  represent  actual 


630  SYA 

divisions  of  the  globe.  The  white  or  silver  island,  or  island  of  the 
moon,  was  the  island  of  great  Britain,  according  to  him.  Still, 
says  Wilson,  his  essays  on  these  subjects,  contain  much  curious 
and  interesting  matter. 

Syadvadis— "  Assertors  of  probabilities,  or  of  what  may  be  ;" 
a  designation  of  the  Jaiuas. 

Syala — A  Yadava  chief,  who  publicly  offended  Gargya,  the 
Brahman,  and  led  the  latter  to  adopt  a  course  of  austerities  to 
obtain  a  son  who  should  be  a  terror  to  the  tribe  of  Yadu.  See 
Kalayavana. 

Syama — One  of  the  sous  of  Sura. 

Syama  (Syama)— The  black  goddess  ;  one  of  the  names  of 
Parvati. 

Syamantaka  Gem— A  jewel  of  great  celebrity  which  insured 
its  possessor,  if  a  good  man,  safety,  prosperity  and  happiness.  It 
was  presented  by  the  Sun  to  Satrajit  who  wore  it  on  his  neck,  and 
became  thereby  as  brilliant  as  the  sun  himself.  Satrajit,  fearing 
that  Krishna  would  ask  him  for  the  jewel,  transferred  it  to  his 
brother  Prasena  ;  and  as  Prasena's  character  was  bad  it  caused  his 
death  ;  he  being  killed  by  a  lion  when  hunting.  The  lion  taking 
the  jewel  in  his  mouth  was  about  to  depart,  when  he  was  killed  by 
Jambavat,  the  king  of  the  bears,  who  carried  off  the  gem  to  his 
cave  and  gave  it  to  his  son  Sukumara  to  play  with.  Krishna  was 
suspected  of  having  murdered  Prasena  to  get  possession  of  the 
jewel.  To  clear  himself  Krishna  tracked  the  jewel  to  the  bear's 
cave,  and  after  a  conflict  with  Jambavat  which  lasted  twenty-one 
days,  recovered  the  jewel.  Jambavat  then  recognised  Krishna's 
divinity,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Jambavati  in  marriage.  The 
jewel  was  again  restored  to  Satrajit,  who  was  killed  by  Satadhan- 
wan  for  the  sake  of  it.  Krishna  resolved  that  Satadhanwan 
should  relinquish  the  prize,  pursued  him,  put  him  to  death,  but 
found  not  the  jewel,  as  it  had  been  given  to  Akrura  to  keep. 
Balabhadra  thought  Krishna  was  deceiving  him  and  quarrelled 
with  his  brother  on  account  of  it. 


SYA— SYE  631 


Akrura  retained  the  precious  jewel  fifty-two  years,  and  in  conse- 
quence enjoyed  immunity  from  all  kinds  of  evil,  the  whole  country 
partaking  of  the  benefit.  This  led  Krishna  to  conjecture  that 
Akrura  had  the  gem  in  his  possession  ;  and  in  a  full  assembly 
Akrura  owned  to  it  and  otTercd  it  to  Krishna  ;  but  it  was  decided 
that  it  should  remain  with  Akrura,  who  wore  it  publicly  ever  after 
as  a  garland  of  light.     V.  P. 

Syamayani— A  teacher  of  the  Yajur  Veda,  and  chief  of  the 
northern  class. 

Syeni — A  daughter  of  Kasyapa,  and  the  parent  of  hawks. 


Tadaikyam — Union  ;  perfect  union  ;  or  identification  of  one 
with  another.  "  The  mind  of  man  is  the  cause  both  of  his  bondage 
and  his  liberation  :  its  addiction  to  the  objects  of  sense  is  the  means 
of  his  bondage  ;  its  separation  from  objects  of  sense  is  the  means  of 
his  freedom.  The  sage  who  is  capable  of  discriminative  knowledge 
must  therefore  restrain  his  mind  from  all  the  objects  of  sense,  and 
therewith  meditate  upon  the  Supreme  Being,  who  is  one  with  spirit, 
in  order  to  attain  liberation  ;  for  that  supreme  spirit  attracts  to 
itself  him  who  meditates  upon  it,  and  who  is  of  the  same  nature, 
as  the  loadstone  attracts  the  iron  by  the  virtue  which  is  common 
to  itself  and  its  products.  Yet  the  union  that  takes  place  is  only 
that  of  contiguity,  (Samyoga)  not  that  of  identification  or  unity, 
Tadaikyam.     Vishnu  Purana  and  note. 

Taksha — The  son  of  Bharata  ;  he  was  Raja  of  Gandhara,  resid- 


ing at  Takshasila. 


Tala — One  of  the  Narakas — that  for  the  punishment  of  adultery, 
murder,  &c. 

Talajangha — A  prince  of  the  Yadava  race  ;  the  father  of  a 
hundred  sous,  who  were  called  Talajanghas  :  they  conquered 
Bahu,  but  wei'e  afterwards  subdued  by  Sagara.  They  were  a 
branch  of  the  Haihayas. 

Talaka — One  of  the  Andhra  kings,  the  sou  of  Hala. 

Talatala — The  fourth  of  the  seven  regions  of  Pdtala  :  Maya 
reigns  over  Talatala,  having  been  raised  to  that  dignity  after  the 
destruction  of  his  three  cities  by  Siva. 

Tamas — l,  The  quality  of  darkness,  ignorance,  inertia. 

Ignorance  is  said  to  be  five-fold  ;  in  this  definition  Tamas, 
or  obscurity,  is  the  first  thing  of  which  it  consists  ;  2,  One  of  the 
Narakas  ;  3,  A  Yadava  prince,  the  son  of  Prithusravas. 


TAM— TAN  633 


Tamasa— 1,  A  Manu,  the  son  of  Priyavrata  ;  the  Manu  of  the 
fourth  Mauwantara  ;  2,  A  river,  the  Touse.  It  was  on  the  banks 
of  this  river  that  R^raa  halted  the  first  night  of  his  exile  ;  when 
the  Maharaja  had  been  carried  back  to  Ayodhya,  and  the  people 
would  keep  with  the  chariot  of  Rama.  They  all  spent  the  night 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Tamasa,  and  at  early  morning  Rama  rose 
from  his  bed  of  leaves,  and  with  Sita  and  Lakshmana  left  before 
the  people  awoke. 

Tamisra— Gloom  :  the  fourth  quality  of  Ignorance  in  the 
definition  which  makes  it  five-fold. 

Tamra— 1,  One  of  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  married  to 
Kasyapa  ;  2,  A  river. 

Tamrapakshi — A  son  of  Krishna  by  his  wife  Rohiui. 

Tamraparni — A  river  in  Tinnevelly,  which  rises  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Western  Ghauts. 

Tamravarna — One  of  the  nine  portions  of  the  Varsha  of 
Bharata. 

Tamrayani — A  teacher  of  the  white  Y^jush,  and  founder  of  a 
school. 

Tandri — Sloth  ;  a  form  of  Brahma. 

Tanmatra — The  rudiment  or  type  of  an  element  ;  the 
characteristic  property  of  an  element. 

Tansu— A  prince,  the  sou  of  Rantinaru,  a  descendant  of  Puru  ; 
called  also  Tansurodha. 

Tantra — A  religious  text  book  :  the  principal  rites  and 
formulae  connected  with  the  adoration  of  Frakriti  or  Sakti  are 
derived  from  the  works  known  by  the  collective  term  of  Tantras, 
The  followers  of  the  Tantras  profess  to  consider  them  as  a  fifth 
Veda,  and  attribute  to  them  equal  antiquity  and  superior  authority. 
"  The  Tantras  are  a  class  of  books  of  which  little  is  known  in 
Europe,  but  which,  until  English  education  began  in  India,  were 
the  creed  of  a  large  proportion  of  Hindus.  Old  Pandits  in  Bengal 
will  still  maintain  that  the  Tantric  was  the  grandest  religion  of  all, 
only  it  was  beyond  human  nature  to  carry  it  out  ;  for  it  is  based 
on  the  idea  that  we  should  practice  every  kind  of  excess  to  the 

80 


G34  TAN 

utmost,  and  yet  carry  a  mind  fixed  on  the  Supreme  Being  in  the 
midst  of  it  all.  He  who  worshipped  God  with  purity  of  life  was 
but  a  pdsu,  a  mere  beast  ;  while  he  who  worshipped  him  in  orgies 
of  drunkenness  and  licentiousness  was  a  vira,  a  hero.  The  Tantric 
rites  were  not  long  ago  very  prevalent  in  Bengal,  and  though,  as 
western  culture  and  the  study  of  English  spread,  such  ideas  and 
rites  retreat  into  obscurity,  the  Tautras  were  but  the  lowest  step 
of  that  progressive  degradation  which  we  traced  from  the  simple 
and  elevated  nature-ivorship  of  the  Rig  Veda."*  The  observances 
they  prescribe  have  indeed,  in  Bengal,  almost  superseded  the 
original  ritual.  The  question  of  their  date  is  involved  in  consider- 
able obscurity.  From  the  practices  described  in  some  of  the 
Purauas,  particularly  that  of  the  Diksha,  or  rite  of  initiation,  in 
the  Agni  Purana,  from  the  specification  of  formulee  comprising  the 
mystic  monosyllables  of  the  Tantras  in  that  and  other  similar 
compilations,  and  from  the  citation  of  some  of  them  by  name  in 
different  Pauranic  works,  we  must  conclude  that  some  of  the 
Tantras  are  prior  to  those  authorities.  *****  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  system  originated  at  some  period  in  the  early 
centuries  of  Christianity,  being  founded  in  the  previous  worship  of 
the  female  principle,  and  the  practices  of  the  Yoga  with  the 
Mantras,  or  mystical  formulae  of  the  Vedas.  It  is  equally  certain 
that  the  observances  of  the  Tantras  have  been  carried  to  more 
exceptionable  extremes  in  comparatively  modern  times  ;  and  that 
many  of  the  works  themselves  are  of  recent  composition.  They 
appear  also  to  have  been  written  chiefly  in  Bengal  and  the  eastern 
districts,  many  of  them  being  unknown  in  the  west  and  south  of 
India  ;  and  the  rites  they  teach  having  failed  to  set  aside  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Vedas,  although  they  are  not  without  an 
important  influence  upon  the  belief  and  the  practices  of  the 
people. 

The  Tantras  are  too  numerous  to  admit  in  this  place  of  their 
specifications,  but  the  principal  are  the  Sydma  Bahasya,  Rudra, 
Ydynala,  Mantra  Mahodadhi,  Sdrada  Tilaka,  and  Kalikd  Tantra  ; 
whilst  the  Kula  Chudamani,  Kularnava,  and  similar  works,  are 
the  chief  authorities  of  one  portion  of  the  Saktas  ;  the  sect  being 
*  Quarterly  Review,  July  1870. 


TAP— TAR  635 


divided  into  two  leading  branches,  the  Dakshiuacharis  and 
Vamacharis,  or  followers  of  the  right-hand  and  left-hand  ritual. 
IForks  ofH.  H.  Wilson,  Vol.,  /,  ;;.  250. 

Tapa-loka — The  sphere  or  world  of  the  seven  Rishis. 

Tapaniyas — Brahmaus  of  a  branch  of  the  Yajush. 

Tapas,  Tapasya — The  names  of  two  of  the  months  occurring 
in  the  Vedas,  and  belonging  to  a  system  now  obsolete. 

Tapaswin — One  of  the  sons  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha. 

Tapati — A  daughter  of  the  Sun  ;  the  Tapti  river. 

Tapo-loka — The  sphere  of  penance,  inhabited  by  the  deities 
called  Vaibhrajas,  who  are  uncousumable  by  fire. 

Taptakhumba— One  of  the  Narakas,  that  in  which  murder 
and  incest  are  punished. 

Taptaloka — The  redhot  iron  Naraka,  for  jailers,  horse-dealers 
and  deserters. 

Tara — The  wife  of  Vrihaspati,  the  preceptor  of  the  gods  ;  she 
was  carried  off  by  Soma,  who  refused  to  give  her  up  even  at  the 
command  of  Brahma.  A  fierce  contest  ensued,  termed  the  Tara- 
kamaya  war.  It  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  interference  of 
Brahm^  who  compelled  Soma  to  restore  Tara  to  her  husband. 
Her  son  Budha  was  born  shortly  after.     See  Budha.    Soma. 

Tara — The  wife  of  Bali,  the  elder  brother  of  Sugriva.  She 
attempted  to  dissuade  Bali  from  fighting  with  his  brother,  but  was 
unable  to  do  so,  and  Bali  was  killed.  When  she  was  grieving  for 
her  loss,  Rama  consoled  her,  and  she  was  afterwards  married  to 
Sugriva,  in  conformity  with  the  rude  customs  of  a  barbarous  age. 

Taraka— 1,  A  Daitya  of  great  prowess,  the  son  of  Hiranyak- 
sha  ;  2,  A  Danava  sou  of  Kasyapa  by  Danu. 

Taraka — A  female  Rakshasi,  the  mother  of  Maricha.  She 
lived  in  a  dreadful  jungle  and  ravaged  the  whole  country  round. 
The  sage  Visvdmilra  earnestly  requested  Rama  to  kill  her.  Rlma 
promised  to  deprive  her  of  her  strength  and  power,  but  was 
unwilling  to  slay  a  woman.  A  terrific  combat  took  place,  and  at 
the  instigation  of  Visvamitra,  Rama  at  length  killed  the  dreaded 
Rakshasi. 


636  TAR— TIR 


Tarapida — A  prince,  the  son  of  Chandra valok a,  one  of  the 
rajas  of  Ayodhya  before  the  great  war. 

Tejas — Light  or  fire,  the  element  ;  said  to  be  produced  from 
the  rudiment  of  form  or  colour  ;  while  itself  is  the  producer  of 
that  of  taste.     V.  P. 

Tigma — A  prince,  the  son  of  Mridu,  of  the  race  of  Puru. 

Tillotama— A  celestial  nymph  or  Apsarasa,  of  the  Laukika 
class. 

Tillotama  is  described  as  having  been  originally  a  Brahman 
female,  who  in  consequence  of  being  born  in  the  month  of  Magha, 
dwelt  four  thousand  ages  in  Vaikuntha,  and  was  then  born  as  the 
Apsaras  Tillotama,  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  mutual  destruc- 
tion of  Sunda  and  Upasunda,  an  incident  taken  from  the  Maha- 
bharatu. —  Wilson'' s  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  55. 

Timi — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  was  married  to  Kasyapa, 
and  became  the  mother  of  fishes. 

Tirtha — A  holy  shrine  or  sacred  place  ;  in  the  Padraa  Purana, 
persons  are  also  considered  as  Tirthas,  as  a  guru,  a  father,  a  wife, 
a  son  ;  and  in  illustration  of  this,  Vishnu  recited  several  stories  to 
king  Vena. 

Tirthankara— A  Jain  saint 

twenty-four  are  enumerated. 


1. 

Rishaba. 

2. 

Ajita. 

3. 

Sambhava. 

4. 

Abhinandana. 

5. 

Sumati. 

6. 

Padmaprabhu. 

7. 

Suparsva. 

8. 

Chandraprabhu 

9. 

Pushpadhanta. 

10. 

Sitala. 

11. 

Sreyansa. 

12. 

Vasu  pujya. 

of  the   present   era,   of  whom: 

13. 

Vimala. 

14. 

Ananta. 

15. 

Dnarma. 

16. 

T^nti. 

17. 

Kunthu. 

18. 

Ara. 

19. 

Malli. 

20. 

Manisuvrata. 

21. 

Nami. 

22. 

Nemi. 

23. 

Parsva. 

24. 

Mahavira  or  Vardhamani- 

svami. 

TIR— TRA  637 


Colossal  statues  of  these  Tirthankaras  are  often  placed  in  the 
court  yards  of  the  Jain  temples.  There  is  a  remarkably  fine  one 
at  Sravaua  Bella  Gola,  near  Chenraipatam,  in  Mysore.  Its 
height  is  seventy  feet  three  inches.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  who 
visited  the  place  in  1801,  was  of  opinion  that  the  rock  had  been 
cut  until  nothing  but  the  image  remained.* 

Tiryaksrotas — The  name  given  to  the  animal  creation  at  their 
first  "  manifestation,"  from  their  nutriment  following  a  winding 
course.     V.  P. 

Titiksha — Patience  ;  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to 
Dharma  ;  one  of  the  allegorical  unions. 

Titikshu — A  prince,  the  son  of  Mahamanas,  a  descendant  of 
Yayati. 

Tittiri — A  pupil  of  Yaska,  and  a  teacher  of  the  Taithriya 
Yajush. 

Transmigration — "  Or  the  passing  from  one  place,  state,  or 
condition  into  another,  means,  in  the  theological  acceptation  of  the 
term,  the  supposed  transition  of  the  soul  after  death  into  another 
substance  or  body  than  that  which  it  occupied  before.  The  belief 
in  such  a  transition  is  one  of  the  most  important  phases  in  the 
religions  of  mankind.  It  was  common  to  the  most  uncivilised  and 
the  most  civilised  nations  of  the  earth,  it  was  the  object  of  fantas- 
tical superstition,  as  well  as  that  of  philosophical  speculation,  and 
it  is  the  property  of  both  ancient  and  modern  times.  Its  basis 
being  the  assumption  that  the  human  soul  does  not  perish  together 
with  the  body,  it  could  belong  to  those  nations  only  which  had 
already  conceived  an  idea  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  ;  but  in 
proportion  as  such  an  idea  is  crude  or  developed,  as  it  is  founded 
merely  on  a  vague  fear  of  death,  and  a  craving  for  material  life,  or 
on  ethical  grounds,  and  a  supposed  casual  connection  between  this 
and  a  future  life,  the  belief  in  transmigration  assumes  various 
forms,  and  influences  more  or  less  the  actions  of  men. 

At  the  time  when  in  hidia  the  dogma  of  transmigration  became 
an  integral  part  of  the  Brahmanic  religion,   the  Hindus   believed 


Buchanan's  Mysore,  III,  410, 


688  TRA 

that  the  human  souls  emanated  from  a  Supreme  Being,  which,  as 
it  were,  in  a  state  of  bewilderment  or  forgetfulness,  allowed  them 
to  become  separate  existences,  and  to  be  born  on  earth.  The 
soul,  thus  severed  from  the  real  source  of  its  life,  is  bound  to 
return  to  it,  or  to  become  merged  again  into  that  divine  substance 
with  which  it  was  originally  one  ;  but  as  its  nature  becomes 
contaminated  with  sin  through  its  earthly  career,  it  must,  so  long 
as  it  remains  in  this  world,  endeavour  to  free  itself  from  all  guilt, 
and  thus  to  become  fit  for  its  ultimate  destiny.  Religion  teaches 
that  this  is  done  by  the  observance  of  religious  rites,  and  a  life  in 
conformity  with  the  precepts  of  the  sacred  books  ;  philosophy, 
that  the  soul  will  be  re-united  with  Brahman,  if  it  understands 
the  true  nature  of  the  divine  essence  whence  it  comes.  So  long, 
therefore,  as  the  soul  has  not  attained  this  condition  of  purity,  it 
must  be  born  again,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  body  to  which  it 
was  allied  ;  and  the  degree  of  its  impurity  at  one  of  these  various 
deaths,  determines  the  existence  which  it  will  assume  in  a  subse- 
quent life. 

Since  there  can  be  no  proof  of  the  soul's  migrations,  the  detail  in 
which  these  are  described  in  the  religious  works  of  the  Hindus,  is 
merely  fantastical,  and  interesting  only  so  far  as  it  affords  a  kind 
of  standard  by  which,  at  various  epochs,  and  by  different  writers, 
the  moral  merit  or  demerit  of  human  actions  was  measured  in  India. 
Thus,  Manu  (in  the  12th  book  of  his  Code  of  Laws)  teaches  : 
*  The  slayer  of  a  Brahmaria — according  to  the  degree  of  his  guilt 
— is  reborn  as  a  dog,  a  boar,  an  ass,  a  camel,  a  bull,  a  goat,  a 
sheep,  a  stag,  a  bird,  a  Chandala,  or  a  Pukkasa.  A  Brahmana, 
who  drinks  spirituous  liquor,  will  migrate  into  the  bodies  of  a 
worm,  an  insect,  a  grasshopper,  a  fly  feeding  on  ordure,  or  some 
mischievous  animal.  A  twice-born  who  steals  (the  gold  of  a 
Brahmana,)  will  pass  a  thousand  times  into  the  bodies  of  spiders, 
snakes,  and  chameleons,  of  aquatic  monsters,  or  of  murderous 
blood-thirsty  demons.  He  who  violates  the  bed  of  his  guru,  will 
a  hundred  times  migrate  into  the  forms  of  grasses,  of  shrubs,  and 
of  creeping  plants,  of  carnivorous  animals  and  beasts  with  long 
teeth,  or  of  cruel  brutes.  Those  who  inflict  injury  (on  sentient 
beings,)  become  flesh-eaters  ;  and  those  who  eat  forbidden  things, 


TRA  639 

worms.     Thieves  become  devourers  of  each  other  ;    and  those 

who  embrace  women  of  the  lowest  castes,  become  ghosts If  a 

man,  through  covetousness,  has  stolen  gems,  pearl,  or  coral,  or 
whatever  belongs  to  the  precious  substances,  he  is  reborn  in  the 
tribe  of  goldsmiths  ;  if  he  has  stolen  grain,  he  becomes  a  rat  ;  if 
k^nsya  (a  composition  of  zinc  and  copper,)  a  hansa  bird  ;  if  water, 
a  diver  ;  if  honey,  a  gadfly  ;  if  milk,  a  crow  ;  if  juice  (of  the 
sugar-cane  or  the  like,)  a  dog  ;  if  clarified  butter,  an  ichneumon  ; 
if  flesh,  a  vulture  ;  if  fat,  a  shag  ;  if  oil,  a  cockroach  ;  if  salt,  a 
cricket  ;  if  curds,  the  crane,  called  Valaka  ;'  &c.  A  more  general 
doctrine  of  the  migration  of  souls  is  based  by  Hindu  philosophers 
on  the  assumption  of  the  three  cosmic  qualities  of  sattwa,  i.  e., 
purity  or  goodness  ;  rajas,  i,  e.,  troubledness  or  passion  ;  and 
tamas,  i.  e.,  darkness  or  sin,  with  which  the  human  soul  may 
become  endued.  And  on  this  doctrine,  again,  Manu  and  other 
writers  build  an  elaborate  theory  of  the  various  births  to  which 
the  soul  may  become  subject.  Manu,  for  instance,  teaches  that 
*  souls  endued  with  the  quality  of  sattwa,  attain  the  condition  of 
deities  ;  those  having  the  quality  of  rajas,  the  condition  of  men  ; 
and  those  having  the  quality  of  tamas,  the  condition  of  beasts.' 
Each  of  these  conditions,  he  continues,  is,  according  to  the  acts  or 
knowledge  of  the  soul,  threefold  :  the  lowest,  the  middle,  and  the 
highest.  *  The  lowest  embodiment  of  the  quality  tamas  is  inani- 
mate objects,  worms,  insects,  fish,  serpents,  tortoises,  tame  and  wild 
beasts  ;  the  middle  state,  to  which  the  same  quality  leads,  is  (the 
state  of)  an  elephant,  a  horse,  a  Sudra,  a  Mlechchha  or  barbarian, 
a  lion,  a  tiger,  and  a  boar  :  the  highest,  that  of  a  public  performer, 
a  bird,  a  cheat,  a  demon  called  Rakshas,  and  a  vampire-demon. 
The  lowest  condition  to  which  the  soul  imbued  with  the  quality 
rajas  arrives  is  that  of  a  cudgel-player,  a  boxer,  a  public  dancer, 
a  man  who  lives  on  the  use  of  weapons,  and  one  addicted  to 
gambling  and  drinking  ;  the  middle  condition,  that  of  a  king,  a 
man  of  the  Kshattriya  or  military  caste,  a  house-priest  of  a  king, 
and  a  man  fond  of  learned  controversy  ;  the  highest,  that  of  a 
Gandharva  or  musician  in  Indra's  heaven,  a  Guhyaka  or  Yaksha 
(two  kinds  of  attendants  on  the  god  of  riches,)  or  another  attendant 
on  another  god,    or  an  Apsaras  or  heaveuly   nymph   in  Indra's 


640  TEA 

heaven.  The  lowest  state  procured  by  the  quality  of  sattwa  is 
that  of  a  Vauaprastha — or  a  hermit  of  the  third  order  of  life — a 
religious  mendicant,  a  Brahmana,  or  one  of  the  demigods  travel- 
ling about  in  palace-like  cars,  one  of  (the  genii  presiding  over)  the 
lunar  mansions,  or  an  offspring  of  Diti.  The  middle  state, 
procured  by  the  same  quality,  is  that  of  a  sacrificer,  a  Rishi  (q.  v.), 
a  god  of  the  lower  heaven  (a  deity  personating  one  of  the)  Vedas, 
(a  deity  presiding  over  one  of)  the  luminaries  or  years,  one  of  the 
manes  or  progenitors  of  mankind,  and  of  the  demigods  called 
Sadhya.  The  highest  condition  to  which  the  quality  of  sattwa 
leads  is  that  of  the  god  Brahma,  that  of  a  creator  of  the  world  (as 
3Iar2chi,  or  another  patriarch  of  the  same  rank,)  that  of  the  genius 
of  Dharma  (virtue  or  right,)  of  Mahat,  or  the  intellectual  principle 
of  creation,  and  of  Prakriti,  or  matter.' 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  show  that  this  detail  regarding  the 
migrations  of  the  souls  is  more  or  less  differently  given  by  other 
authors  at  other  periods  of  Hindu  religion,  according  to  the  views 
which  they  entertained  of  right  and  wrong,  of  the  value  and  rank 
of  imaginary  or  created  beings,  and  of  the  social  conditions  of 
men.  For,  since  all  orthodox  Hindu  writers  agree  in  principle 
with  Manu,  the  quotations  alleged  from  his  work  suffice  to  illus- 
trate the  imaginary  positiveness  with  which  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration was  propounded,  and  to  establish  the  conclusion  that 
this  doctrine  rested  in  India  on  ethical  grounds. 

It  has  been  already  pointed  out  that  the  belief  in  the  soul's  life 
after  the  death  of  the  body  must  precede  the  doctrine  of  transmi- 
gration. As  such  a  belief,  however,  may  be  traced  in  some  hymns 
of  the  Rig  Veda,  it  has  been  supposed  that  this  doctrine,  too,  is 
as  old  as  this  Veda.  But  apart  from  the  uncertainty  which  still 
exists  regarding  not  only  the  age,  but  even  the  relative  age  at 
which  the  different  hymns  of  the  Big  Veda  were  composed,  and 
setting  aside  the  fallacy  which  therefore  attaches  to  speaking  of 
this  Veda  as  a  contemporaneous  whole,  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
that  the  only  passage  which  has  been  adduced  in  proof  of  this 
important  discovery  does  not  bear  it  out.  It  is  the  32nd  verse  of 
the  hymn  I,  164,  and  according  to  the  translation  of  Professor 
Wilson   (Vol.  II,  pp.  137,  138,)   runs  as  follows  :    *  He  who   has 


TRA  641 

made  (this  state  of  things)  does  not  comprehend  it ;  he  who  has 
beheld  it,  lias  it  also  verily  hidden  (from  him)  ;  he,  whilst  yet 
enveloped  in  his  mother's  womb,  is  subject  to  many  births,  and 
has  entered  upon  evil.'  But  the  word  of  the  text,  bahuprajdh, 
rendered  by  Wilson,  according  to  the  commentator,  '  is  subject  to 
many  births,'  may,  according  to  the  same  commentator,  also  mean, 
'  has  many  offsprings,'  or  '  has  many  children  ;'  and  as  the  latter 
sense  is  the  more  literal  and  usual  sense  of  the  word,  whereas  th  e 
former  is  artificial,  no  conclusion  whatever  regarding  the  doctrine 
of  transmigration  can  safely  be  founded  on  it. 

The  Buddhistic  belief  in  transmigration  is  derived  from  that  of 
the  Brahmanic  Hindus  ;  it  agrees  with  the  latter  in  principle, 
though  it  differs  from  it  in  the  imaginary  detail  iuwhich  it  was 
worked  out. 

Like  the  Brahmanic  Hindus,  the  Buddhists  believe  that  all 
souls  have  existed  from  the  beginning  ;  like  them,  they  believe  in 
the  unreality  and  sinfulness  of  the  world  in  the  necessity  of  the 
soul's  freeing  itself  from  the  bondage  of  this  world,  and  in  the 
causal  connection  between  the  actions  of  man  in  this,  and  his  con- 
dition in  a  subsequent,  life.  Like  the  Brahmanic  Hindus,  they 
hold,  therefore,  that  sin  is  the  cause  of  transmigration,  and  that 
by  a  total  expiation  of  sin,  the  soul  ceases  to  be  reborn,  and 
attains  its  final  resting-place.  But  since  this  resting-place  is  to 
the  Buddhists  Nirvana  (q.  v.,)  or  Non-entity,  whereas  to  Brah- 
manism  it  is  Brahman,  or  the  principle  of  Entity  ;  since  they 
reject  the  institution  of  caste,  which  is  the  social  foundation  of 
Brahmanic  life  ;  since  they  do  not  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  Vedas,  and  the  codes  based  on  it,  and  therefore  consider  as 
morally  wrong  much  that  the  Brahmanic  Sastras  enjoin  as  morally 
right,  the  standard  according  to  which  the  life  of  a  Buddhist  is 
regulated  must  differ  in  many  respects  from  that  which  governs 
the  conduct  of  a  Brahmanic  Hindu  ;  and  his  ideas  of  reward  and 
punishment,  therefore,  as  reflected  by  his  ideas  of  the  mode  of 
transmigration,  likewise  differ  from  those  of  the  Brahmanic 
believer.  To  enlarge  here  on  this  difference  is  not  necessary,  for, 
after  the  illustrations  already  afforded  from  Manu,  it  is  easy  to 
conceive  that  the  detail  of  the  Buddhistic  doctrine  of  transmigra- 

81 


642  TRA— TRE 


tion  is  as  fanciful  as  that  of  the  Brahmanic  doctrine  ;  that  it  is 
therefore  partly  devoid  of  interest,  and  partly  intelligible  only  if 
taken  in  connection  with  the  detail  of  Buddhistic  religion  and 
literature.  Yet  it  is  not  superfluous  to  point  out  one  great 
difference  which  separates  the  notions  of  one  class  of  Buddhists 
from  those  of  the  rest,  as  Avell  as  from  those  of  the  Brahmanic 
Hindus.  According  to  the  latter,  and  the  great  mass  of  Buddhists, 
it  is  always  the  same  soul  which  ever  from  its  first  birth  r'^-appears 
in  its  subsequent  births,  until  it  is  finally  liberated  from  transmi- 
gration. But  among  the  southern  Buddhists,  another  idea  has 
also  taken  root.  In  their  belief,  the  succession  of  existences  of  a 
being  is  also  a  succession  of  souls  j  and  each  such  soul,  though  the 
result  of  its  predecessor,  is  not  identical  with  it.  According  to 
this  view,  the  body  dies,  and  with  it  the  soul,  too,  is  *  extinguished,' 
leaving  behind  only  the  good  and  bad  acts  which  it  has  performed 
during  its  life.  The  result  of  these  acts  now  becomes  the  seed  of 
of  a  new  life,  and  the  soul  of  this  new  life  is  therefore  the  neces- 
sary product  of  the  soul  of  the  former  life.  Thus  all  the  succeed- 
ing souls  have  to  labour  at  the  solution  of  the  same  problem, 
which  began  when  their  first  ancestor  entered  this  world,  but  no 
succeeding  birth  is  animated  by  the  same  soul.  This  dogma 
is  illustrated  in  their  works  by  various  similes.  One  lamp,  they 
say,  for  instance,  is  kindled  at  another  ;  the  light  of  the  former  is 
not  identical  with  that  of  the  latter,  but  nevertheless,  without  this, 
the  other  light  could  not  have  originated.  Or,  a  tree  produces 
fruit ;  from  the  fruit,  another  tree  arises,  and  so  on  ;  the  last  tree 
is  therefore  not  the  same  as  the  first,  though  the  fruit  is  the 
necessary  cause  of  the  last." — Goldstuckek. 

Trasadasyu — '^The  Terrifier  of  thieves."  1,  A  name  given  in 
the  Bhdgavata  to  Mandhatri ;  2,  The  son  of  Prukutsa. 

Trasarenu — A  measure  of  time,  consisting  of  three  Anus. 

Trayyaruna — l.  The  Vy^sa  of  the  fifteenth  Dwapara  age  ;  2, 
A  contributor  to  the  Rig  Veda,  he  was  a  prince,  the  son  of 
Tridhanwau  ;  3,  Another  prince,the  son  of  Urukshaya,a  descendant 
of  Bharata. 

Treta — The  Second  Yuga  or  age,  consisting  of  three  thousand 
divine  years. 


TRI  643 

Tridhaman — The  Vyasa  of  the  tenth  Dwapara  age. 

Tridhanwan — An  ancient  Raja  of  the  solar  line,  the  son  of 
Sumanas. 

Trijata — One  of  the  R^kshasi  women,  who,  when  her  com- 
panions wished  to  torture  and  devour  Sita,  told  them  of  a  dream 
she  had  which  betokened  victory  to  Rama  and  destruction  to 
Ravana  ;  they  then  left  Sita  alone  in  the  grove  and  returned  to 
their  own  apartments. 

Trikuta — A  mountain  ridge  in  the  south  of  Meru. 

Trimadhu — A  class  of  Brahmans  so  denominated  from  tlic 
particular  part  of  the  Vedas  they  study  and  recite.  Three 
Anuvakas  of  the  Yajur  Veda  begin  Madhuvata,  &c. 

Trimurti— "(From  the  Sanscrit  ^r?,  three,  and  jmirii,  form) 
is  the  name  of  the  Hindu  triad,  or  the  gods  Brahman  (masculine,) 
Vishnu,  and  Siva,  when  thought  of  as  an  inseparable  unity, 
though  three  in  form.  The  Padma-Pitrana,  which,  being  a 
Pui-ana  of  the  Vaishnava  sect,  assigns  to  Vishnu  the  highest  rank 
in  the  Trimiirti,  defines  its  character  in  the  following  manner  : 
*In  the  beginning  of  creation,  the  great  Vishnu,  desirous  of 
creating  the  whole  world,  became  threefold  :  creator,  preserver, 
and  destroyer.  In  order  to  create  this  world,  the  supreme  spirit 
produced  from  the  right  side  of  his  body  himself  as  Brahman  ; 
then,  in  order  to  preserve  the  world,  he  produced  from  the  left 
side  of  his  body  Vishnu  ;  and  in  order  to  destroy  the  world, 
he  produced  from  the  middle  of  his  body  the  eternal  Siva.  Some 
worship  Brahman,  others  Vishnu,  others  Siva  ;  but  Vishnu,  one, 
yet  threefold,  creates,  preserves,  and  destroys  ;  therefore,  let  the 
pious  make  no  difference  between  the  three.'  And  the  Malsya- 
Purana,  where  speaking  o^ Mahat,  or  the  intellectual  principle  of 
the  Sinkhya  philosophy,  says  that  '  Mahat  becomes  distinctly 
known  as  three  gods,  through  the  influence  of  the  three  qualities, 
goodness,  passion,  and  sin  ;  being  one  person  and  three  gods — 
viz..  Brahman,  Vishnu,  and  Siva.'  Apart,  therefore,  from  secta- 
rian belief,  which  makes  its  own  god  the  highest,  and  gives  him 
the  attributes  also  of  the  other  gods,  Trimiirti  implies  the  unity 
of  the  three  principles  of  creation,  preservation,  and  destructioii 


644  TRI 

and  as  such  belongs  more  to  the  philosophical  than  the  popular 
belief.  When  represented,  the  Trimurti  is  one  body  with  three 
heads  :  in  the  middle,  that  of  Brahman  ;  at  its  right,  that  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  at  its  left,  that  of  Siva.  The  symbol  of  the  Trimurti 
is  the  mystical  syllable  om^  when  (o  being  equivalent  to  a  +  li) 
a,  means  Brahman  ;  ii,  Vishnu  ;  and  m,  Siva." — Goldstucker. 
Trina  —A  prince,  the  son  Usinnara,  descendant  o^  Yayati. 

Trinachiketa — A  class  of  Brahmans  so  called  from  studying 
or  recitiug  the  Rathaka  branch  of  the  Yajur  Veda,  commencing 
with  the  term  Trinachiketa. 

Tinavindu— 1,  The  Vyasa  of  the  twenty- third  Dwapara  age  ; 
2,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Budha,  of  whom  the  celestial  nymph 
Alambusha  became  enamoured. 

Triprishtha — Mahavira  in  one  of  his  births  was  a  Vasudeva, 
named  Triprishtha,  from  having  three  back  bones  :  his  uncle  and 
foe  in  a  former  life,  Visabhanandi,  was  born  as  his  Protagonist  or 
Prativasudeva,  named  Asvagriva  or  Hayagriva,  and  was  in  the 
course  of  events  destroyed  by  the  Vasudeva,  a  palpable  adaptation 
of  the  Pauranic  legend  of  Vishnu  and  Hayagriva.  Triprishtha 
having  put  his  chamberlain  cruelly  to  death  was  condemned  to 
hell,  and  again  born  as  a  lion. 

Tripti — One  of  the  Siddhis,  or  eight  perfections  of  man. 
Tripti  is  the  second  and  means  mental  satisfaction,  or  freedom 
from  sensual  desire. 

Trisala  — The  wife  of  Siddhartha,  king  of  Pavana,  and  mother 
of  the  celebrated  Tirthankara  Mahavira. 

Trisanku — A  prince  of  the  solar  line,  the  son  of  Satyavrata. 
He  was  banished  by  his  father  for  his  bad  conduct,  and  degraded 
t  o  the  condition  of  a  Chandala,  or  outcaste.  But  duriug  a  twelve 
years'  famine  be  provided  the  flesh  of  deer  for  the  nourishment  of 
he  wife  and  children  of  Visvamitra,  suspending  it  on  a  tree  on 
the  Ganges,  that  he  might  not  subject  them  to  the  indignity  of 
receiving  presents  from  an  outcaste.  On  this  account  Visvamitra, 
being  highly  pleased  with  him,  elevated  him  in  his  living  body  to 
heaven. 


TRI— TUN  645 


Trishna— "  Greediness  ;"  one  of  the  children  of  Mritya,  *  death.' 

Trishtubh — Tiie  name  of  the  metre,  created  along  with  the 
Yajur  Veda,  &c.,  from  the  southern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Trisliyas — The  designation  of  Sudras  in  Krauucha  Dwipa. 

Trisiras  — 1,  The  sou  of  Tvashtri,  and  sometimes  called  Visva- 
rupa  ;  he  is  twice  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  under  this  name. 
He  is  said  to  have  had  three  heads  and  six  eyes,  and  three  mouths  ; 
one  of  his  mouths  was  the  soma  drinker,  the  second  the  wine 
di'inker,  and  the  third  was  destined  for  consuming  other  things. 
Indra  hated  this  Visvarupa  and  cut  off  his  three  heads. — Mnir, 
0.  S,  T.,  Vol.  v.,  p.  228-232. 

2.  One  of  the  sons  of  the  giant  Ravana  who  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Lanka. 

Trivrishan — The  Vyasa  of  the  eleventh  Dwapara  age. 

Trivrit — A  collection  of  hymns  created  along  with  the  Rig 
Veda  from  the  eastern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Truti — A  measure  of  time,  consisting  of  three  Tresarenus, 
Tryambaka — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Tulasi  plant — A  tree  sacred  to  Krishna,  said  to  have  been 
produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean  ;  but  considered  by  Wilson 
to  be  a  sectarial  addition  to  the  articles  originally  specified. 

Tulyata — One  of  the  Siddhis,  the  fourth,  meaning  similarity 
of  life,  form,  and  feature. 

Tumburu — A  Gandharba,  who  resides  in  the  sun's  car  as  one 
of  its  seven  guardians  in  the  month  of  Madha  or  Chaitra. 

Tunda — A  fierce  demon  mentioned  in  the  Padraa  Purana, 
which  has  a  long  narrative  of  the  destruction  of  the  demon  by 
Nahusha  the  son  of  Ayus. 

Tundikeras — One  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  Ilaihaya  tribe. 

Tunga — The  son  of  Atri,  who  having  propitiated  Narayana  by 
penance,  obtained  a  son  equal  to  Indra  ;  this  sou  was  Vena,  who 
was  made  by  the  Rishis  the  first  king  of  the  earth.     [Vena.] 

Tungaprastha— :A  mountain  to  the  east  of  Raraghur. 
Tuni — One  of  the  Saineya  princes,  the  son  of  Asauga. 


646  TUR— TVA 


Turvasu — One  of  the  sons  of  Yay^ti,  to  wliom  his  father  made 
over  the  south-east  districts  of  his  kingdom,  to  govern  as  viceroy 
under  his  younger  brother  Puru.  Turvasu  refused  to  take  his 
father's  infirmities  on  him,  in  consequence  of  wliich  his  line  soon 
failed  and  became  merged  in  that  of  Puru. 

Tusharas — l,  A  people,  called  also  Tukharas,  probably  the 
Tochari,  or  tribe  of  the  Sakas,  by  whom  Bactria  was  taken  from 
the  Greeks,  and  from  whom  Tocharistan  derives  tne  name  it  still 
bears  ;  2,  A  race  of  princes  ;  the  dynasty  consisted  of  fourteen, 
and  the  Vayu  Purana  states  that  their  united  reigns  lasted  500 
years. 

Tushitas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  second  Manwantara  ;  and 

r 

"who  were  called  the  Adityas  in  tlie  Manwantara  of  Vaivaswata. 
According  to  the  Vayu  the  Tushitas  were  the  sous  of  Kratu.  The 
deities  of  each  period  are  those  to  whom  offerings  of  the  soma 
juice,  &c.,  are  presented  collectively. 

Tushti — 1,  Resignation  ;  a  daughter  of  Daksha  who  became 
the  wife  of  Dharma  ;  2,  A  daughter  of  Pauruamasa. 

Tushtimat — One  of  the  sons  of  Ugrasena  and  Devaka. 

Tvashtri— This  god,  who  in  the  later  mythology  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  Adityas,  but  does  not  bear  that  character  in  the  Rig 
Veda,  is  the  Hephaistos  or  Vulcan,  of  the  Indian  Pantheon,  the 
ideal  artist,  the  divine  artizan,  the  most  skilful  of  workmen,  who 
is  versed  in  all  wonderful  and  admirable  contrivance.  He  sharpens 
the  iron  axe  of  Brahmanaspati,  and  forges  the  thunderbolts  of 
Indra,  which  are  described  as  golden,  or  of  iron,  with  a  thousand 
points  and  a  hundred  edges.  He  is  styled  the  beautiful,  or  skilful- 
Landed,  the  skilful  worker,  the  omniforra,  or  archetype  of  all  forms, 
and  Savitri,  the  vivifier.  He  imparts  generative  power  and 
bestows  offspring.  He  develops  the  seminal  germ  in  the  womb, 
and  is  the  shaper  of  all  forms,  human  and  animal.  He  has  produced 
and  nourishes  a  great  variety  of  creatures  ;  all  worlds  (or  beings) 
are  his,  and  are  known  to  him  ;  he  has  given  to  heaven  and  earth 
and  to  all  things  their  forms.  He  bestows  long  life.  He  puts 
speed  into  the  legs  of  a  horse.  He  is  said  to  be  skilled  in  all 
Saraatexts,  and  to  have  created  Brahmanaspati  above  all  creatures  : 


TWI  C47 

and  is  said,  along  with  heaveu  and  earth,  the  waters,  and  the 
Bhrigus,  to  have  generated  Agni.  lie  is  master  of  the  universe, 
a  first-born  protector  and  leader.  He  is  a  companion  of  the 
Augirases  and  knows  the  region  of  the  gods.  He  is  supplicated 
to  nourish  the  worshipper  and  protect  his  sacrifice.  He  is  the 
bestower  of  blessings  and  possessed  of  abundant  wealth  ;  and  is 
asked,  like  other  gods,  to  take  pleasure  in  the  hymns  of  his  wor- 
shippers, and  to  grant  them  riches. 

Tvashtri  is  in  several  passages  connected  with  the  Ribhus,  who, 
like  him,  are  celebrated  as  skilful  workmen,  and  are  called  his 
pupils.  An  exhibition  of  their  skill  is  mentioned  ;  they  are  said 
to  have  made  into  four  a  single  new  sacrificial  cup  which  Tvashtri 
had  formed,  and  when  he  saw  this  alteration  of  his  work,  he  is 
represented  as  becoming  ashamed  and  hiding  himself  among  the 
goddesses.  In  one  place  he  is  said  to  have  resented  this  change 
in  his  own  workmanship,  while  in  another  he  is  made  to  applaud 
their  design  and  admire  the  superior  products  of  their  skill. 

Tvashtri  had  twin  children,  (a  daughter)  Saranyu,  and  (a  son) 
Trisiras.  He  is  represented  as  having  for  his  most  frequent 
attendants  the  wives  of  the  gods  ;  which  Professor  Roth  considers 
to  refer  to  the  principal  sphere  of  his  creative  action,  as  the 
bestower  of  offspring. 

Indra  sometimes  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  hostility  with 
Tvashtri  and  his  son  ;  and  at  last  a  quarrel  occurs  in  which  Indra 
slays  him.  In  the  Markandeya  Purana  Tvashtri  is  identified  with 
Visvakarmau  and  Prajapati.  See  Muir's  Orig.  Sans.  Texts,  Vol. 
V,  pp.  224-233,  where  the  authorities  are  quoted  for  all  the 
preceding  statements. 

Twisha — A  daughter  of  Paurnaracisa. 


Uchchraissravas — The  horse  produced  at  the  churning  of  the 
ocean,  and  taken  by  Indra.     It  is  called  the  chief  of  liorses. 

Udaksena — A  king  of  Hastinapura,  the  son  of  Viswaksena. 

Udaradhi — The  son  of  Pushti,  and  grandson  of  Dhruva. 

Udavasu — A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Janaka,  (q.  v.) 

Udavraja — A  country  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  one 
"  into  which  the  waters  flow,"  the  residence  of  the  black-skinned 
aboriginal  king  Sambara,  who  possessed  one  hundred  ancient 
impregnable  cities. 

Udayana — A  prince,  the  son  of  Satanika  ;  of  the  race  of  Puru, 
"  the  race  which  gave  origin  to  Brahraans  and  Kshatriyas,  and 
which  was  purified  by  regal  sages."     V.  P. 

Udayaswa — A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Dharbaka. 

Udayin — One  of  the  sons  of  Vasudeva,  by  his  wife  Devaki. 

Uddalin — One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  White  Yajush. 

Uddhava — A  sage,  versed  in  the  Yoga  doctrine,  foreseeing 
the  destruction  of  the  Yadavas,  applied  to  Krishna  for  advice,  and 
was  sent  to  Badarikasrama  to  practise  penance  and  prepare  for 
heaven. 

Udgatri — The  title  of  the  priest  who  chaunts  the  prayers  and 
hymns  in  the  administration  of  sacrificial  rites. 

Udgitha — One  of  the  kings  of  Bharata  Varsha,  the  sou  of 
Bhava. 

Ugra,  Ugraritas — Two  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 
Ugradeva—  The  name  of  a  deceased  ancestor  conceived  of  as 
still  existing  in  another  world,  and  invoked  in  one  of  the  hymns 


UGR— ULM  649 


of  the  Rig  Veda,  aloug  with  the  souls  of  other  deceased  ancestors  ; 
they  are  thus  called  on,  "  Let  not  the  gods  injure  us  here,  nor  our 
early  Fathers  ^vho  know  the  realms  !  '  May  the  Fathers  protect 
me  in  my  invocation  to  the  gods.' " 

Ugrajit,  Ugrampasya — Two  Apsarases,  wlio  are  invoked  in 
the  Atharva  Veda,  and  asked  to  remit  sins  committed  while 
gambling.  There  are  many  verses  which  show  that  the  Apsarases 
were  intimately  connected  with  gambling.  Dr.  Muir  translates 
the  following  : — "  I  invoke  hither  the  skilfully-playing  Apsaras 
who  cuts  up  and  conquers  and  gets  gains  in  the  game  of  dice.  I 
invoke  hither  the  skilfully-playing  Apsaras  who  collects  and 
scatters,  and  receives  gains  in  the  game  of  dice.  May  she  who 
dances  about  with  the  dice,  when  she  wins  by  gaming,  grant  gain 
to  us,  and  obtain  success  through  her  skill.  May  she  come  to  us 
with  abundance  of  food.  Let  them  not  conquer  this  money  of 
ours.  I  invoke  hither  the  joyful  and  exulting  Apsaras — those 
[goddesses]  who  delight  in  dice,  and  who  cherish  grief  and  anger. 
In  another  verse  they  are  said  to  be  "  fond  of  dice,"  and  soul- 
bewitching." 

Ugrasena — l,  The  Raja  of  Mathura,  who  was  deposed  by  his 
son  Kansa  and  kept  in  confinement.  The  Raja  Kausa  was  after- 
wards killed  by  Krishna  in  a  severe  contest.  Krishna  then  restored 
Ugrasena  to  the  throne,  and  sent  to  ludra  for  his  royal  hall 
Sudharman,  which  was  conveyed  from  heaven  by  Vayu,  and  used 
by  the  Yadava  chiefs.  Ugrasena  is  then  described  as  reigning 
wisely  and  well  for  a  long  period  at  Mathura;  but  when  the  death 
of  Krishna  took  place,  Ugrasena  and  his  wives  committed  them- 
selves to  the  flames  ;  2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Parikshit. 

Ugrayudha — A  Kaurava  prince,  the  sou  of  Krita  ;  by  whose 
prowess  the  Nipa  race  of  Kshatriyas  was  destroyed.  Ugrayudha 
was  slain  by  Bhishma  in  consequence  of  demanding  in  marriage 
the  widow  of  Santana. 

Uktha — 1,  The  name  of  a  portion  of  tlie  Sama  Veda,  created 
from  the  southern  mouth  of  Brahma  ;  2,  A  prince,  the  son  of 
Chhala,  descendant  of  Kusa. 

UllUUka — One  of  the  sous  of  Balabhadru  by  his  wife  Revati, 

82 


G50  ULU— UMA 


Uluki— Tlie  parent  of  owls.     V.  P.,  148. 

Ulwana — One  of  the  seven  Risliis  of  the  third  Mauwantara  ; 
they  were  sons  of  Vasishtha. 

Uma — The  Harivansa  gives  the  following  history  of  Uina, 
which  differs  in  some  points  from  that  of  +he  Ramayana,  as  it 
assigns  three  daughters  to  Himavat  and  Mena,  among  whom  the 
Ganga  is  not  included.  '  Their  (the  Pitris')  mental  daughter  was 
Mena,  the  eminent  wife  of  the  great  mountain  Himavat.  The 
king  of  the  mountains  begot  three  daughters  upon  Mena, — viz., 
Aparna,  Ekaparna,  and  Ekapatala.  These  three,  performing  very 
great  austerity,  such  as  could  not  be  performed  by  gods  or  Danavas, 
distressed  with  alarm  both  the  stationary  and  moving  worlds. 
Ekaparua  (one  leaf)  fed  upon  one  leaf.  Ekapatala  took  only  one 
patala  (Bignonia)  for  her  food.  One  (Aparna)  took  no  sustenance, 
but  her  mother,  distressed  through  maternal  affection,  forbade  her, 
dissuading  her  with  the  words,  u  ma  (0  don't).  The  beautiful 
goddess,  performing  arduous  austerity,  having  been  thus  addressed 
by  her  mother  on  that  occasion,  became  known  in  the  three  worlds 
as  Uma.  In  this  manner  the  contemplative  goddess  became 
renowned  under  that  name.  But  this  world  shall  remain  dis- 
tinguished by  having  these  three  maids. ..Uma  was  the  eldest  and 
most  excellent  among  the  three.  Distinguished  by  the  force 
derived  from  deep  contemplation  she  obtained  Mahadeva  for  her 
husband.— 0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  367. 

The  first  work  in  which  the  name  of  Uma  occurs  is  the  Talava- 
kara,  or  Kena  Upanishad.  In  his  remarks  on  a  passage  in  this 
work,  relating  a  victory  gained  by  Brahma  for  the  gods,  Weber 
supplies  an  ingenious  contribution  to  the  mythlogical  history 
of  Uma.  He  says  :  "  The  representation  in  Sections  3  and 
4  indicates  that  the  Kena  Upanishad  was  produced  at  a  time 
when, — in  place  of  the  three  principal  gods,  Agni,  Vayu,  and 
Surya,  who  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  representatives  of  the 
divine  principle  on  earth,  in  the  atmosphere,  and  in  heaven, — 
Agni,  Vayu,  and  Indra  were  regarded  as  such.  These  are  properly 
only  two,  since  Indra  is  essentially  identical  with  Vayu.  Though 
I  have  found  numerous  examples   of  the  first  triad,  especially  in 


UMA  651 


ill  tho  two  Yajur-vedas,  T  have  noticed  only  one  other  of  the  second 
triad,  which  is  properly  one  a  duad,  viz.,  in  the  Rik-text  of  the 
Purusha  Snkta  (R.  V.,  x.  99,  13).  Nor  am  I  able  to  give  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  totality  of 
the  divine  was  already  comprehended  in  Brahma  (neuter),  and  it 
is  the  object  of  the  legend  here  to  make  clear  and  to  enforce  the 
supremacy  of  Brahma  over  all  temporary  divine  manifestations, 
and  even  over  the  triad  of  such. 

"  But  how  shall  we  explain  the  position  of  Uma  Haimavati, 
who  comes  forward  as  mediatrix  between  the  eternal  Brahma  and 
the  gods  ?  According  to  Sankara,  she  is  Vidya  (knowledge)  who 
appears  Uma  rupini  (in  the  form  of  Uma)  to  Indra.  The  same 
explanation  is  found  in  Sayana,  who  (on  Taitt.  Ar.  x,  1,  150)  when 
interpreting  the  word  so}na,  cites  this  passage,  and  remarks  : 
"  Since  Gauri,  the  daughter  of  Himavat,  is  the  impersonation  of 
divine  knowledge,  the  word  Um^,  which  denotes  Gauri,  indicates 
divine  knowledge.  Hence  in  the  Talavakara  Upanishad,  in  the 
passage  on  the  impersonation  of  divine  knowledge,  the  impersona- 
tion of  divine  knowledge  is  introduced  in  these  w^ords  :  '  Be  said 
to  the  ver}^  resplendent  Uma  Haimavati.' 

There  are,  however,  some  additional  points  which  seem  to  place 
the  original  signification  of  Uma  in  quite  a  different  light.  First 
of  all,  why  is  she  called  Haimavati  ?  What  has  she  to  do  with 
Himavat  ?  Is  it  that  the  brahmd-vidyd  (divine  knowledge)  came 
originally  from  the  Himavat  to  the  Aryans  dwelling  in  Madhya- 
desa  (the  central  region  of  Hindustan)  ?  We  have  learnt  from  the 
Haushitaki  Brahmana  (Ind.  Stud,  i,  153)  that  the  north  of  India 
was  distinguished  by  greater  purity  of  speech,  and  that  students 
travelled  thither  to  learn  the  language  {vdcham  sixitum)  and  on 
their  return  thence  enjoyed  great  consideration  and  authority. 
Now  it  would  have  been  quite  natural  if  this  state  of  things  had 
not  been  confined  to  language,  but  had  become  extended  to  specu- 
lation also,  and  if  the  knowledge  of  the  one,  eternal  Brahma,  had 
been  sooner  attained  in  the  peaceful  valleys  of  the  Himalaya,  than 
^vas  possible  tor  men  living  in  Madhyadesa,  where  their  minds 
were  more  occupied  by  the  practical  concerns  of  life."  Such  a  view 
of  Um^  Haimavati  appears  to  me,  however,  to  be  very  hazardous 


652  UMA 

For, — not   to  say   that  in  our  explanations  of  the  ancient  Indian 
deities  we  act   wisely  when  we  attach  greater  importance  to  the 
physical  than  to  the  speculative  element, — we  are  by  no  means 
certain  that  Uma  actually  does  signify  divine  knowledge  {brahmd 
vidyd)  ;  and  moreover,  her  subsequent  position  as  Rudra's   wife 
(in  the  Taitt.  Ar.)  would  thus  be  quite  inexplicable.     Now  there 
is  among  the  epithets   of  this  latter  goddess  a  similar   one,  viz., 
Parvati,  which  would  lead  us  in  interpreting  the  word  Haimavati, 
to  place  the  emphasis  not  upon  the  Bimavat,  but  upon  the  moun- 
tain (parvata)  :  and   with   this  I  might  connect  the  epithets  of 
Rudra  which  we  have  learnt  from  the  Satarudriya,   Girisa,    Giri- 
sajita,  Girisaya,  Giritra,  in  which  we  recognize  the  germ  of  the 
conception   of  Siva's   dwelling   on   Kailasa.     He  is  the  tempest, 
which  rages  in  the  mountains,   and  his  wife  is  therefore   properly 
called  Parvati,    Haimavati,  "  the  mountaineer,"  *  the  daughter  of 
Himavat.'     At  the   same  time,   it  is  not  clear  what  we  have  to 
understand  by  his  wife  ;  and  further  she  is  perhaps,  originally  not 
his  wife,  but  his  sister,  for  CJma,  and  Ambika  are  at  a  later    period 
evidently  identical,   and  Ambika  is  Rudra's   sister  (Ind.  Stud.  I, 
183),     Besides,  this  identification  of  Uma  with  Ambika  leads  us 
to  a  new  etymology  of  the  former.     For  as  Ambika,  '  mother,' 
appears    to   be   merely    an   euphemistic    and   flattering    epithet, 
employed   to  propitiate    the   cruel   goddess,   in   the  same  way  it 
appears  that  we  must  derive  Uma  from  the  root  w,  av,  'to  protect.'* 
As  the  consort  of  Siva,   the  goddess  has    various  names  ;  as 
Durga,  Devi,  Kali,  Parvati,  Bhavani,  &c.     Some  of  these  names 
have  in  the  Vedic  writings  a  different  import  from  those  assigned 
in  the  later  mythology,  as  Siva   was  not  a  deity  of  the  Vedic 
period,  or  not  of  the  whole  of  it.     "  Though  this  double  character 
of  the  consort  of  Siva  is  not  always  discernible  in  the  myths  which 
are  connected  with  special  designations  of  hers,  and  though  at  a  late 
period  the  popular  creed  looked  upon  her  far  more  as  the  type  of 
destruction  than  as  that  of  divine  wisdom,  yet  the  works  devoted  to 
her  praise  never  fail  to  extol  her  also  as  the  personification  of  the 
highest  knowledge."  Various  myths  relating  to  this  goddess  are  to 

*  Mum,  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  IV,  p.  560. 


UNM  65a 


be  found  scattered  over  nearly  ilic  whole  range  of  Hindu  literature. 
Some  of  those  have  already  been  narrated  in  the  articles  given 
under  her  other  names  in  this  volume.  In  a  previous  existence  she 
is  said  to  have  been  Sati,  the  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  abandoned 
her  mortal  life  because  she  was  sliojhted  by  her  father  when  he 
performed  his  great  sacrifice  and  neglected  to  invite  Siva  to  partake 
of  it.  As  Uma  she  was  the  mother  of  Ganesa  and  Karttikeya,  (q.  v.) 

"  According  to  the  Ilarivausa  she  was,  in  another  life,  born  as 
the  daughter  of  Yasoda,  and  exchanged  for  Vishnu,  when  in  his 
incarnation  as  Krishna  he  was  born  as  a  son  of  Devaki.  On  that 
occasion  she  was  killed  by  Kausa,  but  as  soon  as  he  had  dashed  her 
to  the  ground,  she  rose  to  the  sky,  leaving  behind  her  corporeal 
frame,  and  became  a  divine  virgin  to  whom  the  gods  addressed  their 
praises.  Hence  her  names  Kanya,  Kumari,  &c.,  the  virgin.  This 
connection  between  the  legendary  history  of  Uma  and  Vishnu,  is 
also  briefly  referred  to  in  the  Devimahatmya,  though  this  work  is 
chiefly  concerned  in  the  narrative  of  the  martial  exploits  of  the 
goddess.  The  latter  consisted  in  the  destruction  by  her  of  two 
demons,  Madhu  and  Kaitabha,  who  had  endangered  the  existence 
of  the  god  Brahma  ;  and  of  the  demon  Mahisha  or  Mahishasura, 
who,  having  conquered  all  the  gods,  had  expelled  them  from  heaven, 
and  who  met  Uma,  assisted  only  by  her  lion,  with  a  numberless 
host  of  demons  ;  moreover  in  her  defeating  the  army  of  Chanda  and 
Munda,  two  demon  servants  of  Sumbha  and  Nisumbha  ;  in  her 
killing  the  demon  Rakavija,  who  had  a  sort  of  charmed  life,  each 
drop  of  his  blood,  when  shed,  producing  hundreds  of  demons  like 
himself;  and  ultimately  in  her  destroying  the  demons  Sumbha  and 
Nisumbha  themselves. 

"  In  commemoration  of  her  victory  over  Mahishasura,  a  festival 
called  the  Durgapuja  is  annually  celebrated  in  Bengal.  The 
goddess  is  there  represented  with  ten  arms  trampling  upon  the 
demon,  who  is  also  attacked  by  her  lion,  and  wounded  in  the  chest 
by  her  spear.  She  has  also  laid  hold  of  him  by  the  hair,  and  is 
about  to  chop  off  his  head." — Goldstucker. 

Unmada* — Insanity  ;  a  form  of  Brahma. 


654>  UNN— UPA 


Unnati— Elevation  ;  one  of  the  allegorical  daughters  of  Dak- 
sha,  married  to  Dharma. 

Upadanavi— 1,  The  daughter  of  Vrishaparvan  the  Daitya, 
and  wife  of  Hiranyaksha. 

Upadeva — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Akrura  ;  2,  A  son  of  Devaka. 

Upadeva — A  daughter  of  Devaka. 

UpagU — A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Satyarathi. 

UpamadgU — A  prince,  one  of  the  sons  of  Swaphalka  by 
Gandiui. 

Upananda,  Upanidhi — Two  sons  of  Vasudeva,  by  his  wives 
Madira  and  Bhadra  respectively. 

Upanishad — "  Is  the  name  of  those  Sanskrit  works  belonging 
to  the  Vedic  literature  which  contain  the  mystical  doctrine  of  the 
Hindus  on  the  nature  of  a  supreme  being,  its  relation  to  the  human 
soul,  and  the  process  of  creation.  The  w^ord  (derived  from  the 
Sankrit  prefixes  upa,  *  beneath'  or  '  near,'  and  7ii,  '  in,'  combined 
with  the  radical  sad,  '  sit')  is  explained  by  the  great  theologian 
Sankara  (q.  v.),  and  others  after  him,  as  meaning  the  '  science  of 
Brahma,'  or  '  the  understanding  of  the  identity  of  Brahma  and 
the  soul,'  because  '  in  those  devoted  to  it,  this  science  sets  to  rest 
(or  destroys)  the  world,  together  with  (ignorance)  its  cause  ;'  or 
in  other  words,  because  it  shows  to  them  that  the  world  has, 
besides  Brahman,  no  reality.  Grammatical  commentators  explain 
its  etymology  as  implying  that  '  eternal  bliss  reposes  on  it  (upani- 
shidati  sreyo  'syam)  ;'  and  Professor  Max  Miiller  has  surmised 
that  the  word  '  Upanishad  meant  originally  the  act  of  sitting  down 
near  a  teacher,  of  submissively  listening  to  him,'  whence  it  came 
to  mean  *  implicit  faith,  and  at  last  truth  or  divine  revelation.'  But 
apart  from  the  artificialness  of  all  these  interpretations,  it  deserves 
notice  that  the  earliest  sense  of  the  word  appears  to  be  that  of 
*  secret'  or  '  mystery'  (literally,  that  which  sits  or  rests  beneath') 
In  this  sense,  it  is  mentioned  by  the  grammarian  Panini  ;  and  as  it 
is  very  probable  that,  in  his  time,  the  works  bearing  the  name  of 
Upanishads  were   not  yet  in   existence,   it   may   be  assumed   that 


UPA  '  655 

these  works  derived  their  name  from  the  mysteriousiiess  of  the 
doctriue  coutaiued  in  them  ;  aud  perhaps  also  from  the  mystical 
maimer  in  which  they  propounded  it. 

In  order  to  understand  the  origin  aud  purport  of  the  Upanishads, 
as  well  as  the  relation  in  wliich  they  stand  to  the  Vedas,  properly 
so  called,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  though  the  Vedic  hymns 
are  based  on  the  worship  of  the  elementary  powers,  and  the 
Brahmaiia  portion  connected  with  them  is  chiefly  concerned  in 
legendary  and  ritual  matter  relating  to  that  worship,  yet  in  both 
these  portions  of  the  Vedas,  and  especially  in  the  Brahmanas,  the 
beginning  of  a  period  become  already  visible  when  the  poets 
raised  the  questions  as  to  the  origin  of  the  world  and  the  true 
nature  of  the  gods.  A  first  attempt  at  a  systematic  answer  to 
these  questions  was  made  in  works  which  bear  an  intimate  relation 
to  the  Brahmanas  ;  aud  so  great  was  the  awe  in  which,  on  this 
account,  these  works  were  held,  that  they  had  to  be  read  in  the 
solitude,  where  the  mind  could  ponder  in  perfect  calmness  over 
the  mysterious  problems  in  which  they  are  engaged.  These  are 
the  Aranyakas  (from  aranya,  a  forest.)  But  as  the  style  and 
contents  of  the  Aranyakas  are  extremely  obscure,  and  as,  through 
the  close  alliance  of  these  works  to  the  Brahmanas,  of  which  some 
of  them  form  part,  the  theological  questions  of  which  they  treat 
are  much  overlaid  with  ritual  and  other  matters  which  properly 
belong  to  the  Brahmanas,  a  further  progress  made  in  the  same 
direction,  led  to  the  composition  of  works  and  treatises,  the  dictiou 
of  which  is  somewhat  clearer,  and  less  entangled  with  subjects 
extraneous  to  the  problems  they  intend  to  solve.  Such  works  aud 
treatises  are  the  Upanishads.  Their  object,  like  that  of  the 
Aranyakas,  is  to  impress  the  mind  with  the  belief  in  one  Supreme 
Spirit  {Brahma^  as  a  neuter,  and  different,  therefore,  from  the 
same  Avord  as  a  masculine,  which  is  the  name  of  the  first  god  of 
the  Trimurti,  q.  v.,)  to  show  that  this  Supreme  Spirit  is  the 
creator  of  the  world  ;  that  the  world  has  no  reality  if  thought  of 
besides  Brahma,  and  that  the  human  soul  is  identical  in  nature 
with  that  same  spirit  whence  it  emanates.  The  reward  the  Upani- 
shads hold  out  to  the  believer,  who  understands  their  doctrine, 
and  firmly  adheres  to  it,  is  freedom  from  Transmigration  (q.  v.,) 


656  UFA 

aud  consequent  eternal  bliss.  The  object  and  aim  of  the  Upani- 
shads  are  therefore  the  same  as  those  propounded  in  the  philoso- 
phical systems  ;  and  the  Upanishads  may  therefore  be  looked 
upon  as  the  forerunners  of  these  systems  themselves — those  Upani- 
shads, at  lenst,  which  we  may  call  the  older  Upanishads  ;  for  as 
to  the  more  recent  ones,  and  those  which  bear  the  stamp  of 
sectarian  character,  their  claim  to  be  ranked  among  the  Vedic 
writings  is  extremely  doubtful,  if  at  all  admissible. 

Though  agreeing  in  the  main  points  of  their  doctrine,  it  is  easily 
understood  that  works  of  this  nature,  ranging  over  different  periods 
of  Hindu  religion,  will  also  differ  from  one  another  both  in  the 
manner  aud  detail  in  which  they  deliver  their  subject-matter,  aud 
in  the  degree  of  completeness  with  which  they  treat  of  it.  Thus, 
in  some,  the  legendary  narrative,  and  even  ritual  detail,  are  still 
considerably  blended  with  the  theosophical  speculation — and  these 
stand  nearest,  therefore,  the  Aranyakas,  probably  also  in  time  ;  iu 
others,  more  philosophical,  the  nature  of  Brahma  and  the  human 
soul  is  the  ouly  subject  of  inquiry  ;  in  others,  the  process  of 
creation  is  also  enlarged  upon,  with  detail  which  harmonises  more 
or  less  either  with  the  ulterior  views  of  the  Vedanta  (q.  v.)  or 
those  of  the  Saukhya  (q.  v.)  philosophy  ;  some  Upanishads,  again, 
especially  emphasise  the  inefficiency,  for  the  attainment  of  eternal 
bliss,  of  the  performing  religious  acts  and  of  worldly  studies — the 
knowledge  of  Brahma  being  the  only  means  that  leads  to  this 
end  ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  in  conformity  with  the  Yoga  (q.  v.) 
doctrine,  assign  a  prominent  place  to  the  exterior  means,  by  using 
which  the  soul  would  qualify  itself  for  union  with  the  Supreme 
Spirit  ;  while  the  sectarian  Upanishads,  which  identify  this  spirit 
with  Vishnu  and  Siva,  have,  besides,  the  tendency  of  reconciling 
the  popular  with  the  philosophical  creed. 

Of  the  older  Upanishads,  a  typical  instance  is  furnished  in  the 
Chhandogya  Upanishad  of  the  Samaveda,  the  framework  of  which 
is  legendary  throughout,  and  its  contents  allegorical  and  mystical. 
Other  shorter  Upanishads,  freer  from  narratives  and  allusions  to 
the  mysterious  import  of  ritual  acts,  aim  at  a  more  intelligible 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  soul.  Of  their  mode  of  treatment, 
the  following  passage  from   the  Kathaka  Upanishads  will  serve  as 


UPA  G57 

au  example  :  Nacliiketas,  the  son  of  Vajasravas,  liaving  come  to 
the  abode  of  Yama,  the  judge  of  the  dead,  aud  obtained  from  hira 
tlie  grant  of  three  boons,  asks  of  hira,  for  his  third  boon,  an  answer 
to  the  following  question  :  *  There  is  this  doubt :  some  say  that 
(the  soul)  exists  after  the  death  of  a  man  (in  connection  with 
another  body  than  thib)  ;  others  say  that  it  does  not.  This  I 
should  like  to  know,  instructed  by  thee.*  And  Yama,  after  some 
hesitation,  explains  to  him  that  the  soul  and  Brahma  are  one,  but 
that  a  man  attains  immortality  only  by  understanding  this  unity, 
and  that,  to  arrive  at  this  understanding,  he  must  free  liis  mind 
from  sensual  desires,  and  get  a  correct  knowledge  both  of  the 
nature  of  DrahmTi  and  of  the  soul.  '  Know  the  soul  as  the  rider, 
and  the  body  as  the  car  ;  know  intellect  as  the  charioteer,  and 
maiws  (the  organ  of  volition)  as  the  rein.  The  senses,  they  say, 
are  the  horses,  the  objects  (their)  roads  ;  and  the  enjoyer  (i.  e.,  the 
rider)  is  (the  soul)  endowed  with  body,  senses,  and  manas.  Thus 
say  the  wise.  If  he  (the  charioteer)  is  unwise,  and  his  manas  is 
always  unbridled,  his  senses  are  uncontrolled  like  vicious  horses  ; 
but  if  he  is  wise,  and  his  manas  is  always  bridled,  his  senses  arc 
controlled  like  good  horses.  He  who,  always  impure,  is  unwise, 
and  whose  manas  is  unbridled,  does  not  attain  that  abode  (of 
immortality,)  but  comes  to  the  world  (of  birth  and  death)  ;  he, 
however,  who,  always  pure,  is  wise,  and  whose  manas  is  bridled, 
he  attains  that  abode  whence  he  is  not  born  again.  The  man  who 
has  a  wise  charioteer,  and  whose  manas  is  bridled,  reaches  the 
other  shore  of  the  road  (of  the  world,)  the  highest  abode  of 
Vishnu.  Higher,  («.  c,  subtler,)  indeed,  than  the  objects  are  the 
senses  ;  higher  than  the  senses  is  manas  ;  higher  than  manas, 
intellect  ;  and  higher  than  intellect,  the  great  one,  the  soul. 
Higher  than  the  great  one  is  that  which  is  unmauifestcd,  and  higher 
than  the  unmanifested  is  Purusha,  the  Supreme  Spirit.  But 
higher  than  Purusha  there  is  nothing  ;  he  is  the  goal,  the  higliest 
resort.  The  highest  spirit  is  the  soul  hidden  in  all  created  beings  ; 
it  is  not  manifest,  but  is  beheld  by  those  who  can  sec  what  is 
subtle  with  an  attentive,  subtle  intellect.'  The  coincidence 
between  the  allegory,  in  the  foregoing  passage,  and  that  in  Plato's 
PhixdvHs,  imparts  an  additional  interest  to  this  Upanishad,  which 

S3 


658  UPA 

is  valuable,  moreover,  on  account  of  the  evidence  it  afifords  as  to 
points  of  agreement  and  difference  between  its  views  of  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  world  and  those  expounded  in  the  Saukhya  (q.  v.) 
The  Mundaka  Upanishad  is  important  for  the  relative  position 
which  it  assigns  to  the  teaching  of  the  Vedas,  and  the  doctrine  of 
the  Upanishads.  '  Two  sciences,'  it  says,  the  knowers  of  Brahma 
tell  us,  '  must  be  known,  the  higher  and  the  inferior.  The  inferior 
is  (the  knowledge  of)  the  Rig  Veda,  the  Yajurveda,  the  Samaveda, 
and  the  Atharvaveda,  the  knowledge  of  pronunciation,  the  ritual, 
grammar,  explanation  of  Vedic  texts,  prosody,  and  astronomy. 
But  the  higher  knowledge  is  that  by  which  that  imperishable 
Brahma  is  comprehended.  That  which  is  invisible,  unseizable, 
without  descent  (or  origin,)  without  either  colour,  eye,  or  ear, 
without  hand  or  foot,  eternal,  manifold  (in  creation,)  all-pervading, 
very  subtle,  undecaying — the  wise  behold  it  as  the  cause  of 
created  beings.'  And  in  another  place,  the  performers  of  the 
sacrificial  rites  ordained  by  the  Veda  are  said  to  attain,  indeed,  to 
Indra's  heaven  in  virtue  of  their  pious  work  ;  but  this  state  of 
bliss  is  declared  to  be  unstable  and  perishable,  and  these  '  fools... 
drop  (from  their  heaven)  as  soon  as  this  heaven  (the  reward  of 
their  acts)  has  faded  away.  Fancying  that  pious  acts,  ordained 
by  the  Vedas  and  codes  of  law,  are  the  highest  (object  of  man,) 
these  ignorant  people  do  not  know  that  there  is  something  else 
which  leads  to  eternal  bliss.  Having  enjoyed  (the  reward  of  their 
deeds)  on  the  happy  summit  of  paradise,  they  enter  again  this 
world,  or  one  that  is  (even)  lower.  Those,  on  the  contrary,  who 
practice  penance  and  faith,  and,  with  subdued  desire,  live  in  the 
forest,  under  the  vow  of  a  religious  mendicant,  they,  free  from  sin, 
enter  through  the  sun  to  that  abode  where  resides  that  immortal 
spirit,  that  spirit,  indeed,  of  undecaying  nature.' 

The  Talavakdra,  or  Kena,  Upanishad,  which,  being  one  of  the 
shortest,  is  in  form  one  of  the  most  philosophical  treatises  of  this 
kind,  puts  in  clearer  language,  perhaps,  than  any  other  Upanishad, 
the  doctrine  that  the  true  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  Spirit  consists 
in  the  consciousness  which  man  acquires  of  his  inca'pacity  to 
understand  it,  since  the  human  mind  being  capable  only  to  com- 
prehend finite  objects,  cannot  have  a  knowledge  of  what  is  infinite. 


UPA  659 

The  Upanishads  are  not  ?iipposed  to  have  been  revealed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Vedic  hymns.  Nevertheless,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  confessedly  modern  Upanishads,  they  are  not 
assigned  to  human  authorship,  but  looked  upon  as  inspired  writings, 
to  which  the  term  Sruti  (q.  v.)  applies.  In  several  Upanishads,  no 
special  mention  is  made  of  their  divine  origin  ;  in  some,  however, 
this  is  done.  Thus  the  Chhdndogya  Upaiiishad,  in  its  concluding 
section,  relates  :  '  This  (knowledge  of  the  soul)  Brahma  (the  god 
of  the  Trimurti)  imparted  to  Prajapati  (a  lord  of  creation — the 
patriarch  Kasyapa,  as  Sankara  explains)  ;  Prajapati  imparted  it 
to  ]VJanu,  and  Manu  to  mankind  ;'  the  Brihadaranyaka  Upanishad, 
which  on  three  occasions  gives  long  lists  of  teachers  who  handed 
it  down  to  their  pupils,  always  ascribes  itself,  in  the  last  instance, 
to  the  authorship  of  '  the  self-existent  Brahma  (the  Supreme 
Spirit)  ;'  and  in  a  similar  manner  the  Mundaka  Upauishad  says 
that  it  was  Brahma  (the  god  of  the  Trimurti,)  the  creator  of  the 
universe,  who  first  taught  the  science  of  the  Supreme  Spirit  to  his 
eldest  son,  Atharvau.  As  in  the  case  of  most  ancient  works  of 
Sanskrit  literature,  the  date  of  the  Upanishads  also  still  remains 
quite  uncertain,  and,  wherever  given,  is  purely  conjectural. 
According  to  the  native  system,  they  are  classified  as  belonging  to 
one  or  the  other  of  the  four  Vedas,  with  which  they  are  held  to 
stand  in  immediate  connection.  There  are  Upanishads,  conse- 
quently, of  the  Rig-,  Yajur-,  Sama-,  and  Atharva-veda.  But 
this  classification  has  no  reference  whatever  to  chronology." — 
Chambers^  EncyclopcBdia. 

Upa-puranas— Minor  Puranas,  of  which  there  are  said  to  be 
eighteen  ;  "  but  the  names  of  only  a  few  of  these  are  specified  in 
the  least  exceptionable  authorities,  and  the  greater  number  of  the 
works  is  not  procurable."  (  Wilso7i.)  The  Matsya  enumerates  but 
four,  but  the  Devi  Bhagavata  specifies  eighteen.  The  Revi 
Khanda  has  a  different  list  but  enumerates  eighteen.  "  Of  the 
Upa  Purduas  few  are  to  be  procured.  Those  in  my  possession 
are  the  Siva,  considered  as  distinct  from  the  Vayu  ;  the  Kalika, 
and  perhaps  one  of  the  Naradiyas."     Wilson. 

Uparicliara — A  Vasu,  who  by  command  of  Indra  became 
king  of  Chedi.     He  had  five  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  Vrihadratha, 


660  UPA— URU 


1 


was  kiDg  of  Magadha  ;  by  another  wife  lie  had  an  Apsaras,  con- 
demned to  the  form  of  a  fish,  Matsya,  a  son,  and  Satyavati  or 
Kali,  a  daughter  ;  the  latter  was  the  mother  of  Vyasa. 

Upasunda — A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Nisunda,  and  father  of 
Muka. 

Upendra — The  divinity  who  presides  over  the  feet. 

Urddhabahu— One  of  the  seven  pure  sages,  of  the  first  and 
third  Manwantara,  the  sons  of  Vasishtha  by  his  wife  Urjja. 

Urddhabahus — -"  Personal  privation  and  torture  being  of  great 
efficacy  in  the  creed  of  the  Hindus,  various  individuals,  some 
influenced  by  credulity,  and  some  by  knavery,  have  adopted  modes 
of  distorting  their  limbs,  and  forcing  them  out  of  their  natural 
position,  until  they  can  no  longer  resume  their  ordinary  directions. 

The  Uraddhabahus  extend  one  or  both  arms  above  their  heads, 
till  they  remain  of  themselves  thus  elevated.  They  also  close  the 
fist,  and  the  nails  being  necessarily  suffered  to  grow  make  their 
way  between  the  metacarpal  bones,  and  completely  perforate  the 
hand.  The  Urddhabahus  are  solitary  medicants,  as  are  all  of  this 
description,  and  never  have  any  fixed  abode  :  they  subsist  upon 
alms  ;  many  of  them  go  naked,  but  some  wear  a  wrapper  stained 
with  ochre  ;  they  usually  assume  the  Saiva  marks,  and  twist  their 
hair  so  as  to  project  from  the  forehead,  in  imitation  of  the  Jata  of 
Siva. —  Wilson,  Vol.  1. 

Urja — 1.  One  of  the  seven  Bishis  of  the  second  Manwantara  ; 
2,  An  obsolete  name  of  a  month. 

Urjja — Energy  ;  A  daughter  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Vasishtha. 

Urjaswati — l.  A  daughter  of  Daksha  who  was  married  to 
Dharma  ;  2,  The  daughter  of  Priyavrata. 

Urjjavaha— A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Suchi. 

Uru — One  of  the  ten  noble  sons  of  the  Manu  Chakshusha. 

Uruashaya— A  prince,  the  sou  of  Mahavirya,  a  descendant 
of  Bharata. 


URV— USH  G61 


Urvasi— A  celestial  nympli,  who  havinrr  incurred  the  impreca- 
tiou  of  Mitra  aiul  Varuiia  determiDed  to  take  up  her  abode  iu  the 
world  of  mortals  ;  and  descending  accordingly  behold  Puruvaras. 
As  she  saw  him  she  forgot  all  reserve,  and  disregarding  the 
delights  of  Swarga  became  deeply  enamoured  of  the  prince.     See 

PURCRAVAS. 

Usanas — l.  The  preceptor  of  the  Daityas,  one  of  the  Brah- 
manical  tribe  of  Bhargavas,  sons  of  Bhrigu  ;  2,  The  Vyasa  of 
the  third  Dwapara  age  ;  3,  A  prince,  the  sou  of  Tamas,  who 
celebrated  a  hundred  sacrifices  of  the  horse. 

Usha— 1.  The  wife  of  the  Rudra  BJiava  ;  2,  The  daughter 
of  Bana,  who  saw  Aniruddha  in  a  dream  and  became  enamoured 
of  him.  She  related  this  to  Chitrarikha,  a  female  confidante,  who 
advised  the  employment  of  a  portrait  painter  to  take  likenesses  of 
all  the  young  princes  iu  the  neighbourhood.  On  seeing  the  portrait 
of  Aniruddha,  grandson  of  Krishna,  Usha  recognised  the  youth 
she  had  seen  in  her  dream.  The  same  confidante  now  offered  her 
services  ;  and  by  her  means  Aniruddha  held  clandestine  meetings 
with  Usha  ;  and  at  length  was  secreted  in  her  private  apartments. 
Bana  discovered  this,  and  made  Aniruddha  a  prisoner.  Krishna 
then  interfered,  and  after  a  terrible  fight  Aniruddha  was  released  ; 
both  parents  agreed  to  a  marriage,  which  was  publicly  celebrated 
at  Dwaraka.     See  Aniruddha. 

Ushas— The  Dawn.  The  Aurora  of  Hindu  mythology.  "  This 
goddess,  who  corresponds  to  the  'Hw^  of  the  Greeks  and  to  the 
Aurora  of  the  Latins,  is  a  favourite  object  of  celebration  with  the 
poets  of  the  Rig  Veda,  and  the  hymns  addressed  to  her  are  among 
the  most  beautiful — if  not  the  most  beautiful — in  the  entire 
collection."* 

Ushas  is  continually  described  as  the  daughter  of  the  Sky.  She 
is  called  the  sister  of  Bhaga,  and  the  kinswoman  of  Varuna.  She 
is  also  the  sister  of  Night,  who  is  also  the  daughter  of  the  Sky. 
Ushas  is  also  frequently  brought  into  connection  with  the  Sun. 
He  is  called  her  lover  and  is  said  to  follow  her  track  ;  and  she  is 


*  MuiR,  0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  181. 


6G2  USH 

represented  as  leading  on  the  beautiful  white  horse  the  Sun.  She 
is  declared  to  be  the  mistress  of  the  world  and  the  wife  of  the  Sun. 
Ushas  and  Agni  are  also  frequently  brought  into  conjunction,  fire 
being  always  kindled  for  sacrificial  purposes  at  dawn.  He  is  called 
her  lover  and  is  said  to  appear  with  or  before  the  dawn.  Ushas 
is  also  often  connected  with  the  Asvius,  the  time  of  whose 
manifestation  is  regarded  by  Yaska  as  being  between  midnight  and 
sunrise.  They  are  said  to  associate  with  her,  and  she  is  called 
their  friend.*  In  one  place  the  moon  is  said  to  be  born  again  and 
again,  ever  new,  and  to  go  before  Ushas  as  the  herald  of  the  day. 
Indra  is  said  to  have  created,  or  lighted  up,  Ushas.  He  is  however 
sometimes  represented  as  assuming  a  hostile  attitude  towards  her, 
and  is  said  to  have  crushed  her  chariot  with  his  thunderbolt.f 

The  Nighantu  gives  sixteen  names  of  Ushas,  which  seem  to  be 
almost  entirely  epithets,  viz.,  the  '  resplendent,'  the  beautiful,  the 
shining,  the  flowing,  the  possessor  of  brilliant  riches,  the  white,  the 
bringer  of  food,  the  giver  of  joy,  the  bright,  the  fair-coloured,  the 
ruddy,  the  utterer  of  pleasant  voices.  Some  of  these  epithets  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  hymns,  and  there  are  also  many 
others  to  be  found  there,  such  as  the  magnificent,  the  righteous,  the 
immortal,  the  gold-hued,  &c.,  &c.| 

Ushas  is  borne  onward  on  a  shining  chariot,  of  massive 
construction,  richly  decorated  and  spontaneously  yoked,  drawn  by 
ruddy  horses,  or  by  cows  or  bulls  of  the  same  colour,  traversing 
rapidly  a  distance  of  thirty  yojanas.  Like  a  beautiful  young 
woman  dressed  by  her  mother,  a  richly-decked  dancing  girl,  a  gaily 
attired  wife  appearing  before  her  husband,  or  a  female  rising 
resplendent  out  of  the  bath,  smiling  and  confiding  in  the  irresistible 
power  of  her  attractions,  she  unveils  her  bosom  to  the  gaze  of  the 
beholder.  She  dispels  the  darkness,  disclosing  the  treasures  it  had 
concealed  :  she  illuminates  the  world,  revealing  its  most  distant 
extremities.  She  is  the  life  and  breath  of  all  things,  causing  the 
birds  to  fly  forth  from  their  nests,  visiting  every  house,  and  like  an 
active  housewife  arousing  her  household,  awakening  the  five  races 
of  men,  yea  all  creatures,  as  if  from  death,  and  sending  men  forth 

*  MuiR,  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  181.  t  Hid,  t  Ibid. 


USH  663 

to  the  pursuit  of  their  several  occupations  ;  and  rendering  good 
service  to  the  gods  by  causing  all  worshippers  to  awake,  and  the 
sacrificial  fires  to  be  kindled.  She  is  however  entreated  to  arou.se 
only  the  devout  and  liberal  worshipper,  and  to  leave  the  ungodly 
niggard  to  sleep  on  in  unconsciousness.  She  is  young,  being  born 
anew  every  day,  and  yet  she  is  old,  nay  immortal,  and  wears  out 
the  lives  of  successive  generations,  which  disappear  oue  after 
another,  while  she  continues  undecaying.* 

The  worshippers  however  sonaetimes  venture  to  take  the  credit 
of  being  more  alert  than  Ushas,  and  of  awaking  her  instead  of 
being  awakened  by  her  :  and  in  one  place  she  is  solicited  to  make 
no  delay  that  the  sun  may  not  scorch  her  as  like  a  thief  or  an 
enemy.  She  is  prayed  to  bring  the  gods  to  drink  the  libations  of 
Soma.  Agni  and  the  gods  generally  are  described  as  waking 
with  Ushas.  f 

Dr.  Muir  gives  the  following  metrical  sketch  of  Ushas  as  repre- 
sented in  the  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Hail,  Ushas,  daughter  of  the  sky, 

Who,  borne  upon  thy  shining  car 

By  ruddy  steeds  from  realms  afar, 
And  ever  lightening,  drawest  nigh  : — 

Thou  sweetly  smilest,  goddess  fair, 
Disclosing  all  thy  youthful  grace, 
Thy  bosom  bright,  thy  radiant  face, 

And  lustre  of  thy  golden  hair  : 

(So  shines  a  fond  and  winning  bride, 

Who  robes  her  form  in  brilliant  guise, 
And  to  her  lord's  admiring  eyes 

Displays  her  charms  with  conscious  pride  : — 

Or  virgin  by  her  mother  decked, 

Who,  glorying  in  her  beauty,  shows 
In  every  glance,  her  power  she  knows 

All  eyes  to  fix,  all  hearts  subject  : 

*  MuiB,  0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  181.  t  Ibid, 


664  USH 

Or  actress,  who  by  skill  in  soug 

And  dance,  and  graceful  gestures  light, 
And  many -coloured  vestures  bright. 

Enchants  the  eager,  gazing  throng  : — 

Or  maid  who,  wont  her  limbs  to  lave 

In  some  cool  stream  among  the  woods. 
Where  never  vulgar  eye  intrudes, 

Emerges  fairer  from  the  wave)  : — 

But  closely  by  the  amorous  sun 

Pursued,  an^l  vanquished  in  the  race, 
Thou  soon  art  locked  in  his  embrace, 

And  with  him  blendest  into  one. 

Fair  Ushas,  though  through  years  untold 
Thou  hast  lived  on,  yet  thou  art  born 
Anew  on  each  succeeding  morn, 

And  so  thou  art  both  young  and  old. 

As  in  thy  fated  ceaseless  course 
Thou  risest  on  us  day  by  day, 
Thou  wearest  all  our  lives  away 

With  silent,  ever-wasting,  force. 

Their  round  our  generations  run  : 

The  old  depart,  and  in  their  place 
Springs  ever  up  a  younger  race, 

Whilst  thou,  immortal,  lookest  on. 

All  those  who  watched  for  thee  of  old 
Are  gone,  and  now  't  is  we  who  gaze 
On  thy  approach  ;  in  future  days 

Shall  other  men  thy  beams  behold. 

But 't  is  not  thoughts  so  grave  and  sad 
Alone  that  thou  dost  with  thee  bring, 
A  shadow  o'er  our  hearts  to  fling  ; — 

Thy  beams  returning  make  us  glad. 


USH  (i6.> 

Thy  sister,  sad  and  sombre  Night 

With  stars  that  in  the  blue  expause 
Like  sleepless  eyes  mysterious  glauce, 

At  thy  approach  is  queuched  in  light  : — 

And  earthly  forms,  till  now  concealed 

Behind  her  veil  of  dusky  hue, 

Once  more  come  sharply  out  to  view, 
By  thine  illuming  glow  revealed. 

Thou  art  the  life  of  all  that  lives, 

The  breath  of  all  that  breathes  ;  the  sight 
Of  thee  makes  every  countenance  bright, 

Xew  strength  to  every  spirit  gives. 

When  thou  dost  pierce  the  musky  gloom, 

Birds  flutter  forth  from  every  brake. 

All  sleepers  as  from  death  awake, 
And  men  their  myriad  tasks  resume. 

Some  prosperous,  wake  in  listless  mood. 

And  others  every  nerve  to  strain 

The  goal  of  power  or  wealth  to  gain, 
Or  what  they  deem  the  highest  good. 

But  some  to  holier  thoughts  aspire, 
In  hymns  the  race  celestial  praise. 
And  light,  on  human  hearths  to  blaze. 

The  heaven-born  sacrificial  fire. 

And  not  alone  do  bard  and  priest 

Awake  ;  —  the  gods  thy  power  confess 
By  starting  into  consciousness 

When  thy  first  rays  suffuse  the  east  : 

And  hasting  downward  from  the  sky, 

They  visit  men  devout  and  good, 

Consume  their  consecrated  food, 
And  all  their  longings  satisfy. 

84 


GGG  UTK— UTT 


Bright  goddess,  let  thy  genial  rays 

To  us  bring  stores  of  envied  wealth  ^ 

In  kine  and  steeds,  and  sons,  with  health, 

And  joy  of  heart,  and  length  of  days. 

Utkala — One  of  the  sons  of  Sudyumna  after  his  transformation. 

Uttama — l,  The  son  of  Uttanapada  and  grandson  of  the 
Manu  Swdyambhuva. 

2.  A  Manu,  the  son  of  Priyavrata. 

3.  The  Manu  of  the  third  Manwantara. 

4.  The  Vyasa  of  the  twenty -first  Dwapara  age. 

Uttanapada— The  son  of  the  Manu  Swayambhuva.  The 
Vishnu  Purana  describes  him  as  heroic  and  pious,  but  gives  no 
particulars  of  his  history, 

Uttara-bhadrapada — A  lunar  mansion  in  Vaiswdnari  in  the 
Southern  Avashthana. 

Uttarakuru — A  varsha  or  country  beyond  the  Sringi  range  of 
mountains,  south  of  Meru. 

Uttara-phalguni— A  lunar  mansion  in  Arshabhi,  in  the  Cen- 
tral Avashthana. 

Uttarashadha — A  lunar  mansion  in  Ajavithi,  in  the  Southern 
Avashthana. 

Uttatahya — A  sage,  the  sou  of  Angiras,  and  husband  of 
Mamata. 


Vach — 1,  The  goddess  of  speech,  wl»o  resides  in  the  region 
intermediate  between  heaven  and  earth.  In  the  hiter  mythology 
Sarasvati  was  identified  with  Vach,  and  became  under  different 
names  the  spouse  of  Brahma  and  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and 
eloquence,  and  is  invoked  as  a  Muse.  lu  the  Mahabharata  she  is 
called  the  mother  of  the  Vedas,  and  the  same  is  said  of  Vach  in  the 
Taitt.  Br.  ii,  8,  where  she  is  also  said  to  be  tlie  wife  of  Indra,  to 
contain  within  herself  all  worlds,  and  to  have  been  sought  after  by 
the  rishis  who  composed  the  Vedic  hymns,  as  well  as  by  the  gods 
through  austerity.— 0.  S.  T.,  V,  342. 

Vach  is  represented  as  the  wife  of  Prajapati,  and  as  pervadiug 
all  that  exists.  She  is  termed  the  mother  of  the  Vedas.  Vach  is 
also  designated  as  a  cow.  "  Let  a  man  worship  the  cow  Vach. 
She  has  four  udders,  the  formulae,  svaha,  vashat,  hauta,  and 
svadha.  The  gods  live  upon  her  two  udders,  svaha  and  vashat ; 
men  upon  hauta  ;  and  the  fathers  upon  svadha.  Breath  is  her 
bull  ;  the  mind,  her  calf."— 0.  S.  T.,  //,  256. 

Vach — 2,  A  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to  Kasyapa. 

Vadhrimati — The  wise  female  to  whose  invocation  the  Asvins 
listened  and  gave  her  a  son  called  Iliranyahasta. —  0.  S.  7*.,  F, 
247. 

Vahan — Sans.,  a  vehicle.  One  is  allotted  to  each  of  the  gods. 
Brahma  has  the  Hamsa,  a  goose  or  swan.  Vishnu,  Garuda,  half 
man,  half  bird,  but  now,  in  Southern  India,  identified  with  the 
Halioetus  Pondicherianus,  or  Brahmauy-kite  ;  Siva,  the  bull  ; 
Indra,  the  elephant ;  Ganesa,  a  rat  ;  Kartikeya,  a  peacock  ;  Agni, 
a  ram  ;  Vayu,  an  antelope  ;  Yama,  a  buffalo  ;  Sani,  Saturn,  a 
vulture  ;  Rama,  a  monkey  ;  Kamadeva,  a  parrot  ;  Durga  or 
Parvati,  a  lion  and  bull,  and  the  other  goddesses,  the  vahans  of 
their  respective  lords.  The  vahan  of  Brahma,  Hamsa,  or  Llahiis, 
sometimes  Hahnsi,  Major  Moor  tells  us,  is  precisely  the  name  that 


668  VAH 

in  Suffolk,  is  commonly  given  to  the  heron,  that  Saraswati  rides 
on.  The  swan  or  goose,  the  eagle,  and  the  bull,  are  the  vehicles 
respectively  allotted  to  the  three  great  powers.  The  terrestrial 
sluggish  nature  of  the  first,  is  an  apt  type  of  matter,  personified  in 
the  creative  power,  and  a  contrast  to  Vishnu,  or  spirit,  the 
preserving  power,  appropriately  mounted  on  a  buoyant  eagle,  the 
celestial  Garuda.  Siva,  the  destructive  energy  of  the  Deity,  is 
Time  or  Justice  ;  and  the  Hindus,  deem  the  bull  also  its  type, 
and  give  it  to  Siva  as  his  vahan,  or  mode  of  conveyance.  These 
vehicles  are  supposed  by  Mr.  Paterson  (As.  Res.  Vol.  VII,  p.  48,) 
to  have  allusion  to  Purity,  Truth,  and  Justice  :  the  first,  he  says, 
typified  by  the  swan,  w4uch,  clothed  with  unspotted  whiteness, 
swims,  amidst  the  waters,  as  it  were,  distinct  from,  and  unsullied 
by,  them  ;  as  the  truly  pure  mind  remains  untainted  amidst  the 
surrounding  temptations  of  the  world.  Garuda,  brother  to  Aruna, 
is  remarkable  for  strength  and  swiftness  ;  and  the  latter  is  described 
as  imperfect,  and,  on  account  of  his  defects,  destined  to  act  as 
charioteer  to  the  Sun,  he  being  the  dawn,  the  twilight  preceding 
the  sun.  Garuda  is  perfect  light  ;  the  dazzling  full  blaze  of  day  ; 
the  type  of  Truth  ;  the  celestial  vahan  of  Vishnu.  Perhaps  the 
Hindus  may,  like  western  observers,  have  noticed  the  strong  optic 
nerves  of  the  eagle  tribe  ;  and  have  heard  of  the  fable  of  the 
parents  destroying  such  of  their  brood  as  are  unable  to  look 
steadily  on  the  sun  ;  the  eagle  in  western  poetry  is  called  bird  of 
the  sun,  as  well  as  bird  of  Jove  ;  in  both  of  which  characters 
Vishnu  particularly  appears.  Justice,  typified  in  the  sacred  bull, 
is  the  vahan  of  Siva  :  the  bull,  whose  body  is  Paramesvara,  and 
whose  every  joint  is  a  virtue  ;  whose  three  horns  are  the  three 
Vedas  ;  whose  tail  ends  where  ad'harma,  or  injustice,  begins. — 
Colema?i,  Moor.  "  The  creatures  here  named,  alone  suffice  to 
indicate  the  northern  origin  of  the  people  who  believe  in  them, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  they  have  accommodated  themselves 
to  change.  There  is  no  swan  nor  eagle  in  Southern  India,  so  far 
as  we  know,  nor  is  the  buflfalo  or  brahmauy-kite  known  in  the 
highlands  of  Central  Asia." — Balfour. 

Vahnijwala — One  of  the  Narakas    that   for  shepherds   and 
potter.s. 


VAI  669 

Vaibhraja — A  large  forest  in  the  west  of  Mount  Mem. 
'^   Vaideha — "  The  son  of  the  bodiless  ;"  a  name  of  Raja  Janaka, 

(q.  V.) 

Vaideyha — One  of  the  fifteen  teachers  of  the  White  Yajusli. 
Vaidurya — One  of  the  principal  mountain  ridges  which  project 
from  the  base  of  Meru,  on  the  western  side. 

Vaikanka — A  similar  ridge  in  the  eastern  side. 

Vaikuntha — The  heaven  of  Vishnu.  This  is  considered  by 
Wilson  to  be  a  sectarial  addition  to  the  seven  Lokas  or  spheres 
above  the  earth.  Vaikuntha  is  also  the  name  of  an  incarnation  uf 
Vishnu  in  the  seventh  Manwantara. 

Vaikunthas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  sixtli  Manwantara. ' 
Vaikrita — Secondary  or  instrumental  creation. 

Vaimanikas — The  deities  who  travel  in  Vimanas,  '  heavenly 
cars,'  or  rathei*  '  moving  spheres.' 

Vainahotra — One  of  the  Rajas  of  Kdsi,  the  son  of  Dhrishtaketu. 

Vairaja — l,  Part  of  the  Sama  Veda  created  from  the  northern 
mouth  of  Brahma  ;  2,  A  name  of  the  first  Manu. 

Vairajas — A  class  of  deities  who  dwell  in  Tapoloka,  the  sphere 
of  penance  ;  these  deities  are  inconsumable  by  fire. 

Vairupa — The  name  of  a  portion  of  the  Sama  Veda  created 
from  the  western  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Vaisakha — An  obsolete  name  of  one  of  tlie  months. 

Vaisakhi,  Vaislai — Two  of  tlie  wives  of  Vasudeva. 

Vaisali — A  city  of  considerable  renown  in  Indian  tradition,  but 
its  site  is  a  subject  of  some  uncertainty.  It  is  celebrated  among 
the  Buddhists  as  a  chief  seat  of  the  labours  of  Sakhya  and  his  first 
disciples,  and  would  thus  be  Prayaga  or  Allahabad  ;  but  the 
Ramayana  places  it  much  lower  down  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Ganges. 

Vaisampayana — The  coadjutor  of  Vyasa  in  arranging  the 
Vedas.  "It  seems  probable  that  the  tradition  is  true  that  records 
the  first  c^ttablishmcnt  of  a  school,  of  which  the  Vyasa  was  the  head, 


670  VAI 

and  the  other  persons  named  were  the  teachers."  Vaisampayana 
was  the  teacher  of  the  Yajur  Veda.  There  is  a  legend  that  Kaja 
Jauamejaya  killed  a  brahman  and  in  order  to  expiate  this  dreadful 
crime  he  listened  to  a  recitation  of  the  whole  of  the  Mahabharata, 
which  was  performed  by  Vaisampayana.  Accordingly  the  Maha- 
bharata, which  is  said  to  have  been  originally  composed  by  Vyasa, 
is  supposed  to  be  written  as  it  was  recited  by  Vaisampayana. 

Vaiseshika — "  Is  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  great  divisions 
of  the  ^yaya  (q.  v.)  school  of  Hindu  philosophy,  and  probably  a 
later  development  of  the  Nyaya  itself,  properly  so  called,  with 
which  it  agrees  in  its  analytical  method  of  treating  the  subjects  of 
human  research,  but  from  which  it  differs  in  the  arrangement  of 
its  topics,  and  more  especially  by  its  doctrine  of  atomic  indivi- 
dualities, or  vis'eshas — whence  its  name  is  derived."  The  reputed 
founder  of  the  Vaiseshika  is  Kanada,  of  whose  history  or  date, 
however,  nothing  is  known. 

Kanada  taught  that  the  visible  form  of  God  was  light  ;  that 
when  the  desire  of  creation  arose  in  the  divine  mind,  he  first  gave 
existence  to  water,  and  then  to  innumerable  worlds,  floating  on 
the  waters  like  the  mundane  egg  ;  that  in  these  primaeval  eggs 
water  was  contained,  on  which  lay  Vishnu,  and  from  whose  navel 
issued  a  lotus,  in  which  Brahma  was  born  ;  that  Brahma,  receiving 
instructions  from  God,  created  the  world,  first  from  his  mind,  and 
then  with  the  primary  atoms  ;  that  spirit  and  animal  life  were 
separate  substances. 

To  him  are  attributed  the  Vaiseshika-Sutras,  which  contain 
about  550  aphorisms,  or  sentences.  These  relate  to  seven  subjects 
(padarthas,)  under  the  following  distinct  heads,  viz.  ; — 1,  Things ; 
2,  Qualities ;  3,  Actions ;  4,  Genus ;  5,  Spirits ;  6,  The  insepa- 
rable Connectio7i  of  Constitueiit  Parts  ;  and  7,  Non-entity. 

After  a  long  discussion  of  the  different  subjects  included  in  this 
arrangement,  Kanada  discourses  on  religion,  riches,  happiness,  and 
final  liberation.  Having  first  explained  the  nature  of  religion,  he 
then  arranges  the  component  parts  of  the  universe,  and,  lastly, 
gives  a  discourse  on  the  divine  nature,  which  he  divides  into  three 
heads  :  (1)  that  God  is  essentially  possessed  of  wisdom  (which, 
however,  does  not  comprise  the  whole  of  his  nature  or  character)  ; 


VAI  671 

(2)  that  He  is  the  ever  blessed  and  supremely  happy  ;  and  (3) 
that  in  all  His  works  and  His  will  He  is  irresistible  and  omnipo- 
tent. Emancipation  from  matter  he  held  to  be  inseparably 
connected  with  complete  deliverance  from  sorrow,  and  the  enjoy- 
ment of  final  bliss. 

Several  commentaries  Iiave  been  written,  and  are  extant  on  the 
Sutras  of  Kanada,  of  which  the  principal  are  a  large  one  called  the 
Bhashya,  and  a  smaller  one  entitled  the  Vaiscsheha  Sutrapush- 
kara ;  but  the  only  work  now  read  in  Bengal  which  has  any 
relation  to  the  Vaiseshika  Philosophy  is  that  of  Visva  Natha 
Siddhanta,  which  merely  treats  of  the  logical  terms  of  this  system, 
and  of  the  Nyaya  school.  In  the  Nyaya  Colleges  of  Bengal  the 
students  read  that  part  of  this  work  which  relates  to  the  Vaiseshika 
system,  and  then  proceed  to  study  the  Nyaya  system  itself. — 
GoLDSTUCKER,  ill  Chambers'  EiicyclopcBdia. 

Vaishnavas — Is  the  name  of  one  of  the  great  divisions  of 
Hindu  sects.  The  word,  derived  from  Vishnu  (q.  v.,)  desio-nates 
the  worshippers  of  this  deity,  and  comprises  a  great  variety  of 
sects  ;  but  this  variety  itself  differs  according  to  the  different 
periods  of  the  medieval  history  of  India,  old  divisions  becomino- 
extinct,  and  new  ones  taking  their  place.  Thus,  the  account  of  the 
Vaishnavas,  as  given  in  a  celebrated  work  of  Aiiaiidagiri,  the 
Sankaradlg-vijaya,  or  the  victory  of  the  great  theologian  Sankara 
over  his  religious  adversaries,  would  no  longer  apply  in  detail  to 
the  present  condition  of  the  Vaishnavas  ;  and  even  some  of  those 
varieties  mentioned  by  the  late  Professor  Wilson  in  his  Sketch  of 
the  Religious  Sects  of  the  Hindus,  written  in  1832,  would  seem  to 
have  disappeared  already  in  our  days.  The  common  link  of  a  11  the 
sects  comprised  under  the  name  of  Vaishnavas,  is  their  belief  in  the 
supremacy  of  Vishnu  over  the  other  gods  of  the  Trimurti  (q.  v.) 
Their  difference' consists  in  the  character  which  they  assign  to 
this  supremacy,  and  to  the  god  Vishnu  himself,  in  the  religious  and 
other  practices  founded  on  the  nature  of  their  belief,  and  in  their 
sectarian  marks.  The  following  sects  belonging  to  this  category 
may  especially  be  noticed  here. 

1.     The  RdmdjuijaSy  or  S?'i  Vaish?iavas,  or  Sri-Sampradayins. 
They  derive  their  origin  from  Rdmdnuja,  a  celebrated   reformer, 


672  VAI 

who  was  born  at  Perumbur,  iu  the  south  of  India,  about  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  considered  by  his  followers  as  an 
incarnation  of  Sesha  (q.  v.,)  the  serpent  of  Vishnu.  He  studied 
at  Conjeveram,  resided  afterwards  at  Sriranga,  and  then  travelled 
over  different  parts  of  India,  where  he  was  especially  engaged  in 
combating  the  professors  of  different  creeds,  particularly  the  Saivas. 
On  his  return  to  Sriranga,  he  was  seized  by  the  king  Kerikala 
Chola,  but  effected  his  escape,  and  found  refuge  with  the  Jain  king 
of  Mysore,  Vitala  Deva,  whom  he  converted  to  the  Vaishnava 
faith.  For  twelve  years  he  then  remained  at  Mysore  ;  but  at  the 
death  of  the  Chola  king,  returned  to  Sriranga,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  religious  seclusion.  The  Ramanujas 
address  their  worship  to  Vishnu  and  his  consort,  Lakshmi  (q.  v..) 
and  their  respective  incarnations,  either  singly  or  conjointly. 
Hence  their  sect  consists  of  corresponding  sub-divisions,  according 
as  Ntirayana  or  Lakshmi,  or  Lakshmi-Narayana,  or  Rama,  or  Sita 
or  Sita-Rama,  or  any  other  incarnation  of  these  deities,  is  the 
preferential  object  of  the  veneration  of  the  votary.  Their  most 
striking  peculiarity  is  the  preparation  and  the  scrupulous  privacy 
of  their  meals  ;  for  should  the  meal  during  its  preparation,  or  while 
they  are  eating,  attract  even  the  looks  of  a  stranger,  the  operation 
is  instantly  stopped,  and  the  viands  buried  in  the  ground.  The 
marks  by  which  they  distinguish  themselves  from  other  sects  are 
two  perpendicular  white  lines,  drawn  with  a  white  earth,  Gopi- 
chandana,  from  the  root  of  the  hair  to  the  commencement  of  each 
eyebrow,  and  a  transverse  streak  connecting  them  across  the  root 
of  the  nose  ;  in  the  centre  is  a  perpendicular  streak  of  red,  made 
with  red  sanders,  or  a  preparation  of  turmeric  and  lime  ;  other 
marks,  representing  several  of  the  attributes  of  Vishnu,  they  liave 
either  painted  or  impressed  on  the  breast  and  each  upper  arm  ; 
and,  besides,  they  wear  a  necklace  of  the  wood  of  the  Tulasi  (holy 
basil,)  and  carry  a  rosary  of  the  seeds  of  the  same  plant,  or  of  the 
lotus.  The  sacred  formula  with  which  a  member  of  this  sect  is 
initiated  into  it  consists  merely  of  the  words  Oni  idmaya  naniah, 
'  Ora,  salutation  to  Rama.'  Their  principal  religious  tenet  is  the 
belief  that  Vishnu  is  the  cause  and  creator  of  all  worlds  ;  that  he 
and  the  universe  are  one,   thousrh   he  is  of  a  two-fold   form  :  the 


VAI  673 

supreme  spirit  or  cause,  and  the  gross  one,  the  effect  or  matter. 
In  distinction  from  the  Vedanta,  with  which  their  doctrine  has 
otherwise  many  points  of  contact,  they  regard  their  supreme  deity 
as  endowed  with  qualities,  all  of  which  are  of  course  excellent  ; 
and  teach  that  the  universe  consists  of  chit,  thinking  or  spirit, 
achit,  unthinking  or  matter,  iswara,  or  god  ;  the  relation  of  which 
is  that  of  enjoyer,  the  thing  enjoyed,  and  the  ruler  of  both.  The 
deity,  they  assume,  is  or  has  been  visibly  present  in  five  modifica- 
tions :  in  the  objects  of  worship,  as  images,  &c.  ;  in  the  incarna- 
tions ;  in  certain  forms  called  Vyiihas,  viz.,  Vasudeva  or  Krishna  ; 
Balarama,  Pradyumua,  and  Aniruddha  ;  and  in  the  subtle  form 
which  comprises  six  qualities — absence  of  passion,  immortality, 
exemption  from  pain  or  care,  absence  of  natural  wants,  love,  and 
practice  of  truth— and  the  human  soul  ;  all  of  which  have  to  be 
worshipped  seriatim,  as  the  votary  ascends  in  the  scale  of  perfec- 
tion. It  is  in  the  south  that  the  followers  of  Ramanuja,  and  their 
temples  and  establishments,  are  still  numerous  ;  in  the  north  of 
India,  where  they  are  better  known  as  Sri  Vaishnavas,  they  are 
not  of  frequent  occurrence. 

2.  The  Rdmd?ia7idas,  or  Ildmdvats.  They  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous  class  of  sectaries  in  Gangetic  India :  in  the  district  of 
Agra,  they  alone  constitute  seven-tenths  of  the  ascetic  population. 
They  belong  chiefly  to  the  poorer  and  inferior  classes,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Rajputs  and  military  Brahmaus.  The  founder 
of  this  sect  was  Rdmdnanda,  who,  by  some,  is  considered  to  have 
been  the  immediate  disciple  of  Kamanuja  ;  by  others,  the  fifth  in 
descent  from  that  teacher,  when  he  would  have  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century  ;  but  other  more  reliable  accounts 
place  him  toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth,  or  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  According  to  common  tradition,  Ramananda 
seceded  from  the  Rumanujas,  to  whom  he  originally  belonged, 
because,  having  spent  some  time  in  travelliug  through  various 
parts  of  India,  and,  in  consequence,  having  been  suspected  by  Iiis 
fellow-disciples  not  to  have  conformed  to  the  rule  of  the  Ramanujas 
in  taking  his  meals,  he  was  condemned  to  feed  in  a  place  apart 
from  the  rest  of  them,  but  did  not  acquiesce  in  the  affront  thus 
offered  him.     His  residence  was  at  Benares,  at  the  Paucha  Ganga 

85 


C74  VAI 

Ghat,  where  a  Math^  or  monastery,  of  his  followers  is  said  to  have 
existed.  The  especial  object  of  their  worship  is  Vishiiu,  in  his 
incarnation  as  Rdmachandra,  and  his  consort  SUd,  and,  as  amongst 
the  Ramanujas,  these  deities  either  singly  or  jointly.  Some 
members  of  this  sect  also  pay  adoration  to  other  forms  of  Vishnu  ; 
and  the  religious  mendicants  of  the  sect  consider  all  form  of 
adoration  superfluous,  being  content  with  the  incessant  invocation 
of  Krishna  and  Rama.  Their  practices  are  less  precise  than 
those  of  the  Ramanujas  ;  but  the  most  important  difference 
between  them  consists  in  the  fact,  that  Ramananda  abolished  the 
distinction  of  caste  amongst  the  religious  orders,  and  taught  that 
a  Vairdgi7i,  or  one  who  quitted  the  ties  of  nature  and  society, 
shook  off  at  the  same  time  all  personal  distinction.  The  initiatory 
formula  of  a  Ramananda  is  Sri  Rama,  or  *  blessed  Rama.'  Their 
sectarian  marks  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Ramanujas  ;  except 
that  the  red  perpendicular  streak  on  the  forehead  is  varied  in 
shape  and  extent,  and  generally  narrower  than  that  of  the  Rama- 
nujas. There  are  various  sub-divisions  of  this  sect,  believed  to 
have  been  founded  by  several  eminent  disciples  of  Ramananda. 
Their  doctrines  vary  often  from  that  of  the  latter,  but  they  main- 
tain an  amicable  intercourse  with  the  Ramanujas  and  with  each 
other. 

Besides  these  Vaishnava  sects  there  are  others  of  less  import- 
ance who  are  sometimes  included,  on  the  ground  of  paying  more 
respect  to  Vishnu  than  to  any  other  god  of  the  Trimurti,  (q.  v.) 
—  Chambers'  Encyclo'pcedia. 

Vaisravana — The  eldest  son  of  Pulastya,  who  deserted  his 
father  and  went  to  Brahma,  who  as  a  reward  made  him  immortal, 
and  appointed  him  the  god  of  riches,  with  Lanka  for  his  capital 
and  the  car  Pushpaka  for  his  vehicle.  He  was  afterwards  expelled 
from  Lanka  by  his  younger  brother  Ravana,  and  retired  to  Gan- 
dhamadana. — [Kuvera.] 

Vaiswadeva — A  ceremony  in  the  observance  of  a  Sraddha, 
which  comprehends  offerings  to  both  paternal  and  maternal 
ancestors,  and  to  ancestors  in  general. 

Vaiswanara— 1,  A  Danava,  the  father  of  Puloma  and  Kalika  ; 
2,  The  Southern  Avashthana. 


VAI— VAJ  G75 


Vaiswanari — A  division  of  the  lunar  mansions,  comprising  the 
last  three  in  tlie  Southern  Avasthaua. 

Vaisyas— The  third  of  the  regenerate  caste— said  to  have  been 
born  from  the  thighs  of  Brahma.  The  occupations  of  commerce 
and  agriculture,  the  feeding  of  flocks  and  herds,  are  the  duties  of 
the  Vaisyas.  No  opposition  seems  ever  to  have  arisen  between 
the  Vaisyas  and  the  other  two  castes,  like  that  which  broke  out 
between  the  Brahmans  and  the  Kshatriyas.  Indeed  the  wealth  of 
the  Vaisyas  rendered  them  at  a  later  period  of  considerable 
influence,  inasmuch  as  they  employed  Brahmans  to  perform 
sacrifices,  and  took  Kshatriyas  into  their  pay  as  soldiers  and 
guards. — (  Wheeler.) 

Vaitalika — A  poetical  watchman  or  crier  or  bell-man — one  who 
announces  in  verse  the  change  of  the  seasons  and  the  hours  of  the 
day — when  not  retained  for  the  purpose  he  is  a  public  singer. — 
Wilson. 

Vaitalaki — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Vaitandya — The  eldest  son  of  the  Vasu  Apa. 

Vaitarani — One  of  the  Narakas,  that  for  the  punishment  of  the 
man  who  destroys  a  bee-hive  or  pillages  a  hamlet. 

Vaitarani — A  sacred  river  at  Tripishtapa  in  the  country  of 
the  Kalingas.  It  is  connected  with  the  worship  of  Siva,  and  the 
act  of  bathing  there  and  worshipping  the  god  who  wields  the 
trident  and  whose  ensign  is  the  bull,  (Mahadeva)  is  said  to  ensure 
purification  from  all  sin  and  the  attainment  of  the  highest  felicity. 
-  0.  S.  7\,  IV,  241. 

Vaivaswata — l,  The  son  of  the  celestial  luminary,  (the  Sun), 
and  Manu  of  the  seventh  (or  present)  Manwantara  ;  2,  Also  an 
appellation  of  one  of  the  Rudras. 

Vajasaneyi — A  portion  of  the  Yajur  Veda. 

Vajins — Students  of  the  white  Yajush  ;  this  Veda  was  revealed 
by  the  sun  in  the  form  of  a  horse,  (vaji)  hence  the  name  applied  to 
the  brahmans. 

Vajra— The  son  of  Aniruddha,  who  by  order  of  Krishna  was 
installed    jfovereigu    of  the   Yadavas   at  Indraprastha,    and   thus 


676  VAJ— VAL 


escaped  the  destruction  which  overwhelmed  their  kinsmen  at 
Dwaraka.  This,  says  Wilson,  was  a  fortunate  reservation  for  the 
tribes  which  in  various  parts  of  Hindustan,  both  in  the  Ganges  and 
in  the  Dakhin,  profess  to  derive  their  origin  from  the  Yadavas. 

Vajramitra — One  of  the  ten  Sunga  princes,  the  son  of 
Ghoshavasu. 

Vajranabha — A  prince,  the  sou  of  Uktha,  of  the  line  of  Kusa. 

Vaktrayodhi — An  eminent  Danava,  one  of  the  sons  of  Vipra- 
chitti. 

Valaka — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda,  and  disciple  of  Sakapurni. 
Valakaswa— A   prince,    the   son    of   Ajaka,   descendant    of 
Pururavas. 

Vallabha — A  celebrated  Vaishnava  teacher  who  lived  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Vallabhas— A  people  mentioned  in  the  Puranas,  and  supposed 
to  be  inhabitants  of  Vallabhi  in  Rajputana.     See  Tod's  Rajasthari' 

Valmiki — The  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-fourth  Dwapara  age, 
called  also  Reksha,  a  descendant  of  Bhrigu. 

Valmiki — A  sage  and  bard,  famous  as  the  author  of  the 
Ramayana  ;  he  lived  at  Chitra  Kuta,  a  celebrated  hill  in  Bundle- 
kund,  to  the  south  of  the  river  Jumna.  He  was  surrounded  by  a 
band  of  Brahman  disciples,  who  led  the  ideal  life  of  austerity, 
sacrifice  and  devotion,  so  frequently  described  and  recommended  by 
Brahmanical  writers.  It  was  in  this  hill,  that  Rdma,  with  his  wife 
and  brother,  took  up  their  abode,  when  exiled  from  Ayodhya. 
According  to  the  Ramayana  they  spent  some  pleasant  years  there. 
The  locality  is  said  to  have  abounded  in  game,  fruit,  honey,  and 
other  products  of  the  jungle  which  were  suitable  for  food.  Long 
after,  when  Rama  and  Sita  had  returned  in  triumph  to  Kosala,  and 
Sita  was  about  to  become  a  mother,  she  was  repudiated  by  Rama, 
though  she  had  passed  the  ordeal  of  fire  and  been  declared  innocent ; 
she  was  conveyed  to  the  jungle  by  Lakshmaua,  who  left  her  in  a 
panic  of  surprise  and  fear,  near  the  hill  Chitra  Kuta  ;  in  this  state 
fihe  was  found  by  Valmiki,  who  had  been  the  brahman  preceptor  of 
her  father  Janaka,  he  took  her  to  his  own  house  and  placed  her  in 


VAM  G77 

charge  of  his  wife  and  fernale  servants.  It  Avas  then  tliat  Sitd's 
two  sous,  were  born  ;  Valmiki  gave  them  the  names  of  Lava 
and  Kiisa,  and  brought  them  up,  and  educated  tliem  with  the 
greatest  care.  It  is  said  he  taught  his  poem,  the  Ramayana,  to 
them.  There  are  however  many  chronological  difficulties  connectied 
with  the  history  of  Valmiki,  though  it  seems  certain  he  was  a  real 
person. 

Vama — One  of  the  eleven  Rudras,  according  to  the  list  in  the 
Bhcigavata. 

Vamana — Vishnu,  at  the  request  of  the  deities,  was  born  as  a 
dwarf,  Vamana,  the  son  of  Aditi  by  Kasyapa  ;  when  Vamana 
applied  to  Raja  Bali,  the  monarch  of  the  Daityas,  for  alms,  he  was 
promised  by  the  Raja  whatever  he  might  demand,  notwithstanding 
Sukra,  the  preceptor  of  the  Daityas,  apprised  him  whom  he  had  to 
deal  with.  The  dwarf  demanded  as  much  space  as  he  could  step 
over  at  three  steps  ;  and  upon  the  assent  of  Bali,  enlarged  himself 
to  such  dimensions  as  to  stride  with  one  pace  over  the  earth,  with 
a  second  over  the  intermediate  space  (the  atmosphere),  and  with  a 
third  over  the  sky,  thus  leaving  for  Bali  only  the  subterranean 
regions,  which  he  assigned  him  for  his  future  abode.  "  The  demons 
endeavoured  to  frustrate  this  result,  after  Vishnu  had  taken  his 
first  two  strides,  but  they  were  overcome  by  the  followers  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  Bali,  when  resigning  himself  to  his  ftite,  in  reply  to 
a  reproach  addressed  to  him  by  the  dwarf  for  trying  to  break 
his  promise,  uttered — according  to  the  Bhagavata-Purana — the 
following  words,  which  may  serve  as  one  of  many  instances  to 
shew  how  sacred  a  promise  Avas  held  by  the  Hindus  when  once 
given,  and  even  though  artfully  obtained  :  'If,  renowned  chief  of 
the  gods,  you  consider  the  word  which  I  uttered  to  be  deceitful,  I 
now  do  what  is  sincere,  and  can  be  no  deception — place  your  third 
step  on  my  head.  Fallen  from  my  position,  I  fear  not  the  infernal 
regions,  or  binding  in  bonds,  or  misfortune  difficult  to  escape,  or 
loss  of  wealth,  or  your  restraint,  so  much  as  I  am  afflicted  by  a  bad 
name.'  (See  J.  Muir's  Origmal  Sanscrit  Texts^  Vol.  IV,  p.  128.) 
For  his  righteousness,  he  was  then  rewarded  by  Vishnu  with  the 
promise,   that  after  a  temporary  residence  in   one  of  the  most 


678  VAM 

delightful  places  of  Patala  (q.  v.),  he  should  be  born  as  the  ludra, 
in  the  reign  of  the  eighth  Manu.  In  this  incarnation  as  dwarf, 
Vishnu  is  considered  to  have  been  a  son  of  the  same  Kasyapa  who 
is  also  the  father  of  Hiranyakasipu  and  Hiranyiksha  ;  but  while 
their  mother  is  Diti,  the  dwarfs  mother  is  Aditi  (space)  ;  and  since 
she  previously  had  brought  forth  Indra,  Vishnu  is  sometimes  called 
Upeudra,  or  the  younger  or  later  Indra.  As  a  son  of  Aditi,  Vishnu 
becomes  one  of  the  Adityas  (see  before). — The  Vedic  conception  of 
the  three  strides  of  Vishnu,  is  doubtless  the  basis  of  the  idea 
whence  this  Avatara  arose." —  Goldstucker. 

Vamana  Purana — This  contains  an  account  of  the  dwarf 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  :  Wilson  thinks  its  contents  scarcely  establish 
its  claim  to  the  character  of  a  Purana. 

"  There  is  little  or  no  order  in  the  subjects  w^hich  this  Avork 
recapitulates,  and  which  arise  out  of  replies  made  by  Pulastya  to 
questions  put,  abruptly  and  unconnectedly,  by  Narada.  The 
greater  part  of  them  relate  to  the  worship  of  the  Linga  ;  a  rather 
strange  topic  for  a  Vaishnava  Purana,  but  engrossing  the  principal 
part  of  the  compilation.  They  are,  however,  subservient  to  the 
object  of  illustrating  the  sanctity  of  certain  holy  places  ;  so  that 
the  Vamana  Purana  is  little  else  than  a  succession  of  Mahatmyas. 
Thus,  in  the  opening,  almost,  of  the  work,  occurs  the  story  of 
Daksha's  sacrifice,  the  object  of  which  is  to  send  Siva  to  P4pamo- 
chana  Tirtha,  at  Benares,  where  he  is  released  from  the  sin  of 
Brahmanicide.  Next  comes  the  story  of  the  burning  of  Kamadeva, 
for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  holiness  of  a  Siva-liuga  at 
Kedareswara  in  the  Himalaya,  and  of  Badarikasrama.  The  larger 
part  of  the  work  consists  of  the  Saro-mahatmya,  or  legendary 
exemplifications  of  the  holiness  of  Sthanu  Tirtha  ;  that  is,  of  the 
sanctity  of  various  Lingas  and  certain  pools,  at  Thanesar  and 
Kurukhet,  the  country  north-west  from  Delhi.  There  are  some 
stories,  also,  relating  to  the  holiness  of  the  Godavari  river  :  but 
the  general  site  of  the  legends  is  in  Hindusthan.  In  the  course  of 
these  accounts,  we  have  a  long  narrative  of  the  marriage  of  Siva 
with  Umd,  and  the  birth  of  Karttikeya.  There  are  a  few  brief 
allusions  to  creation  and  the  Manwautaras  ;  but  they  are  merely 
incidental  :  and  all  the  live  characteristics  of  a  Purana  are  deficient. 


VAN— VAP  679 


111  noticing  the  Swarochisha  Manwautara,  towards  the  end  of  the 
book,  the  elevation  of  Bali  as  monarch  of  the  Daityas,  and  his 
subjugation  of  the  universe,  the  gods  included,  are  described  ;  and 
this  leads  to  the  narration  that  gives  its  title  to  the  Punina,  tlic 
birth  of  Vishnu  as  a  dwarf,  for  the  purpose  of  humiliating  Bali  by 
fraud,  as  he  was  invincible  by  force.  The  story  is  told  as  usual  ; 
but  the  scene  is  laid  at  Kurukshetra. 

A  more  minute  examination  of  this  work  than  that  which  has 
been  given  to  it,  might,  perhaps,  discover  some  hint  from  which  to 
conjecture  its  date.  It  is  of  a  more  tolerant  character  than  the 
Puranas,  and  divides  its  homage  between  Siva  and  Vishnu  with 
tolerable  impartiality.  It  is  not  connected,  therefore,  with  any 
sectarial  principles,  and  may  have  preceded  their  introduction.  It 
has  not,  however,  the  air  of  any  antiquity  ;  and  its  compilation 
may  have  amused  the  leisure  of  some  Brahman  of  Benares  three 
or  four  centuries  ago." —  Wilson. 

Vanakapivat — The  son  of  the  patriarch  Pulaka. 

Vanaprastha — Heimit.  The  third  stage  of  Brahmauical  life. 
*'  When  the  householder,  after  performing  the  acts  incumbent  on 
his  condition,  arrives  at  the  decline  of  life,  let  him  consign  his 
wife  to  the  care  of  his  sons,  and  go,  himself,  to  the  forests.  Let 
him  there  subsist  upon  leaves,  roots,  and  fruit  ;  and  suffer  his  hair 
and  beard  to  grow,  and  braid  the  former  upon  his  brows  ;  and 
sleep  upon  the  ground.  His  dress  must  be  made  of  skin,  or  of 
Kasa  or  Kusa  grasses  ;  and  he  must  bathe  thrice  a  day  ;  and  he 
must  offer  oblations  to  the  gods  and  to  fire,  and  treat  all  that  come 
to  him  with  hospitality.  He  must  beg  alms,  and  present  food  to 
all  creatures  ;  he  must  anoint  himself  with  such  unguents  as  the 
woods  afford  ;  and,  in  his  devotional  exercises,  he  must  be 
endurant  of  heat  and  cold.  The  sage  who  dih'gently  follows  these 
rules,  and  leads  the  life  of  the  hermit  (or  Vanaprastha,)  consumes, 
like  fire,  all  imperfections,  and  conquers,  for  himself,  the  mansions 
of  eternity."     V.  P. 

Vaneyu — One  of  the  ten  sons  of  Raudraswa,  a  descendant  of 
Puru. 

Vapra — The  Vyasa  of  the  fourteenth  Dwapara  age. 


680  YAP— VAR 


Vapu — Body ;  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  married  to  Dharma. 

Vapushmat — One  of  the  SODS  of  Priyavrata  and  Kamya  ;  he 
was  installed  by  his  father  in  the  sovereignty  over  the  Dwipa  of 
Salmali,  (q.  v.)  He  had  seven  sons,  whose  names  gave  designa- 
tions to  seven  varshas  or  divisions. 

Varaha — A  boar.  The  Varaha  Avatar  is  the  third  incarnation 
of  Vishnu  in  the  shape  of  a  boar.  It  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  when,  at  the  period  of  creation,  the  earth  was  immersed  in  4 
water,  and  Vishnu,  in  order  to  raise  it  up,  assumed  the  form  of  a  " 
gigantic  boar.  The  boar  is  said  to  be  a  type  of  the  ritual  of  the 
Vedas.  "  The  elevation  of  the  earth  from  beneath  the  ocean,  in 
this  form,  was  therefore,  piobably,  at  first,  an  allegorical  represen- 
tation of  the  extrication  of  the  world  from  a  deluge  of  iniquity,  by 
the  rites  of  religion.  Geologists  may  perhaps  suspect,  in  the 
original  and  unmystified  tradition,  an  allusion  to  a  geological  fact, 
or  the  existence  of  lacustrine  mammalia  in  the  early  periods  of  the 
earth." —  Wilson. 

The  boar  is  described  as  the  sacrifice  personified  ;  his  feet  being 
the  Vedas  ;  his  tusks  the  sacrificial  posts  to  which  the  victim  is 
tied  ;  his  teeth,  the  sacrificial  offerings  ;  his  mouth,  the  altar  ;  his 
tongue,  the  fire  ;  his  hairs,  the  sacrificial  grass  ;  his  eyes,  day  and 
night  ;  his  head,  the  place  of  Brahma  ;  his  mane,  the  hymns  of 
the  Vedas  ;  his  nostrils,  all  the  oblations  ;  his  snout,  the  ladle  of 
oblation  ;  his  voice,  the  chanting  of  the  Sama-veda  ;  his  bodj',  the 
hall  of  sacrifice  ;  his  joints,  the  different  ceremonies  ;  and  his  ears 
as  having  the  properties  of  voluntary  and  obligatory  rites. 

According  to  a  legend  in  the  Bhagavata  Purana,  Jaya  and 
Vijaya,  two  doorkeepers  of  Vishnu,  once  offended  some  Munis 
who  claimed  admission  to  the  paradise  of  Vishnu,  and  in  conse- 
quence were  doomed  to  lose  their  position  in  heaven,  and  to  be 
reborn  on  earth.  They  became  thus  the  sons  of  Kasyapa  and 
Diti,  under  the  names  of  Hiranyakasipu  and  Hiranyaksha.  The 
former  subdued  the  three  worlds,  and  the  latter  went  straight  to 
heaven  to  conquer  the  gods  also.  The  gods  implored  the  assist- 
ance of  Vishnu,  who  at  that  period  was  the  mysterious  boar  and 
slew   Hiranyaksha.      A   similar    contest    between    Vishnu    and 


VAR  681 

numerous  demons,  the  progeny  of  Diti,  always  ending  in  the  defeat 
of  the  latter,  is  also  described,  showing  that  the  boar-avatara  had 
gradually  lost  its  original  character,  and  assumed  that  common  to 
the  remaining  avatars. 

Varaha — One  of  the  six  minor  Dwipas,  peopled  by  Mlechchhas 
who  worship  Hindu  deities. 

Varahamihira — A  celebrated  astronomer  and  astrologer,  born 
at  Ujein  a.  d.  530  and  died  in  587.  Dr.  Kern  observes  that  "  he 
was  in  the  awkward  position  of  a  man  who  has  to  reconcile  the' 
exigencies  of  science  with  the  decrees,  deemed  infallible,  of  the 
Rishis  ;"  for  curious  examples  of  which  he  refers  to  the  Brihat- 
Sauhita,  chapters  v  and  ix.*  With  a  strong  taste  for  astrology, 
and  falling  into  errors  which  Aryabhata  had  exposed,  "Varahamihira 
made  some  remarkable  observations  on  the  moon  and  on  eclipses 
— thus 

"  One-half  of  the  moon  whose  orbit  lies  between  the  sun  and  the 
earth,  is  always  bright  by  the  sun's  rays  ;  the  other  half  is  dark, 
by  its  own  shadow  ;  like  the  two  sides  of  a  pot  standing  in  the 
sunshine." 

After  alluding  to  the  popular  notion  of  Rahu  as  tlie  demon  that 
causes  eclipse  by  devouring  part  of  the  sun  or  moon,  he  says 

*'  The  true  explanation  of  the  phenomena  is  this  :  in  an  eclipse 
of  the  moon  he  enters  into  the  earth's  shadow  ;  in  a  solar  eclipse 
the  same  things  happen  to  the  sun.  Hence  the  commencement  of 
a  lunar  eclipse  does  not  take  place  from  the  west  side,  nor  that  of 
a  solar  eclipse  from  the  east."  Brihat  Sanhita,  quoted  in  A.  and 
M.  I.,  Vol.  I,  p.  371. 

Varana — The  ninth  division  in  Bharata  Varsha. 

Va,ranavata— The  modern  Allahabad,  "  the  sacred  city  at  the 
junction  of  the  Gauges  and  Jumna,  and  one  of  the  most  famous 
places  of  pilgrimage  in  Hiudustau.  It  is  said  to  have  been  cele- 
brated for  gold  and  jewels.     The  visit  of  the  Pandava  princes  to 

*  A  work  which  Dr.  Kern  edited  and  published  at  Calcutta  in  1865,  and 
is  understood  to  be  now  translating  into  English. 

86 


682  VAR 

this  city  as  related  m  the  Mahabharata  is  considered  by  Mr. 
Wheeler  to  be  a  later  interpolation  for  the  sole  purpose  of  asso- 
ciating the  Pandavas  with  the  famous  city  of  Varanavata. 

Vararuchi — A  celebrated  brahraau,  the  son  of  Somadatta, 
distinguished  for  a  wonderful  memory,  which  enabled  him  to  recite 
perfectly  any  discourse  he  had  once  heard.  He  instructed  Vy^di, 
and  both  of  them  w^ere  w^riters  of  note  on  philological  topics.  They 
w^ere  contemporaries  of  Nanda  who  reigned  at  Pataliputra — a  fact 
which  Professor  Wilson  regards  as  of  considerable  interest  in  the 
literary  history  of  the  Hindus.  Vararuchi  is  also  called  Katya- 
yana  (q.  v.)  who  is  one  of  the  earliest  commentators  of  Panini 
(q.  V.)  Nanda  is  the  predecessor,  or  one  of  the  predecessors  of 
Chandragupta  ;  and  consequently  the  chief  institutes  of  Sanskrit 
Grammar  are  thus  dated  from  the  fourth  century  before  the 
(■hristian  era. —  IVilsoji^  111,  166. 

Varchas — Light  ;  the  son  of  Vasu  Soma,  and  father  of  Var- 
chaswi,  Radiance. 

Varenya Most  Excellent  :  a  name  of  Vishnu  ;  said   to  be 

the  same  as  supreme  felicity. 

Varhadrathas — A  dynasty  of  kings  of  Magadha,  who  accord- 
ing to  the  Vishnu  Puraua  were  to  reign  for  a  thousand  years. 

Varhaspatyas — Heretics  ;  followers  of  Vrihaspatti,  who  seem 
to  have  been  numerous  and  bold  at  some  period  anterior  to  the 
fourteenth  centur}'. —  Wilson. 

Varishads— A  class  of  Pitris,  identified  by  some  with  the 
months.  They  are  formless  or  incorporeal  Pitris,  sons  of  Atri, 
and  Pitris  of  the  demons. 

Varishmati — The  wdfc  of  Priyavi'ata,  according  to  i\\Q 
Bhagavata,  which  states  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  Visvakarman. 

Variyas — One  of  the  sous  of  the  patriarch  Pulaha,  according  to 
the  Bhagavata. 

Varman — This  designation  is  said  in  the  Vishnu  Purana  to  be 
an  appropriate  name  for  a  Kshutiiya. 

Varnam  -  C ol o u r— Ca  s te . 


VAR     .  683 

Varshas — Coimtries  ;  a  term  applied  to  the  divisions  in  Jambii 
Dwipa. 

Varuna — The  Neptune  of  Hindu  mythology.  The  god  of 
ocean,  the  goil  of  rain  and  clouds.  He  is  distinctly  termed  the 
god  of  Oeeau  in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  and  Wilson  in  noticing  tlie 
circumstance  that  it  was  Varuna  who  supplied  the  sage  Ricliika 
with  a  thousand  fleet  horses,  remarks  that  the  agency  of  the  god  of 
ocean  in  procuring  horses  is  a  rather  curious  additional  coincidence 
between  Varuna  and  Neptune.  The  Vedic  Aryans  were  evidently 
acquainted  with  the  sea,  for  the  liymns  contain  allusions  to 
merchants,  to  sea  voyages,  and  to  ships  with  a  hundred  oars. 
Professor  Max  MUUer  in  his  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  has 
translated  a  beautiful  hymn  to  Varuiia  in  which  this  deity  is 
addressed  in  the  two-fold  character  of  controlling  tempests  and 
punishing  sin. 

"The  grandest  cosmical  functions,  are  ascribed  to  Varuna* 
Possessed  of  illimitable  resources  (or  knowledge),  this  divine  being- 
has  meted  out,  (or  fashioned),  and  upholds,  heaven  and  earth  ;  he 
dwells  in  all  worlds  as  sovereign  ruler,  indeed,  the  three  worlds 
are  embraced  within  him  ;  he  made  the  golden  and  revolving  suu 
to  shine  in  the  firmament.  The  wind  which  resounds  through  tlie 
atmosphere  is  his  breath.  He  has  opened  boundless  paths  for  the 
sun,  and  has  hollowed  out  channels  for  the  rivers,  which  flow  by 
his  command.  By  this  wonderful  contrivance  the  rivers  pour  their 
waters  into  the  one  ocean,  but  never  fill  it.  His  ordinances  are 
fixed  and  unassailable.  They  rest  on  him,  unshaken,  as  upon  a 
mountain  ;  through  their  operation,  the  moon  walks  in  brightness, 
and  the  stars 'which  appear  in  the  nightly  sky  mysteriously  vanish 
in  daylight.  Neither  the  birds  flying  in  the  air,  nor  the  rivers  in 
their  sleepless  flow,  can  attain  a  knowledge  of  his  power  or  his 
wrath.  His  messengers  behold  both  worlds.  He  knows  the  flight 
of  birds  in  the  sky,  the  path  of  ships  on  the  ocean,  the  course  of 
the  far-travelling  wind,  and  beholds  all  the  secret  things  that  have 
been,  or  shall  be  done.  No  creature  can  even  wink  without  him. 
He  witnesses  men's  truth  and  falsehood.  He  instructs  the  rishi 
Vasishtha  in  mysteries.  But  his  secrets  and  those  of  Mitra  are  not 
to  be  revealed  to  the  foolish." 


684.  VAR 

In  the  sixteenth  hymn  of  the  fourth  book  of  the  Atharva-veda, 
his  power  and  omniscience  are  thus  celebrated  : — 

'^  1,  The  great  one  who  rules  over  these  worlds  beholds  as  if  he 
were  close  at  hand.  When  any  man  thinks  he  is  doing  aught  by 
stealth,  the  gods  know  it  all  ;  2,  (and  they  perceive)  every  one 
who  stands,  or  walks,  or  glides  along  secretly,  or  withdraws  into  his 
house,  or  into  any  lurking-place.  Whatever  two  persons,  sitting 
together,  devise,  Varuna  the  king  knows  it,  (being  present  there 
as)  a  third  ;  3,  This  earth,  too,  belongs  to  the  king  Varuna,  and 
that  vast  sky  whose  ends  are  so  remote.  The  two  oceans  [the 
aerial  and  terrestrial]  are  Varuna's  stomachs  ;  he  resides  in  this 
small  pool  of  water  ;  4,  He  who  should  flee  far  beyond  the  sky, 
would  not  there  escape  from  Varuna  the  king.  His  messengers, 
descending  from  heaven,  traverse  this  world  ;  thousand-eyed,  they 
look  across  the  whole  earth  ;  5,  King  Varuna  perceives  all  that 
exists  within  heaven  and  earth  and  all  that  is  beyond.  The 
winkings  of  men's  eyes  are  all  numbered  by  him.  He  handles  (all) 
these  (things)  as  a  gamester  throws  his  dice  ;  6,  May  thy 
destructive  nooses,  O  Varuna,  which  are  cast  seven-fold,  and 
three-fold,  ensnare  the  man  who  speaks  lies,  and  pass  by  him  who 
speaks  truth," 

The  mighty  Lord  on  high,  our  deeds,  as  if  at  hand,  espies  : 

The  gods  know  all  men  do,  though  men  would  fain  their  deeds  disguise. 

Whoever  stands,  whoever  moves,  or  steals  from  place  to  place. 

Or  hides  him  in  his  secret  cell, — the  gods  his  movements  trace. 

Wherever  two  together  plot,  and  deem  they  are  alone. 

King  Varuna  is  there,  a  third,  and  all  their  schemes  are  known. 

This  earth  is  his,  to  him  belong  those  vast  and  boundless  skies  ; 

Both  aeas  within  him  rest,  and  yet  in  that  small  pool  he  lies. 

AVhoever  far  beyond  the  sky  should  think  his  way  to  wing. 

He  could  not  there  elude  the  grasp  of  Varuna  the  king. 

His  spies  descending  from  the  skies  glide  all  this  world  around, 

Their  thousand  eyes  all-scanning  sweep  to  earth's  remotest  bound. 

AVhate'er  exists  in  heaven  and  earth,  whate'er  beyond  the  skies, 

Before  the  eyes  of  Varuna,  the  king,  unfolded  lies. 

The  ceaseless  winkings  all  he  counts  of  every  mortal's  eyes  : 

He  wields  this  ixniversal  frame,  as  gamester  throws  his  dice. 

Those  knotted  nooses  which  thou  fling*st,  O  god,  the  bad  to  snare,— 

All  liars  let  them  overtake,  but  all  the  truthful  spare." 

Varuna  is  represented  as  having  unlimited  control  over  the 
destinies  of  mankind.     He  is  said  to  have  a  hundred,  a  thousand 


VAR  685 

remedies,  aud  is  supplicated  to  shew  his  wide  and  deep  benevolence, 
and  drive  away  evil  and  sin  ;  to  untie  like  a  rope,  and  remove  sin  ; 
he  is  entreated  not  to  steal  away,  but  to  prolong,  life  ;  and  to  spare 
the  supplicant  who  daily  transgresses  his  laws.  In  many  places 
mention  is  made  of  the  bonds,  or  nooses,  with  which  he  seizes  aud 
punishes  transgressors.  Mitra  and  Varuna  conjointly  are  spoken 
of  in  one  passage  as  being  barriers  against  falsehood,  furnished  with 
many  nooses,  whicli  the  hostile  mortal  cannot  surmount  ;  and  in 
another  place  Indra  and  Varuna  are  described  as  binding  with 
bonds  not  formed  of  rope.  On  the  other  hand,  Varuna  is  said  to 
be  gracious  even  to  him  who  has  committed  sin.  He  is  the  wise 
guardian  of  immortality,  and  a  hope  is  held  out  that  he  and  Yama 
reigning  in  blessedness  shall  be  beheld  in  the  next  world  by 
the  righteous. 

"  The  attributes  and  functions  ascribed  to  Varuna  impart  to  his 
character  a  moral  elevation  and  sanctity  for  surpassing  that 
attributed  to  any  other  Vedic  deity.  This  appears  not  only  from 
the  passages  to  which  I  have  already  referred,  but  also  from  the 
two  hymns  translated  by  Professor  Mliller  in  his  A7ic.  Sansk.  Lit., 
pp.  540  /.,  and  Chips,  /,  39  ff. ;  in  which  the  rishi,  who  is  said 
to  be  Vasishtha,  while  palliating  his  sins,  implores  the  god's 
forgiveness,  and  entreats  that  his  life  may  be  spared.  I  shall  quote 
a  part  of  the  first  and  the  whole  of  the  second  : 

"  Seeking  to  perceive  that  sin,  O  Varuna,  I  inquire  ;  I  resort  to 
the  wise  to  ask.  The  sages  all  tell  me  the  same  ;  it  is  Varuna 
who  is  angry  with  thee. 

4.  What  great  sin  is  it,  Varuna,  for  which  thou  seek  est  to  slay 
thy  worshipper  and  friend  ?  Tell  me,  O  unassailable  and  self- 
dependent  god  ;  and,  freed  from  sin,  I  shall  speedily  come  to  thee 
with  adoration  ;  5,  Release  us  from  the  sins  of  our  fathers,  and 
from  those  which  we  have  committed  in  our  own  persons.  O  king, 
release  Vasishtha  like  a  robber  who  has  fed  upon  cattle  ;  release 
him  like  a  calf  from  its  tether  ;  6,  It  was  not  our  will,  Varuna,  but 
some  seduction,  which  led  us  astray, — wine,  anger,  dice,  or 
thoughtlessness.  The  stronger  perverts  the  weaker.  Even  sleep 
occasions  sin." 


686  VAR 

"  Let  me  not,  O  kiug  Varima,  go  to  the  house  of  earth.  Be 
gracious,  O  mighty  god,  be  gracious  ;  2,  I  go  along,  O  thuuderer, 
quiveriug  like  an  inflated  skin  ;  be  gracious,  &c.  ;  3,  O  bright  and 
mighty  god,  I  have  transgressed  through  want  of  power,  be 
gracious,  &c. 

4.  Thirst  has  overwhelmed  thy  worshijiper  when  standing  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  waters  ;  be  gracious,  &c.  ;  5,  Whatever  offence 
this  be,  O  Varuna,  that  we  mortals  commit  against  the  people 
of  the  sky  (the  gods)  :  in  whatever  way  we  have  broken  thy  laws 
by  thoughtlessness,  be  gracious,  O  mighty  god,  be  gracious." 

In  another  place  the  same  rishi  alludes  to  his  previous  friendship 
with  Varuna,  and  to  the  ftivours  the  god  had  formerly  conferred 
upon  him,  and  enquires  why  they  had  now  ceased  : 

"  Varuna  placed  Vasishtha  on  his  boat  :  by  his  power  the 
wise  and  mighty  deity  made  him  a  rishi  to  offer  praise  in  an 
auspicious  period  of  his  life,  that  his  days  and  dawns  might 
be  prolonged  ;  5,  Where  are  those  friendships  of  us  two?  Let  us 
seek  the  harmony  which  (we  enjoyed)  of  old,  I  have  gone,  O  self- 
sustaining  Varuna,  to  thy  vast  and  sj^acious  house  with  a  thousand 
gates  ;  6,  He  who  was  thy  friend,  intimate,  thine  own,  and  beloved, 
has  committed  offences  against  thee.  Let  not  us  who  are  guilty 
reap  the  fruits  of  our  sin.  Do  thou,  a  wise  god,  grant  protection 
to  him  who  praises  thee." 

The  same  or  nearly  the  same  functions  and  attributes  as  are 
ascribed  to  Varuna  are  also  attributed  to  him  and  Mitra  conjointly. 
They  uphold  and  rule  over  the  earth  and  sky,  the  shining  and  the 
terrestrial  regions,  and  place  the  sun  in  the  heavens. 

In  his  paper  on  "  the  highest  gods  of  the  Arian  races,"  Professor 
Roth  has  the  following  ingenious  and  interesting  observations  on 
Mitra  and  Varuna  :  *'  Within  the  circle  of  the  Adityas  there  subsists 
the  closest  connection  between  Mitra  and  Varuna,  who  are  invoked 
more  frequently  together  than  Varuna  is  invoked  singly.  We  find 
only  one  hymn  in  which  Mitra  is  invoked  by  himself. 

The  essential  character  of  the  two  gods,  as  distinguished  from 
one  another,  is  nowhere  distinctly  expressed  in  the  hymns,  and  was 
in  fact  originally  one  which  could  not  be  defined  with  intellectual 


VAR  687 

precision.  But  the  stage  of  religious  culture  which  lies  before  us 
in  the  Rig  Veda,  enables  us  to  distinguish  this  difference  as  one 
already  existing,  viz.,  that  Mitra  is  the  celestial  light  in  its 
manifestation  by  day,  while  Varuna,  though  the  lord  of  light  and  of 
all  time,  yet  rules  especially  over  the  nightly  heaven.  A  hymn  of 
Vasishtha  :  '  One  of  you  (Varuna)  is  the  lord,  and  unassailable 
guide,  and  he  who  is  called  Mitra,  (i.  e.,  the  friend)  calls  men  to 
activity.'  Here  so  much  at  least  is  declared  (and  the  same  thing 
is  expressed  in  nearly  the  same  words  in  other  places),  that  tlie 
light  of  day,  which  awakens  life,  and  brings  joy  and  activity  into 
the  world,  is  the  narrower  sphere  of  Mitra's  power  ;  though, 
however,  Varuna  is  not  thereby  relegated  to  the  night  alone,  for  he 
continues  to  be  the  lord  and  the  first. 

"  Though  therefore  such  representations  as  are  expressed  in 
Indian  exegesis,  (as  for  instance,  Avhen  Sayaiia  says  on  R.  V.,  vii. 
87,  1,  that  Varuna  is  the  setting  sun),  are  far  too  narrow  and  one- 
sided, they  still  contain  some  truth  ;  and  we  may  guess  by  Avhat 
process  they  are  to  be  developed.  If  Varuna  is,  as  his  name  shews, 
that  one  among  the  lucid  Adityas  whose  seat  and  sphere  of 
authority  is  the  bright  heaven,  in  whose  bosom  is  embraced  all 
that  lives,  and  therefore  also  the  remotest  boundary,  beyond  which 
human  thought  seeks  nothing  further,  then  is  he  also  one  who  can 
scarcely  be  attained  either  l)y  the  eye  or  by  the  imagination.  By 
day  the  power  of  vision  cannot  discover  this  remotest  limit,  the 
bright  heaven  presents  to  it  no  resting  place.  But  at  night  this 
A'eil  of  the  world,  in  which  Varui>a  is  enthroned,  appears  to 
approach  nearer,  and  becomes  perceptible,  for  the  eye  finds  a  limit. 
Varuna  is  closer  to  men.  Besides,  the  other  divine  forms  which, 
in  the  clouds,  the  atmosphere,  the  rays  of  light,  filled  the  space 
between  the  earth  and  yonder  immeasurable  outermost  sphere,  have 
disappeared  :  no  other  god  now  stands  between  Varuna  and  the 
mortal  who  gazes  at  him." — 0.  S.  7\,  Vol.  V,  p.  70. 

Varuni — The  goddess  of  wine,  produced  from  the  churning  of 
the  ocean.  She  was  in  the  later  mythology  the  wife  of  Varuna, 
and  was  sent  by  liim  lo  promote  the  enjoyments  of  BalniTima  when 
he  lived  for  two  months  jit  Vrnia. 


688  VAS 

Vashatkara — Deified  oblation  ;  one  of  the  thirty-three  divinities 
who  are  born  again  at  the  end  of  a  thousand  ages,  according  to 
their  own  pleasure. 

Vashkala — A  Daitya,  the  son  of  Sauhrada,  or  Prahlada,  accord- 
ins  to  the  Padma  Purana. 

Vasishtha — One  of  the  most  celebrated  Vedic  Rishis,  the 
author  of  several  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda,  and  a  personage  who 
played  an  important  part  in  the  early  history  of  the  Brahmanic  or 
priestly  caste  of  the  Hindus.  In  the  account  given  of  him,  histori- 
cal events  and  mythological  fictions  are  so  much  blended  together 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  gather  more  from  it  than  that  he  was 
a  sage  of  high  reputation  and  a  priest  jealous  of  the  privileges  and 
the  position  of  his  caste,  and  ever  ready  to  assist  its  superiority 
over  the  second  or  military  and  royal  caste.  In  one  of  his  Rig 
Veda  hymns  he  claims  to  have  been  enlightened  by  the  god 
Varuna,  and  in  another  he  is  called  the  son  of  Mitra  and  Varuna, 
born  from  the  mind  of  Urvasi.— :[Goldstucker.] 

Vasishtha  was  the  family  priest  of  Nimi,  son  of  Ikshvaku,  who 
was  the  son  of  Manu  Vaivasvata,  and  the  first  prince  of  the  solar 
race  of  kings  ;  and  in  a  passage  of  the  Mahabharata,  he  is  stated 
to  have  been  the  purohita  of  all  the  kings  of  that  family.  He  is 
accordingly  mentioned  in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  as  the  religious 
teacher  of  Sagara,  the  thirty-seventh  in  descent  from  Ikshvaku  ; 
and  as  conducting  a  sacrifice  for  Sandiisa  or  Mitrasaha,  a  descend- 
ant in  the  fifteenth  generation  of  the  same  prince. 

Vasishtha  is  also  spoken  of  in  the  Kamayana,  as  the  priest  of 
Rama,  who  appears  from  the  Vishnu  Purana,  to  have  been  a 
descendant  of  Ikshvaku  in  the  sixty-first  generation. 

Vasishtha,  according  to  all  these  accounts,  must  have  been 
possessed  of  a  vitality  altogether  superhuman  ;  for  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  of  the  accounts,  intend  under  the  name  of 
Vasishtha  to  denote  merely  a  person  belonging  to  the  family  so 
called,  but  to  represent  the  founder  of  the  family  himself  as  taking 
part  in  the  transactions  of  many  successive  ages. 

It  is  clear  that  Vasishtha,  although  he  is  frequently  designated 
in   post-vedic    writings   as  n    Brahman,    was,   according   to  some 


VAS  G89 

other  authorities,  not  really  such  in  auy  proper  sense  of  the  word, 
as  iu  the  accounts  which  are  there  given  of  his  birth  he  is  declared 
to  have  been  either  a  mind-born  son  of  Brahma,  or  the  son  of 
Mitra,  Varuna,  and  the  Apsaras  Urvasi,  or  to  have  had  some 
other  supernatural  origin." 

Vasishtha  was  the  preceptor  of  the  Mahii-aja  Dasaratha.  He 
identified  Rama  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  educated  him 
and  his  brothers.  He  invested  him  with  the  sacred  thread,  taught 
him  the  Gayatri,  and  directed  the  preparations  for  his  installation 
as  Yuvaraja.  On  the  death  of  the  Maharaja  he  directed  the 
funeral  ceremonies,  and  endeavoured  to  persuade  Kama  to  accept 
the  Raj.  He  also  conducted  the  installation  of  Kama  after  his 
return  from  exile.  The  seven  sons  of  Vasishtha  were  the  sages 
of  the  first  Manwantara  ;  and  were  born  again  as  Rishis  in  the 
third  period.  He  was  the  Vyasa  of  the  eighth  Dwapara  age. 
Numerous  legends  are  related  of  Vasishtha,  some  of  which  have 
been  given  under  the  names  to  w^hich  they  refer  :  Sec  Kalmasha- 
pada,  Nimi,  &c.  It  is  said  he  was  changed  to  a  starling  by 
the  curse  of  Visvamitra,  who  was  himself  transformed  into  a  crane 
by  the  imprecation  of  Vasishtha.  In  these  forms  they  fought  for 
a  considerable  time  until  Brahma  interposed  and  reconciled  them. 
Wilson  says  if  the  tradition  have  auy  import  it  mny  refer  to  the 
ensigns  of  the  contending  parties  ;  as  banners  with  armorial  devices 
were  invariably  borne  by  princes  and  leaders. — See  Vjsvamitra. 

VaSU — A  celestial  ;  a  leader  ;  a  sort  of  demi-god.  Tliere  are 
eight  Vasus,  so  called  because  they  are  always  present  in  light,  or 
luminous  radiation  :  or  according  to  the  Vishnu  Purana,  because 
preceded  by  fire  they  abound  in  splendour  and  might.  Their 
names  are  Apa,  Dhruva,  Soma,  Dhava  (fire,)  Anila  (wind,)  Anala 
(fire,)  Pratyusha  (day  break,)  and  Prabhasa  (light.) 

VaSU — 1,  A  daughter  of  Dak tfha  who  was  married  to  Dh^rmn  ; 
2,  One  of  the  sons  of  Kusa. 

Vacubhridyana — One  of  the  sons  of  Vasishtha,  wlin  wn^ 
devoured  by  Raja  Kalmashapada. 

Vasudeva— 1,  One  of  the  sous  of  Sura  ;  at  his  birth  the  gods,  to 
wliom  the  future  is  manifest,  foresaw  that  the  Divine  Being  would 

87 


690  VAS— VAT 


take  a  human  form  in  his  family,  and  thereupon  they  sounded 
with  joy  the  drums  of  heaven  ;  from  this  circumstance  Vasudeva 
was  also  called  Anakadundubhi  ;  Vasudeva  had  seven  wives  ;  by 
one  of  them  Devaki,  he  had  Balarama  and  Krishna,  the  two  divine 
incarnations.  Vasudeva  was  imprisoned  by  Kansa,  who  also 
destroyed  many  of  his  children  and  attempted  to  kill  Krishna  too. 
Vasudeva  lived  to  see  the  power  and  greatness  of  Krishna  and 
Rama,  and  at  their  death  he  and  his  wife  committed  themselves  to 
the  flames  ;  2,  The  first  prince  of  the  Kanwa  dynasty.     V.  P 

Vasudeva — A  name  of  Vishnu  :  it  means,  says  the  Vishnu 
Purana,  that  all  beings  abide  in  that  supreme  being,  and  that  he 
abides  in  all  beings.  "  The  form  or  sensible  type  of  Vasudeva  is 
here  considered  to  be  the  monosyllable  Om,  and  which  is  one  with 
the  three  mystical  words  Bhuh,  Bhuvar,  Swar,  and  with  the 
Vedas  :  consequently  the  Vyahritis  and  the  Vedas  are  also  forms 
of  Vasuueva,  diversified  as  to  their  typical  character,  but  essen- 
tially one  and  the  same." — Wilson. 

Vasuki — One  of  the  progeny  of  Kadru  ;  a  powerful  many- 
headed  snake  ;  he  was  the  snake  king  according  to  some  authori- 
ties :  but  chiefly  celebrated  from  having  been  used  as  a  cord  or 
rope,  around  Mount  Mandara  as  a  churn,  when  the  gods  and 
Asuras  churned  the  ocean  for  the  Amrita. 

Vasumitra One  of  the  ten  Sunga  princes. 

Vasava — Vayu,  a  name  of  the  god  of  the  winds. 

Vata — Another  name  of  Vayu  or  Pavana,  the  god  of  the  wind. 

Vata-tree — The  Ficus  Indica  ;  the  enormous  tree  which  is 
fabled  to  grow  in  the  mountain  Sup^rswa,  to  the  south  of  Meru, 
and  described  as  spreading  over  eleven  hundred  yojanas,  is  a 
Vata  tree. 

Vatapi — 1,  A  celebrated  demon,  the  son  of  Hlada  ;  2,  A 
powerful  Danava,  the  son  of  Viprachitti  ;  3,  A  cruel  Rdkshasa,  a 
devourer  of  brahmans  ;  he  lived  in  the  forest  near  the  Vindhya 
mountains,  and  was  himself  eaten,  according  to  the  Ramayaua,  by 
the  sage  Agastya. 


VAT— VAY  691 


Vatsa — Child  ;  a  name  of  Pratarddana,  from  his  father's 
frequently  calling  him  by  that  name. 

Vatsabalaka — A  son  of  Sura  and  brother  of  Vasudeva. 

Vatsabhumi — A  prince,  the  eighth  in  descent  from  Alarka. 

Vatsapri — A  celebrated  prince  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of 
Bhalandana. 

Vatsara— 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  Dhruva  ;  2,  The  fifth  cyclic 
year. 

Vatsavyuha — An  ancient  Raja  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of 
Vatsa. 

Vatsya — l,  A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda  ;  2,  One  of  the  fifteen 
teachers  of  the  White  Yajush. 

Vavriddhas — A  class  of  deities  in  the  fourteenth  Manwantara. 

Vayu — The  god  of  wind  ;  the  -^olus  of  Hindu  mythology, 
while  the  Maruts  are  the  breezes  who  attended  upon  Indra. 
Vayu  was  the  mythical  father  of  Bhima,  and  of  Hanumau.  It  was 
Vayu  who  testified  to  the  fidelity  of  Damayanti ;  who  conveyed  the 
palace  of  Indra  to  the  earth,  &c. 

In  the  Vedic  mythology  of  the  Hindus,  Vayu  is  a  deity  who 
originally  seems  to  have  held  an  equal  rank  with  Indra,  but  much 
more  rarely  occupies  the  imagination  of  the  poets  than  this  god, 
or  Agni,  or  the  Sun  ;  for  though,  according  to  Yaska,  ancient 
commentators  of  the  Vedas  hold  that  there  are  only  three  great 
deities — viz.,  Agni,  fire,  whose  place  is  on  earth  ;  Surya,  the  sun, 
whose  place  is  in  heaven  ;  and  Vayu,  or  Indra,  whose  place  is  in 
the  intermediate  sphere — only  a  few  hymns,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, are  dedicated  to  V^yu,  whereas  the  other  deities  named  are 
the  subject  of  manifold  praise.  The  description  given  by  the  Rig 
Veda  of  the  greatness  of  Vayu  nevertheless  answers  the  position 
which  those  ancient  commentators  assign  to  him. 

Vayu,  is  said  to  be  the  son-in-law  of  Tvashtri.  He  moves  in  a 
shining  car,  drawn  by  a  pair  of  red  or  purple  horses.  His  team  is 
often  said  to  consist  of  ninety-nine,  of  a  hundred,  or  even  of  a 
thousand  horses,  yoked  by  his  will.  Vayu,  like  the  other  gods  is 
a  drinker  of  soma.     In  fact,  he  alone,  or  in  conjunction  with  Indra, 


692  VAY 

was,  by  the  admission  of  the  other  gods,  entitled  to  the  first  draught 
of  this  libation.  It  is  remarkable  that  Vayu  is  but  rarely  connected 
with  the  Maruts  or  deities  of  the  storm  ;  but  in  one  place  he  is  said 
to  have  begotten  them  from  the  rivers  of  heaven  ;  and  in  another 
place  to  be  attended  by  Pushan,  the  Maruts  and  the  Visva  devas. 

The  following  hymns  are  addressed  to  Vata  (another  name  of 
the  god  of  the  wind).     The  imagery  in  the  first  is  highly  poetical. 

"  1,  (I  celebrate)  the  glory  of  Vata's  chariot  ;  its  noise  comes 
rending  and  resoundiog.  Touching  the  sky,  he  moves  onward, 
making  all  things  ruddy  :  and  he  comes  propelling  the  dust  of  the 
earth  ;  2,  The  gusts  (?)  of  the  air  rush  after  him,  and  congregate 
in  him  as  women  in  an  assembly.  Sitting  along  with  them  on  the 
same  car,  the  god,  who  is  king  of  this  universe,  is  borne  along  ;  o, 
Hastiug  forward,  by  paths  in  the  atmosphere,  he  never  rests  on  any 
day.  Friend  of  the  waters,  first-born,  holy,  in  what  place  was 
he  born  ?  whence  has  he  sprung  ?  4,  Soul  of  the  gods,  source  of 
the  universe,  this  deity  moves  as  he  lists.  His  sounds  have  been 
heard,  but  his  form  is  not  (seen)  :  this  Vata  let  us  worship  with 
an  oblation." 

"  1,  Let  Vata,  the  wind,  waft  to  us  healing,  salutary,  and 
auspicious,  to  our  heart  :  may  he  prolong  our  lives  ;  2,  And,  Vata, 
thou  art  our  father,  our  brother,  aiid  our  friend  :  cause  us  to  live  ; 
3,  From  the  treasure  of  immortality,  which  is  deposited  yonder  in 
thy  house,  0  Vata,  give  us  to  live." 

Here  the  same  property  is  ascribed  to  Vata  which  is  elsewhere 
ascribed  to  Rudra,  that  of  bringing  healing.* 

Vayu-Purana — The  Vayu  Purana  is  narrated,  by  Suta,  to  the 
Rishis  at  Naimisharanya,  as  it  was  formerly  told,  at  the  same 
place,  to  similar  persons  by  Vayu  ;  a  repetition  of  circumstances 
not  uncharacteristic  of  the  inartificial  style  of  this  Purana.  It  is 
divided  into  four  Padas,  termed,  severally,  Prakriya,  Upodghata, 
Anushauga,  and  Upasamhara  ;  a  classification  peculiar  to  this 
Avork.  These  are  preceded  by  an  index,  or  heads  of  chapters,  in 
the  manner  of  the  Mahabharata  and  Ramayana — another  pecu- 
liarity. 

'^Dr.  Muir.  0.  S.  T,,  Vol.  V,  p.  146. 


VAY  693 

The  Prakriya  portion  coutains  but  a  few  chapters,  and  treats, 
chiefly,  of  elemental  creation,  and  the  first  evolutions  of  beings,  to 
the  same  purport  as  the  Vishnu,  but  in  a  more  obscure  and  unme- 
thodical style.  The  Upodghata  then  continues  the  subject  of 
creation,  and  describes  the  various  Kalpas  or  periods  during  which 
the  world  has  existed  ;  a  greater  number  of  which  is  specified  by 
the  Saiva,  than  by  the  Vaishnava  Purauas.  Thirty-three  are  here 
described,  the  last  of  which  is  the  Sweta  or  '  white'  Kalpa,  from 
Siva's  being  born  in  it,  of  a  white  complexion.  The  genealogies 
of  the  patriarchs,  the  description  of  the  universe,  and  the  incidents 
of  the  first  six  Manwautaias  are  all  treated  of  in  this  part  of  the 
work  ;  but  they  are  intermixed  with  legends  and  praises  of  Siva, 
as  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha,  the  Maheswara  Mahatmya,  the  Nila- 
kantha  Stotra,  and  others.  The  genealogies,  although,  in  the 
main,  the  same  as  those  in  the  Vaishnava  Purauas,  present  some 
variations.  A  long  account  of  the  Pitris  or  progenitors  is  also 
peculiar  to  this  Puraua  ;  as  are  stories  of  some  of  the  most 
celebrated  Rishis  who  were  engaged  in  the  distribution  of  the 
Vedas. 

The  third  division  commences  with  an  account  of  the  seven 
Rishis  aud  their  descendants,  and  describes  the  origin  of  the 
different  classes  of  creatures  from  the  daughters  of  Daksha,  with 
as  profuse  copiousness  of  nomenclature,  not  found  in  any  other 
Puraua.  With  the  exception  of  the  greater  minuteness  of  detail, 
the  particulars  agree  with  those  of  the  Vishnu  Puraua.  A  chapter 
then  occurs  on  the  worship  of  the  Pitris  ;  another,  on  Tirthas  or 
places  sacred  to  them  ;  and  several,  on  the  performance  of 
Sraddhas,  constituting  the  Si^addha  Kalpa.  After  this  comes  a  full 
account  of  the  solar  and  lunar  dynasties,  forming  a  parallel  to  that 
in  the  Vishnu  Puraua,  with  this  difference,  that  it  is,  throughout, 
iu  verse,  whilst  that  of  our  text,  as  noticed  in  its  place,  is,  chiefly, 
in  prose.  It  is  extended,  also,  by  the  insertion  of  detailed  accounts 
of  various  incidents,  briefly  noticed  in  the  Vishnu,  though  derived, 
apparently,  from  a  common  original.  The  section  terminates  with 
similar  accounts  of  future  kings,  and  the  same  chronological  calcu- 
lations, that  are  found  in  the  Vishnu. 


694  VAY— VED 


The  last  portion,  the  Upasamhara,  describes  briefly  the  future 
Manwantaras,  the  measures  of  space  and  time,  the  end  of  the 
world,  the  efficacy  of  Yoga,  and  the  glories  of  Sivapura,  or  the 
dwelling  of  Siva,  with  whom  the  Yogin  is  to  be  united.  The 
manuscript  concludes  with  a  different  history  of  the  successive 
teachers  of  the  Vayu  Purana,  tracing  them  from  Brahma  to  Vayu, 
from  Vayu  to  Brihaspati,  and  from  him,  through  various  deities 
and  sages,  to  Dvvaipayana  and  Suta. — Wilson. 

Vayuna — A  sage,  one  of  the  sons  of  Krisdswa  ;  the  Ramayana 
terms  the  sons  of  Krisaswa  the  Sastra  devatas,  or  gods  of  the  divine 
weapons. 

Vedabahu — A  son  of  the  patriarch  Pulastya. 

Vedamitra— A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda  ;  who  divided  his 
Sanhita  into  five,  which  he  distributed  to  as  many  disciples. 

Vedana — Fortune  ;  a  daughter  of  Anrita  (falsehood,)  married 
to  Naraka  (hell). 

Vedanga — From  Veda  and  anga,  limb  ;  hence,  literally,  'the 
limb  of  (the  body  of)  the  Veda' — is  the  name  of  six  Sanscrit  works, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  teach  how  to  read  and  understand  correctly 
the  Vedic  texts,  and  how  to  apply  them  correctly  to  sacrificial 
purposes.  Whether  the  number  of  these  works  was  originally  the 
same  as  it  now  is,  and  already  was  at  the  time  of  the  Upanishads, 
may  be  doubtful.  Tradition  mentions  the  following  Vedangas  :  1, 
Siksha,  or  the  science  of  proper  pronunciation.  It  is  represented 
by  a  short  treatise  of  3o,  or,  in  another  recension,  of  59  verses, 
which  explains  the  nature  of  letters,  accent,  and  pronunciation,  and 
is  ascribed  to  Panini  ;  2,  Chhandas,  or  (a  work  on)  metre,  which 
is  ascribed  to  Fingala;  3,  Vyakarana,  or  grammar,  by  which 
native  authorities  understand  the  celebrated  work  of  Panini  ;  but 
never  those  short  books,  especially  concerned  in  Vedic  peculiarities, 
called  Pratisakhyas,  the  existing  repj-esentatives  of  which,  in  all 
probability,  are  posterior  to  Panini  ;  4,  Nirukta  ;  5,  Jyotisha,  or 
astronomy.  '  Its  chief  object  is  to  convey  such  knowledge  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  as  is  necessary  for  fixing  the  days  and  hours  of  the 
Vedic  sacrifices  ;'  6,  JKalpa,  or  works  on  the  Vedic  ceremonial, 
which  systematise  the  ritual  taught  by  the  Brahmana  portion  of  the 


VED  695 

Veda,  omitting,  however,  all  legendary  or  mystical  detail.  They 
are  composed  in  the  Siitra  style.  The  Kalpa,  or  Sranta,  Sutras 
belonging  to  the  Rig  Veda  are  the  Aswalayana-,  Sdnkhdyana,  and 
Saunaka  Sutras ;  those  relating  to  the  Saraaveda,  the  Masaka-, 
Ldtydyana-,  and  Drahy^yana  Sutras  ;  those  of  the  Black  Yajur- 
veda,  the  Apastaraba-,  Baudhdyana-^  Satyashadha-,  Hirariyakesin-, 
Mdiiava-,  Bhdradvdja-,  Vddkuna-,  Vaikhanasa-,  LaugdhsJii-, 
Maitra-,  Katha-,  and  Vdrdha  Sutras.  The  White  Yajurveda  has 
only  one  Kalpa,  or  Sranta,  Sutras  connected  with  it,  the  Kdtydyana 
Sutra,  and  the  Atharvaveda  likewise  only  one,  the  Kusika  Sutra. — 
At  a  later  period,  these  works  were  supplemented  by  a  similar 
class  of  works,  which,  however,  merely  describe  the  domestic 
ceremonies,  viz.,  *  the  marriage  rite,  the  rites  to  be  performed  at 
the  conception  of  a  child,  at  various  periods  before  his  birth,  at  the 
time  of  his  birth,  the  ceremony  of  naming  the  child,  of  carrying 
him  out  to  see  the  sun,  of  feeding  him,  of  cutting  his  hair,  and 
lastly,  of  investing  him  as  a  student,  and  handing  him  to  a  guru, 
under  whose  care  he  is  to  study  the  sacred  writings.'  Works  of 
this  kind  are  called  Grihya-Sutras  (from  griha,  house),  and  to  these, 
again,  were  added  the  Sdmaydchdrika-Sutras  (from  samaydchdra, 
conventional  practice),  which  treat  of  customs  sanctioned  by  the 
practice  of  pious  men,  but  not  enjoined  or  expressly  stated  in  the 
Grihya-Sutras.  The  two  last  classes  of  Sutras,  which  are  not 
comprised  amongst  the  Kalpa  works,  then  grew  into  the  Dharma- 
sastras,  or  law-books,  of  which  that  of  Manu  is  the  chief  repre- 
sentative.—  Chambers^  JEncyclopcedia, 

Vedanta — (From  the  Sanscrit  veda^  and  a?«^a,  end  ;  hence, 
literally,  "  the  end  or  ultimate  aim  of  the  Vedas")  is  the  second 
great  division  of  the  Mimamsa  school  of  Hindu  philosophy.  It  is 
chiefly  concerned  in  the  investigation  of  Brahman  (neuter)  or  the 
Supreme  Spirit,  and  the  relation  in  which  the  universe,  and 
especially  the  human  soul,  stands  to  it ;  and  in  contradistinction 
from  the  Purvamimansa,  or  the  investigation  {mimd?isd)  of  the 
former  {piirva)  part  of  the  Vedas — viz.,  the  Sanhita,  and  especially 
the  Br^hmanas — which  contain  the  dharma^  or  religious  law,  it  is 
also  called  Uttara-mhndnsa,  or  the  investigation  (mimdnsd)  of  the 
latter  (ttttara)  part  of  the  Vedas — viz.,  Aranyakas  and  Upanishads, 


696  VED 

which  treat  of  (the  neuter)  Brahman^  or  the  Supreme  Spirit  [not 
to  be  coufounded  with  (the  masculine)  Brahmaii,  or  the  god  of  the 
mythological  Trimurti].  Sometimes,  the  name  given  to  it  is 
Sdiiraka-mtmansd,  or  the  investigation  of  the  soul  (Sariraka).  In 
its  method,  the  Vedanta  differs  from  the  Nyaya  by  endeavouring 
to  explain  the  universe  as  a  successive  development  from  one 
ultimate  source  or  principle — whereas  the  Nyaya,  in  both  its 
divisions,  treats  of  the  object  of  human  knowledge  of  which  the 
universe  is  composed,  under  different  topics,  unconcerned  about 
their  mutual  relation  of  effect  and  cause  ;  and  from  the  Sdnkhya,  it  ^ 
is  distinct,  inasmuch  as  that  system  is  based  on  the  assumption  of  a 
duality  of  principles  whence  the  universe  derives  its  origin. 

The  object-matter  of  the  Vedanta  is  the  proof  that  the  universe 
emanates  in  a  successive  development  from  a  Supreme  Spirit  or  soul, 
which  is  called  Brahman,  ov  paramdtman ;  that  the  human  soul  is 
therefore  identical  in  origin  with  Brahman  ;  that  the  worldly 
existence  of  the  human  soul  is  merely  the  result  of  its  ignorance 
of  this  sameness  between  itself  and  the  Supreme  Spirit  ;  and  that 
its  final  liberation  or  freedom  from  Transmigration  is  attained  by  a 
removal  of  this  ignorance,  that  is,  by  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
truth  of  the  Vedanta  doctrine. 

According  to  this  doctrine,  Brahman  (neuter)  is  both  the 
efficient  and  material  cause  of  the  world,  creator  and  creation,  doer 
and  deed.  It  is  one,  self-existent,  supreme,  as  truth,  wisdom, 
intelligence,  and  happiness  ;  devoid  of  the  three  qualities,  in  the 
sense  in  which  created  beings  possess  them  ;  and  at  the  consumma- 
tion of  all  things,  the  whole  universe  is  resolved  or  absorbed  into  it. 
From  Brahman  individual  souls  emanate,  as  innumerable  sparks 
issue  from  a  blazing  fire.  The  soul,  therefore,  is  neither  born,  nor 
does  it  die  ;  it  is  of  divine  substance,  and  as  such,  infinite, 
immortal,  intelligent,  sentient,  true.  Its  separate  existence,  as 
distinct  from  Brahman,  is  the  cause  of  its  ignorance  ;  and  this 
ignorance,  which  consists  in  regarding  the  world  as  a  reality 
capable  of  subsisting  without  Brahman,  has  a  double  power — that 
of  enveloping  and  projecting.  By  means  of  the  former,  it  makes 
the  soul  liable  to  mundane  vicissitudes,  as  to  the  sensations  of 
pleasure,  pain,   &c.     The  projective  power   of  ignorance,  when 


VED  697 

eucompassing  the  soul  in  its  fourth  conditiou,  or  that  of  pure 
intellect  (its  other  conditions  are  :  waking,  dreaming,  and  dreamless 
sleep)  produces  out  of  the  darkness  which  then  prevails  the  five 
subtile  elements — viz.,  ether,  which  is  the  substratum  of  the  quality 
sound  ;  air,  which  arises  from  ether,  the  substratum  of  touch  ;  from 
air,  Jire  or  light,  the  substratum  of  colour  ;  from  light,  water,  the 
substratum  of  savour  ;  and  from  water,  earth,  the  substratum  of 
smell.  From  these  subtile  elements  are  then  produced  seventeen 
subtile  bodies  and  the  five  gross  elements.  The  former,  also  called 
liugasarira,  because  they  are  bodies  (sarira)  which  impart  to 
existing  beings  their  individual  character  {liiiga),  are  the  Jive 
organs  of  perception — viz.,  the  organs  of  heariug,  tpuch,  sight, 
taste,  and  smell,  which  arise  severally  from  the  pure  or  inactive 
particles  of  each  of  the  subtile  elements  ;  further,  two  intellectual 
organs,  which  are  produced  from  the  mingled  pure,  or  inactive 
particles  of  the  subtile  elements — viz.,  buddhi,  understanding,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  arrive  at  a  certainty  or  conclusion,  and 
manas  (an  organ  of  volition  and  imagination),  the  function  of  which 
consists  in  willing  and  doubting — thinking  and  referring  the 
external  objects  to  one's  own  self,  being  two  functions  common  to 
both  of  them  ;  lastly,  the  Jive  organs  of  action — viz.,  the  voice,  the 
hands,  the  feet,  the  organ  of  excretion  and  that  of  generation,  which 
are  severally  produced  from  the  foul  or  active  particles  of  each  of 
the  subtile  elements  ;  and  the  Jive  vital  airs,  which  are  produced 
from  the  mifig led  foul,  or  active  particles  of  the  subtile  elements — 
viz.,  the  air  breathed  forth,  which  has  its  place  in  the  fore-part  of 
the  nose  ;  the  air  breathed  downwards,  which  has  its  place  in  the 
lower  intestines  ;  the  air  which  circulates  through  the  whole  body  ; 
the  ascending  air,  which  has  its  place  in  the  throat,  and  the 
descending  air  in  the  middle  of  the  body,  which  causes  assimilation 
and  digestion  of  food,  produces  semen,  excrements,  &c.  (Later 
Vedantists  assume  ten  such  vital  airs — viz.,  besides  the  foregoing, 
the  airs  which  severally  cause  retching,  winking,  hunger,  yawning, 
and  fattening.)  The  five  gross  elements  are  the  five  subtile 
elements,'when,  according  to  a  theory  derived  from  a  scriptural  text, 
they  have  become  so  divided  and  combined  that  each  of  them 
retains  a  preponderating  portion  of  itself,  and  consequently  of  the 

88 


698  VED  J 

quality  of  which  it  is  the  substratum  as  ether  of  sound,  &c. — and 
besides  smaller  portions  of  the  other  subtile  elements,  and  the 
qualities  of  which  they  are  the  substrata.  From  these  gross 
elements  then  arise  the  various  (mythological)  worlds,  and  this 
world  too,  with  bodies  which  are  distinguished  as  viviparous,  or 
those  produced  from  a  womb,  as  men,  beasts,  &c.  ;  oviparous,  or 
those  produced  from  an  egg^  as  birds,  snakes,  &c.  ;  those  generated 
by  *  sweat'  or  liot  moisture,  as  lice,  gnats,  &c.  ;  and  those 
germinating,  as  creepers,  trees,  &c.  The  soul,  when  existing  in  the 
body,  is  encased  in  a  succession  of  '  sheaths.'  The  first  or  interior 
*sheath'  consists  o^biiddhi,  associated  with  the  organs  of  perception ; 
the  second,  ^f  manas,  associated  with  the  organs  of  action  ;  and  the 
third,  of  the  vital  airs  together  with  the  organs  of  action.  These 
three  *  sheaths'  constitute  the  subtile  body  of  the  soul,  which 
attends  the  soul  in  its  transmigrations  ;  and  the  collective  totality 
of  such  subtile  bodies  is  the  supreme  soul,  as  regarded  in  its 
relation  to  the  world  ;  when  it  is  also  called  '  the  soul  which  is 
the  thread,'  or  passes  like  the  thread  through  the  universe,  or 
Hiranyagarbha,  or  life.  The  fourth  and  exterioi'  '  sheath'  of  the 
soul  is  composed  of  the  gross  elements  ;  and  the  collective  aggregate 
of  such  gross  bodies  is  the  gross  body  of  the  deity.  This  whole 
development  being  the  result  of  ignorance,  the  soul  frees  itself  from 
its  error  by  understanding  that  the  different  stages  in  which  this 
development  appears,  do  not  represent  real  or  absolute  truth  ;  and 
when  its  error  has  completely  vanished,  it  ceases  to  be  re-born,  and 
becomes  re-united  with  Brahman,  whence  it  emanated.  But  since 
the  means  of  arriving  at  a  final  deliverance  can  only  be  the 
complete  mastery  of  the  truths  of  the  Vedanta,  other  means,  such 
as  the  performance  of  sacrifices  or  other  religious  acts  enjoined  by 
the  Vedas,  or  the  practice  of  the  Yoga,  cannot  lead  to  the  same 
result.  They  may  be  meritorious,  and  are  even  recommended  as 
such,  but  can  effect  only  an  apparent  liberation.  Of  this,  there  are 
two  kinds  :  one  liberation  which  is  effected  in  lifetime,  and  enables 
a  man  to  perform  supernatural  actions  or  wonders,  as  the  evocation 
of  the  shades  of  progenitors,  going  anywhere  at  will,  and  similar 
feats  ;  and  another  which  takes  place  after  death,  and  enables  the 
soul,  not  divested  of  its  subtile  body,  to  reside  in  heaven  ,-  but  after 


VED  699 

a  time  its  effect  ceases,  and  the  soul  lias  to  renew  its  mundane 
existence.  In  order  to  fit  the  mind  for  meditating  on  these  truths, 
various  moral  duties  are  enjoined,  and  various  practices  are 
recommended,  especially  by  later  Vedanta  writers.  Thus,  the 
student  of  the  Vedanta  is  told  not  to  hurt  a  sentient  being,  to  speak 
the  truth,  not  to  steal,  to  practise  continence,  and  not  to  accept 
gifts  ;  to  remain  pure  and  content,  to  do  penance,  and  to  study  the 
Vedas  ;  also  to  remain  in  certain  postures,  to  practise  various 
modes  of  suppressiug  his  breath,  and  the  like.  These  injunctions, 
however,  are  extraneous  to  the  doctrine  itself,  and  appear  to  be  a 
compromise  with  the  old  orthodox  faith,  which  requires  the 
performance  of  religious  acts,  and  a  later  stage  of  it,  which  favours 
such  austere  practices  as  are  especially  known  by  the  name  of 
Yoga.  The  doctrine  of  bhakti,  or  faith,  does  not  belong  to  the 
older  Vedanta  ;  it  is,  however,  an  interesting  feature  of  the  later 
periods  of  this  philosophy  ;  and  the  same  observation  applies  to  the 
doctrine  o?  3Idyd,  or  illusion,  according  to  which  the  world  has  no 
reality  whatever,  but  is  merely  the  product  of  imagination  ;  for 
the  older  Vedanta,  as  will  have  been  seen,  merely  teaches  that  the 
world  is  not  the  truth,  but  does  not  deny  its  material  reality."* 
The  late  Dr.  J.  R.  Ballantyne  published  an  able  Lecture  on  the 
Vedanta,  embracing  the  Text  of  the  Veddnta  Sara.  Allahabad, 
1850.  There  is  an  excellent  article  on  the  Ontology  of  the 
Vedanta,  in  the  Benares  Magazine  for  December  1851,  written  by 
Dr.  F.  E.  Hall. 

Vedas — The  Vedas  are  four  in  number  :  the  eldest  is  the  Rig- 
veda  ;  next  stands  the  Yajur-veda  ;  the  Sama-veda,  and  the  latest 
is  the  Atharva-veda.  Each  Veda  is  divided  into  two  parts  ;  1st, 
The  hymns  or  Mantras,  which  express  the  wants  and  aspirations 
of  the  worshippers,  and  thereby  throw  some  light  on  the  social 
condition  of  the  people  ;  2nd,  The  Brahmanas  which  belong  to  a 
Ritualistic  age,  and  refer  to  rites  and  ceremonies  of  an  unmeaning 
or  artificial  character, 

"  The  Veda  has  a  two-fold  interest  ;  it  belongs  to  the  history 
of  the  world  and  to  the  history  of  India.     In  the  history  of  the 

♦  Goldstiicker  in  Chambers's  Encyclopeedia. 


700  VED 

world  the  Veda  fills  a  gap  which  no  literary  Avork  in  auy  other 
language  could  fill.  It  carries  us  back  to  times  of  which  we  have 
no  records  anywhere,  and  gives  us  the  very  words  of  a  generation 
of  men  of  whom  otherwise  we  could  form  but  the  vaguest  estimate 
by  means  of  conjectures  and  inferences. 

"  It  is  difiicult  no  doubt  to  believe  that  the  most  ancient  literary 
work  of  the  Aryan  race,  a  work  more  ancient  than  the  Zendavesta 
and  Homer,  should,  after  a  lapse  of  at  least  three  thousand  years, 
have  been  discovered,  and  for  the  first  time  published,  in  its 
entirety,  not  in  one  of  the  Parishads  on  the  borders  of  the  Ganges, 
but  in  one  of  the  Colleges  of  an  English  University.  It  is  difiicult 
to  believe  that  sufficient  MSS.  should  have  been  preserved,  in 
spite  of  the  perishable  nature  of  the  material  on  which  they  are 
written,  to  enable  an  editor  to  publish  the  collection  of  the  Yedic 
hymns  in  exactly  that  form  in  which  they  existed  at  least  800 
years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  and,  still  more,  that  this  collection, 
which  was  completed  at  the  time  of  Lykurgos,  should  contain  the 
poetical  relics  of  a  pre-Homeric  age  ;  an  age  in  which  the  names 
of  the  Greek  gods  and  heroes  had  not  yet  lost  their  original  sense, 
and  in  which  the  simple  worship  of  the  Divine  powers  of  nature 
was  not  yet  supplanted  by  a  worship  of  personal  gods.  It  is 
difficult  to  believe  this  and  we  have  a  right  to  be  sceptical.  But 
it  is  likewise  our  duty  to  inquire  into  the  value  of  what  has  been 
preserved  for  us  in  so  extraordinary  a  manner,  and  to  extract  from 
it  those  lessons  which  the  study  of  mankind  was  intended  to  teach 
to  man."* 

"  The  religion  of  the  Vedas,  as  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with 
it,  differs  in  many  very  material  points,  from  that  of  the  present 
day.  The  worship  they  prescribe  is,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
domestic,  consisting  of  oblations  to  fire,  and  invocations  of  the 
deities  of  fire,  of  the  firmament,  of  the  winds,  the  seasons,  the 
moon,  the  sun  ;  who  are  invited  by  the  sacrificer,  if  a  brahman,  or 
by  his  family  priest  if  he  is  not  a  brahman,  to  be  present  and 
accept  the  offering,  either  oiled  butter  or  the  juice  of  the  soma,  a 

*  Max  Miiller,  Hist,  Sans,  Lit. 


VED  701 

species  of  asclepias,  which  are  poured  upon  the  sacrificial  fire,  in 
return  for  which  they  are  supplicated  to  confer  temporal  blessings 
upon  the  worshipper,  riches,  life,  posterity  ;  the  short-sighted 
vanities  of  human  desire,  which  constituted  the  sura  of  heathen 
prayer  in  all  heathen  countries. 

"  The  titles  and  functions  of  the  deities  commonly  addressed  on 
these  invocations  give  to  the  religion  of  the  Vedas  the  character 
of  the  worship  of  the  elements,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  was 
so  in  its  earliest  and  rudest  condition.  It  is  declared  in  some  texts 
that  the  deities  are  only  three  ;  whose  places  are  earth,  the  middle 
region  between  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  heaven  ;  namely,  fire, 
air,  the  sun.  Upon  this  however  seems  to  have  been  grafted  some 
loftier  speculation,  and  the  elements  came  to  be  regarded  as  types 
and  emblems  of  divine  power,  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
fundamental  doctrine  of  the  Vedas  is  monotheism.*  "  There  is  in 
truth,"  say  repeated  texts,  "  but  one  deity,  the  Supreme  Spirit." 
"  He  from  whom  the  universal  world  proceeds,  who  is  Lord  of  the 
universe,  and  whose  work  is  the  universe,  is  the  Supreme  Being." 
Injunctions  also  repeatedly  occur  to  worship  Him,  and  Him  only. 
"  Adore  God  alone,  know  God  alone,  give  up  all  other  discourse  ;" 
and  the  Vedant  says,  "  it  is  found  in  the  Vedas  that  none  but  the 
Supreme  Being  is  to  be  worshipped,  nothing  excepting  Him  should 
be  adored  by  a  wise  man." — Wilson^ s  Works,  Vol.  II,  pp.  50-52. 

"  The  simple  patriarchal  life  of  the  Aryans  is  indicated  in  the 
Vedic  hymns,  precisely  as  it  is  depicted  in  the  main  tradition  of 
the  Mahabharata.  They  were  a  people  partly  pastoral  and  partly 
agricultural  ;  keeping  cows  for  the  sake  of  their  milk,  butter,  and 
curds,  and  sowing  the  laud  with  grain.  They  also  seem  to  have 
had  some  acquaintance  with  the  manufacture  of  weapons  and  coats 
of  mail,  and  to  have  sometimes  undertaken  sea-voyages  for  the 
sake  of  gain.  These  people  prayed  to  their  gods,  as  such  a  people 
might  be  expected  to  pray,  for  plenty  of  rain,  abundant  harvests, 
and  prolific  cattle  ;  for  bodily  vigour,  long  life,  numerous  progeny, 

*  Colebrooke's  Essays,  I,  p.  12 ;  Max  Miiller,  History  of  Ancient  Saus.  Lit,, 
pp.  558—71. 


702  YED 

and  protection  against  all  foes  and  robbers,  such  as  the  cattle- 
lifting  aborigines.  Their  gods  appear  to  have  been  mere  abstrac- 
tions ;  personifications  of  those  powers  of  nature  on  whom  they 
relied  for  good  harvests.  They  wanted  seasonable  rain,  warmth, 
and  fresh  breezes.  Accordingly,  they  prayed  to  the  god  of  rain, 
the  god  of  fire  and  light,  and  the  god  of  wind.  But  from  the  very 
first,  there  appears  to  have  been  some  confusion  in  these  personifi- 
cations, which  led  both  to  a  multiplicity  of  deities,  and  the 
confounding  together  of  different  deities.  Thus  the  conception  of 
the  god  of  rain  was  Indra,  and  he  was  identified  with  the  firmament 
as  well  as  with  the  unseen  power  which  smote  the  rain-cloud  and 
brought  down  the  waters  ;  and  so  important  was  the  acquisition  of 
rain  in  due  season,  that  Indra  is  regarded  as  the  sovereign  of  the 
gods,  and  subsequently  became  a  type  of  sovereignty.  But  rain 
and  water  are  frequently  different  things,  and  thus  there  was 
another,  and  perchance  an  older,  deity,  named  Varuna,  who  was 
particularly  worshipped  as  the  god  of  the  waters,  and  deity  of  the 
ocean.  Again,  the  conception  of  the  god  of  fire  was  Agni,  and 
Agni  was  not  only  the  flame  which  burns  upon  the  hearth  or  altar, 
but  also  the  lightning  which  manifests  itself  in  the  clouds,  and 
even  the  light  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Yet  both  the  sun  and 
moon  appear  as  separate  and  individual  deities,  the  latter  under 
the  name  of  Soma  or  Chandra.  Again,  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  striking  difference  as  regards  wind.  The  god  of  wind,  or  air, 
was  Vayu  ;  but  the  different  breezes  which  bring  on  or  accompany 
the  rain,  are  called  Maruts,  and  are  represented  as  the  attendants 
of  Indra.  Thus,  whilst  there  is  a  Pantheon  of  separate  and 
individual  deities,  the  conception  of  one  deity  frequently  overlapped 
the  conceptions  of  other  deities  ;  and  whilst  the  more  prominent 
powers  of  nature,  such  as  water,  fire,  and  wind,  were  separately 
individualized,  a  monotheistic  tendency  was  always  at  work, 
ascribing  the  attributes  of  every  deity  to  each  one  in  turn.  Of 
these  deities,  the  following  appear  to  be  the  most  important : — 

Rain. 

Indra,  god  of  the  firmament. 
Varuna,  god  of  the  waters. 


VED  703 

Fire. 
Agni,  god  of  fire. 
Surya,  the  sun. 
Soma,  or  Chandra,  the  moon. 

Air. 
Vayu,  the  god  of  wind. 

Maruts,  the  breezes  who  attended  upon  Indra. 
To  these  must  be  added  a  god  of  death,  or  judge  of  the  dead, 
who  was  known  as  Yama.  The  characteristics  of  Yama  as  a 
Vedic  deity  would  open  up  a  large  field  of  inquiry  ;  but  the 
subject  at  present  is  vague  and  speculative.  In  the  Epics,  Yama 
appears  distinctly  as  a  judge  of  the  dead  ;  and  men  who  are  about 
to  die  are  frequently  said  to  be  about  to  go  to  the  mansions  of 
Yama." 

"  In  the  Vedic  period  the  Brahmans  were  scarcely  known  as  a 
separate  community  ;  the  caste  system  had  not  been  introduced, 
and  the  gods  who  were  worshipped  were  subsequently  superseded 
by  deities  of  other  names  and  other  forms."* 

Vedasiras — A  sage,  the  son  of  Markaiidya  :  he  married  Pivari, 
and  had  many  children,  who  constituted  the  family,  or  Brahma- 
nical  tribe,  of  Bhargavas,  sons  of  Bhrigu.  The  most  celebrated 
of  these  was  Usanas,  the  preceptor  of  the  Daityas. 

Vedavati — The  vocal  daughter  of  the  Rishi  Kusadhvaja, 
sprung  from  him  during  his  constant  study  of  the  Veda.  She  was 
a  damsel  of  brilliant  beauty,  but  dressed  in  ascetic  garb,  and  lived 
in  forests  on  the  Himalaya.  It  was  there  she  was  seen  by  the 
giant  Ravana,  in  the  course  of  his  progress  through  the  world,  and 
he  at  once  became  enamoured  of  her.  He  enquired  who  she  was, 
and  told  her  that  such  an  austere  life  was  unsuited  to  her  youth 
and  attractions.  As  a  reason  for  leading  such  an  ascetic  existence 
she  said  the  gods,  gandharvas,  &c.,  wished  that  she  should  choose  a 
husband,  but  her  father  would  give  her  to  no  one  else  than  to 
Vishnu,  the  lord  of  the  world,  whom  he  desired  for  his  son-in-law. 
This  resolution  provoked  Sambhu,  king  of  the  Daityas,  who  slew 
her  father,  Kusadhvaja,    while  sleeping,   on  which  her   mother 

*  Talboys  Wheeler  History  of  India,  Vol.  I,  pp.  8—11. 


704  VED 

(whose  name  is  not  given)  after  embracing  his  body,  entered  into 
the  fire.     Vedavati  then  proceeds  "  In  order  that  I  may  fulfil  this 
desire  of  my  father  in  respect  of  Ndrayana,   I  wed  him  with  my 
heart.     Having  entered  into  this  engagement,  I  practice  great 
austerity.     Nai-ayana,  and  no  other  than  he,  Purushottama,  is  my 
husband.     From  the  desire  of  obtaining  him,   I  resort  to  this 
severe  observance."     Ravana's  passion  is  not  in  the  least  dimi- 
nished by  this  explanation,  and  he  urges  that  it  is  the  old  alone 
who  should  seek  to  become   distinguished  by  accumulating  merit 
through  austerity  ;  prays  that  she  who  is  so  young  and  beautiful, 
shall  become  his  bride  ;  and  boasts  that  he  is  superior  to  Vishnu. 
She  rejoins  that  no  one  but  he  would  thus  contemn  that  deity.  On 
receiving  this  reply,  he  touches  the  hair  of  her  head  with  the  tip 
of  his  finger.     She  is  greatly  incensed,  and  forthwith  cuts  ofi"  her 
hair,  and  tells  him   that  as  he  has  so  insulted  her,   she   cannot 
continue  to  live,  but  will  enter  into  the  fire  before  his  eyes.     She 
goes  on  :  "  '  Since  I  have  been  insulted  in  the  forest  by  thee  who 
art  wicked-hearted,  I  shall  be  born  again  for  thy  destruction.  For 
a  man  of  evil  design  cannot  be  slain  by  a  woman  ;  and  the  merit 
of  my  austerity  would  be  lost  if  I  were  to  launch  a  curse  against 
thee.     But  if  I  Irave  performed,  or  bestowed,  or  sacrificed,  aught, 
may  I  be  born  the  virtuous   daughter,   not  produced  from  the 
womb,  of  a  righteous  man.'     Having  thus  spoken,  she  entered  the 
blazing  fire.     Then  a  shower  of  celestial  flowers  fell  from   every 
part  of  the  sky.     It  is  she,  lord,  who  .  (having  seen  Vedavati  in 
the  Krita  age,  has  been  born  in  the  Treta  age)  as  the  daughter  of 
the  king  of  the  Janakas  and  [has  become]  thy  bride  ;  for  thou  art 
the  eternal  Vishnu.   The  mountain-like  enemy  who  was  [virtually] 
destroyed  before  by  her  wrath,  has  now  been  slain  by  her,  having 
recourse  to  thy  superhuman  energy."     On  this  the  commentator 
remarks  :  "  By   this  it  is  signified  that   Sita  was   the  principal 
cause  of  Havana's  death  ;  but  the  function  of  destroying  him  is 
ascribed  to  Rama."     On  the  words  "  thou  art  Vishnu,"  in  the 
preceding  verse  the  same  commentator  remarks  "  By  this  it  is 
clearly  affirmed  that  Sita  was  Lakshmi.     This  is  what  Parasara 
says.     In  the   god's  life  as  Rama,   she  became   Sita,   and    in  his 
birth  as  Krishna  [she  became]  Rukmini-"— 0.  S.  T.,  IV.,  392. 


VED  705 

Veda-vyasas — Arraugers  of  the  Vedas  :  *'  lu  every  Dwapara 
(or  third)  age,  Vishnu,  iu  the  person  of  Vyasa,  in  order  to  promote 
the  good  of  mankind,  divides  tlie  Veda,  which  is  properly  but  one, 
into  many  portions  :  observing  the  limited  perseverance,  energy, 
and  application  of  mortals,  he  makes  the  Veda  fourfold,  to  adapt 
it  to  their  caijacities  ;  and  the  bodily  form  which  he  assumes  iu 
order  to  effect  that  classification,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Veda- 
vyasa." —  VisJmu  Furhna. 

Veddah — A  wild  semi-savage  race,  residing  in  the  interior  of 
Ceylon.  21ie  forest  Veddahs  dwell  in  hollow  trees  or  caves, 
subsist  on  game  which  they  kill  with  rudely  formed  bows  and 
arrows,  wandering  from  jungle  to  jungle,  as  the  game  becomes 
scarce.  They  will  not  hold  the  slightest  intercourse  with  any 
natives  but  those  of  their  own  tribe,  and  their  language  is  said  to 
be  unintelligible  to  all  others.  The  village  Veddahs  dwell  in 
certain  districts,  hold  but  slight  intercourse  with  the  other  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island,  will  not  intermarry  nor  mix  with  them.  They 
can  make  themselves  understood  to  the  Singhalese.  Their  sole 
clothing  is  a  strip  of  cloth  which  hangs  down  in  front,  and  is 
fastened  by  a  coir  cord,  which  passes  round  their  loins.  Their 
hair,  beards  and  whiskers  are  never  shorn  or  cleansed,  but  hang 
down  in  matted  masses.  The  forest  Veddahs  arc  dexterous 
liunters,  and  especially  skilful  in  snaring  the  wild  elephants.  The 
two  tribes  do  not  intermarry,  as  they  mutually  distrust  each  other. 
The  Veddahs  generally  deposit  their  dead  in  the  jungle  to  be 
devoured  by  wild  animals.  They  seem  to  worship  the  planets  ? 
evil  spirits,  and  spirits  of  their  deceased  ancestors.  They  have 
their  own  headmen  whom  they  elect  and  obey.  They  use  bows 
and  arrows  and  clubs  of  iron  wood. —  Sirr's  Ceijloii,  Vol.  II,  p. 
216.  They  occupy  a  district  about  90  miles  long  and  45  broad  in 
the  south  eastern  side  of  Ceylon,  lying  between  the  sea  and  the 
base  of  the  Badulla  and  Oovah  hills.  They  are  a  remnant  of  the 
Yakkos,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  who,  2000  years 
ago,  after  the  conquest  of  the  island  by  Wijayo  and  his  followers, 
returned  into  the  wilds  as  the  Kulis  in  Guzerat,  the  Bhils  iu 
Malwa,  the  Putu  in  Cuttack,  the  Konds  iu  Gondwana,  and  the 
Bedas   in   Mysore,  retired  before  conquerors.      The  Bisadae,  or 

89 


706  VED— VEN 


1 


Besadae,  which  in  mediosval  Greek  is  called  Vesadae,  are  alluded 
to  in  the  tract  of  Palladius  de  Moribus  Brachmauorum,  written 
about  A.  D.  400,  and  the  same  name  is  applied  by  Ptolemy  to  a 
similar  race  inhabiting  northern  India.  A  forest  tribe  of  Mysore, 
known  by  the  name  of  Vedas  or  Redas,  formed  part  of  the  army  of 
Tippu  Sahib.  The  Veddahs  live  by  hunting  and  use  the  bow,  in 
drawing  which  they  employ  their  hands  and  their  feet.  They  are 
omniverous,  and  eat  carrion  and  vermin,  roots,  grain,  fruit,  birds, 
bats,  crows,  owls,  kites,  but  refuse  the  bear,  elephant  and  buffalo. 
Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  Singhalese,  free  from  Sanskrit  or 
Pali,  but  the  vocabulary  is  very  limited  and  they  have  recourse  to 
gestures  and  signs.  They  have  no  knowledge  of  God,  nor  of  a 
future  state,  and  have  no  temples,  idols,  altars,  prayers  or  charms, 
but  have  a  devil  worship.  They  do  not  bury  but  cover  their  dead 
with  leaves  in  the  jungle.  They  are  regarded  by  the  Singhalese 
as  of  high  descent. — Sii-  J.  E,  Tennant. 

Vedha — A  measure  of  time  ;  100  Trutis. 

Vedhaka — One  of  the  Narakas  ;  that  for  the  makers  of  arrows. 

Vegavat — An  ancient  prince  of  the  solar  race  ;  the  son  of 
Bandhumat. 

Vela — The  daughter  of  Meru  and  wife  of  Samudra. 

Vena — A  Chakkra-vartti,  or  universal  emperor  ;  the  son  of 
Auga  or  Tunga.  When  he  was  inaugurated  by  the  Rishis  monarch 
of  the  earth  he  caused  it  to  be  everywhere  proclaimed  that  no 
worship  should  be  performed,  no  oblations  offered,  no  gifts  bestowed 
upon  the  Brahmaus.  "  I,  the  king  '  said  he'  I  am  the  lord  of 
sacrifice  ;  for  w^ho  but  I,  am  entitled  to  the  oblations."  The  Rishis 
remonstrated  without  effect  ;  and  then  says  the  Vishnu  Purana, 
"  these  pious  Munis  were  filled  with  wrath,  and  said  let  this  wicked 
wretch  be  slain  :  and  they  fell  upon  the  king,  and  beat  him  with 
blades  of  holy  grass,  consecrated  by  prayer,  and  slew  him  who  had 
first  been  destroyed  by  his  impiety  toward  God," 

According  to  the  Padma  Purana,  Vena  commenced  his  reign 
auspiciously,  but  lapsing  into  the  Jain  heresy,  the  sages  deposed 
him,  and  pummelled  him  until  the  Nishada,  or  progenitor  of  the 
wild  races,  was  extracted  from  his  left  thigh,  and  Prithu  from  his 


VEN— VIB  707 


right  arm.  Being  freed  from  sin  by  the  birth  of  the  Nishida, 
Vena  retired  to  the  banks  of  the  Narmada,  where  he  performed 
penance  in  honour  of  Vishnu,  who  appeared  to  him  and  read  him 
a  lecture  on  the  merit  of  gifts  of  various  kinds,  especially  at 
different  holy  places  or  Tirthas.  After  this  Vishnu  desired  Vena 
to  demand  a  boon,  and  he  solicited  that  he  might  be  incorporated 
with  the  deity  ;  Vishnu  told  him  first  to  celebrate  an  Aswamedha, 
after  which  the  king  should  become  one  with  himself,  and  he  then 
disappeared.  Prithu  enabled  his  father  Vena  to  consummate  the 
sacrifice  by  which  he  was  united  to  Vishnu,  and  this  incident  is 
said  to  illustrate  the  efficacy  of  a  sou  considered  as  a  Tirtha. — 
Wilson's  Works,  III,  38. 

Venu — A  Yiidava  prince,  the  son  of  Satajit. 

Vibhishana — The  younger  brother  of  the  giant  Ravana  ;  when 
he  and  his  brothers  had  practised  rigid  austerities  for  a  long  series 
of  years,  Brahma  appeared  to  offer  them  boons  :  Vibhishana  asked 
that  he  might  never  meditate  any  unrighteousness.  When  his 
elder  brother  Vaisravana  (Kuvera)  was  expelled  from  Lanka, 
Vibhishana  followed  him  to  Gandhamadana,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  dwelt  with  a  white  umbrella  and  white  garlands,  on  the 
Svebaparvata  or  white  mountain,  attended  by  his  four  counsellors, 
and  apart  from  his  disreputable  brothers  Kumbhakarna,  &c.,  who, 
naked,  with  dishevelled  hair  and  red  garhmds,  frequented  the  south. 

When  Hanuman  was  taken  before  Ravana,  and  announced 
himself  as  the  ambassador  of  Sugriva,  warning  the  ravisher  of 
Sita  that  nothing  could  save  him  from  the  vengeance  of  Rama, 
Ravana,  infuriated,  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death  ;  but  Vibhi- 
shana reminded  his  brother  that  the  life  of  ambassadors  was  sacred. 
On  another  occasion,  after  a  long  altercation,  Ravana  was  so 
enraged  with  Vibhishana  for  persisting  in  urgiug  the  restoration 
of  Sita,  that  he  rose  in  a  fury  and  kicked  him  from  his  seat. 
Smarting  under  this  outrage,  Vibhishana  left  Lanka  and  flew 
through  the  air  to  Kailasa  to  the  court  of  his  brother  Kuvera, 
where  Siva  also  at  that  time  happened  to  be  present.  The  latter 
made  known  to  Vibhishana  the  divine  character  of  Rama,  and 
directed  him  to  desert  Ravana  and  join  Rama's   standard,  which 


708  VIB— VID 


Vibhishana  accordingly  did.  He  was  at  first  taken  for  a  spy,  but 
afterwards  Rama  accepted  hira  as  an  ally  and  embraced  him.  On 
the  death  of  Ravana,  Vibhishana  was  installed  as  Raja  of  Lanka  ; 
he  afterwards  accompanied  Rama  and  Lakshmana  to  Ayodhya. — 
I.  E.  P.,  80-83. 

Vibhratra — A  king  of  Hastiuapura,  the  son  of  Sukriti. 

Vibhu — 1,  The  In(\ra  of  the  fifth  Manwantara  ;  2,  A  prince, 
the  grandson  of  Alarka. 

Vibudha— A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Krita. 

Vichitra-virya — A  prince,  the  son  of  Santanu,  raja  of  Hastina- 
pur  :  "  he  married  Amba  and  Ambalika,  the  daughter  of  the  raja 
of  Kasi  ;  and  indulging  too  freely  in  connubial  rites,  fell  into  a 
consumption  of  which  he  died.  (Vishnu  Purana.)  See  Santanu. 
The  legend  as  related  in  the  Mahdbharata  is  slightly  different. 
Vichitravirya's  half  brother  Bhishma  is  there  said  to  have  gone  to 
Kasi  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  the  Raja's  daughters,  and  finding 
them  very  beautiful  he  did  not  wait  for  the  day  of  the  Swayamvara, 
but  seizing  the  three  damsels,  placed  them  in  his  own  chariot,  and 
challenged  every  Raja  present  to  do  him  battle.  Thus  did  Bhishma 
win  the  daughters  of  the  Raja  of  Kasi  and  carry  them  away  in 
triumph  to  the  city  of  Hastinapur,  that  they  might  become  the 
wives  of  Vichitra-virya.  The  widows  of  Vichitra-virya  were 
afterwards  the  mothers  of  Dhritarashtra  and  Pandu. — [Vidura.] 

Vidarbha — l,  The  only  son  of  Jyamagha  and  Saivya  ;  he  was 
married  to  the  damsel  the  father  had  brought  home  before  his  birth. 
See  Jyamagha  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  city,  the  modern  Berar. 

Vidhatri — A  son  of  the  demi-god  Ehrigu,  married  to  Niryati. 

Vidmisara— A  king  of  Magadha,  the  son  of  Kshatranjas. 

Vidura— The  brother  of  Dhritarashtra  and  Pandu.  "  Soma, 
the  moon,  the  progenitor  of  the  lunar  race,  who  reigned  at 
Hastinapur,  was  the  child  of  the  Rishi  Atri,  and  father  of  Budha, 
who  married  Ila,  or  Ida,  daughter  of  the  solar  jiriuce  Ikshvaku, 
and  had  by  her  a  son  Aila  or  Pururavas.  The  latter  had  a  son  by 
Urvasi  named  Ayus,  from  whom  came  Nahusha,  the  father  of 
Yayati.     The   latter  had  two  sons,  Puru  and   Yadu,  from  whom 


VID  709 

proceeded  the  two  branches  of  the  lunar  line.  In  the  line  of  Yadu 
we  need  only  mention  the  last  three  princes,  Sura,  Vasudeva,  and 
Krishna,  with  his  brother  Balarama.  Fifteenth  in  the  other  line — 
that  of  Puru — came  Dushyanta,  father  of  the  great  Bharata. 
Ninth  from  Bharata  came  Kuru,  and  fourteenth  from  him  Santanu, 
this  Siiutanu  had  by  his  wife  Satyavati,  a  son  named  Vichitra-virya. 
Bhishma  who  renounced  the  right  of  succession  and  took  the  vow 
of  perpetual  celibacy,  was  the  son  of  Santanu  by  a  former  wife,  the 
goddess  Ganga,  whence  one  of  his  names  is  Gaugeya.  Satyavati 
also  had,  before  her  marriage  with  Santanu,  borne  Vyasa  to  the 
sage  Parasara  ;  so  that  Vichitra-virya,  Bhishma  and  Vyasa  were 
half-brothers  :  and  Vyasa,  though  he  retired  into  the  wilderness  to 
live  a  life  of  contemplation,  promised  his  mother  that  he  would 
place  himself  at  her  disposal  whenever  she  required  his  services, 
Satyavati  had  recourse  to  him  when  her  son  Vichtra-virya  died 
childless,  and  requested  him  to  pay  his  addresses  to  Vichitra-virya's 
two  widows,  named  Ambikii  and  Ambaliku.  He  consented,  and 
had  by  them  respectively  two  children,  Dhritarashtra  who  was 
born  blind,  and  Pandu,  who  was  born  with  a  pale  complexion. 
When  Satavati  begged  Vyasa  to  become  the  father  of  a  third  sou 
(who  should  be  without  any  defect)  the  elder  wife,  terrified  by 
Vyasa's  austere  appearance,  sent  him  one  of  her  slave  girls,  dressed 
in  her  own  clothes  ;  and  this  girl  was  the  mother  of  Vidura. 
Vyasa  was  so  much  pleased  with  this  slave-girl  that  he  pronounced 
her  free,  and  declared  that  her  child  Vidura  should  be  eminently 
wise  and  good. 

Dhritarashtra,  Pandu  and  Vidura,  were  thus  brothers,  the  sous 
of  Vyasa,  the  supposed  author  or  compiler  of  the  Mahabharata. 
"  Vidura  is  one  of  the  best  characters  in  the  Mahabharata,  always 
ready  with  good  advice  both  for  the  Pandavas  and  for  his  brother 
Dhritarashtra.  His  disposition  leads  him  always  to  take  the  part 
of  the  Pandu  princes,  and  warn  them  of  the  evil  designs  of  their 
cousins."  Bhishma  promoted  the  marriage  of  Vidura  with  a 
beautiful  slave  girl  belonging  to  king  Devaka.     /.  E.  P, 

Viduratha— 1,  A  prince  ;  the  son  of  Bhajamana  and  father  of 
Siira  ;  2,  The  son  of  Suratha,  a  descendant  of  Kuru. 


710  VIH— VIK 


Vihanghamas — A  class  of  deities  of  the  eleventh  Manwantara^ 

Vijaya — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Chunchu  ;  2,  A  king  of 
Mithila,  the  son  of  Jaya  ;  3,  The  son  of  Sanjaya,  of  the  race  of 
Ayus  ;  4,  A  son  of  Jayadratha  ;  5,  One  of  the  Andhra  princes. 

Vijaya — A  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Daksha,  married  to 
Kriaswa. 

Vijitaswa — The  eldest  son  of  Prithu,  called  also  Antarddhana, 
in  consequence  of  having  obtained  from  Indra  the  power  of  making 
himself  invisible. 

Vikala — A  measure  of  time,  six  Pranas. 

Vikesi — The  wife  of  the  Rudra  Sarva. 

Vikranta~One  of  the  Prajapatis. 

Vikramaditya — A  celebrated  Hindu  king  of  Malwa,  whose 
reign  began  fifty-six  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  ancient 
city  of  Ujein  was  his  capital.  Vikramaditya  had  no  estate  assigned 
him  by  his  father,  and  lived  for  a  considerable  time  with  his 
illegitimate  brother  Bhurtri  at  Ujein,  of  which  Bhurtri  was 
governor.  A  quarrel  having  occurred  between  the  brothers 
Vikramaditya  left  Ujein  and  travelled  in  great  poverty  over 
Guzerat  and  other  parts  of  India.  On  his  return  to  Malwa  he 
found  that  his  brother  had  resigned  all  Avorldly  concerns  and 
become  a  religious  mendicant  ;  he  therefore  assumed  charge  of  the 
province,  and  from  that  period  commenced  a  career  which  led  to 
the  establishment  of  his  power  over  the  greatest  part  of  India. 
He  is  said  to  have  restored  the  Hindu  monarchy  to  that  splendour 
which  it  had  lost  through  a  succession  of  weak  sovereigns,  w^hose 
character  had  encouraged  the  governors  of  distant  provinces  to 
rebel,  and  to  form  the  territories  committed  to  their  charge  into 
independent  states.* 

Vikramaditya  is  described  as  the  greatest  monarch  of  his  age,  of 
which  there  is  the  most  satisfactory  proof  in  the  fact  that  his  era 
is  still  current  throughout  Hindustan.  He  encouraged  literature 
beyond  all  former  example.  He  invited  learned  brahmans  from 
every  part  of  India,  and  rewarded  them  with  magnificent  presents  ; 

*  Malcolm's  Memoir  of  Central  India,  I,  24. 


VIK  711 

and  they  have  repaid  him  by  investing  him  with  immortality. 
They  have  exhausted  the  resources  of  flattery  in  their  attempt  to 
describe  the  magnitude  of  his  power,  and  have  assured  us  that 
without  his  permission  the  loadstone  had  no  power  over  iron,  or 
amber  on  the  chaff  of  the  field.  So  exemplary  was  his  temperance, 
that  while  in  the  enjoyment  of  supreme  power,  he  constantly  slept 
on  a  mat,  which,  with  a  water-pot  replenished  from  the  spring, 
formed  the  whole  furniture  of  his  chamber.  It  is  stated  that  while 
he  extended  his  patronage  to  the  worship  of  the  gods  and  goddesses 
then  rising  into  popularity,  he  himself  continued  to  profess  the  old 
creed,  and  adored  the  one  infinite  and  invisible  God.* 

For  the  legend  of  Vikramaditya's  birth,  see  the  article  Sexa  in 
the  Appendix. 

Vikriti— A  king  of  Chedi,  the  sou  of  Jimiita. 

Vikukshi— One  of  the  hundred  sons  of  Ikshvaku  :  The  V.  P. 
has  the  following  legend  of  this  prince  :— On  one  of  the  days  of 
Ashtaka,  Ikshvaku  being  desirous  of  celebrating  ancestral  obsequies, 
ordered  Vikukshi  to  bring  him  flesh  suitable  for  the  offering.  The 
prince  accordingly  went  into  the  forest  and  killed  many  deer  and 
other  wild  animals  for  the  celebration.  Being  weary  with  the 
chase  and  hungry,  he  sat  down  and  ate  a  hare  ;  after  which  being 
refreshed,  he  carried  the  rest  of  the  game  to  his  father.  Vasishtha, 
the  family  priest,  w^as  summoned  to  consecrate  the  food  ;  but  he 
declared  that  it  was  impure  in  consequence  of  Vikukshi's  having 
eaten  a  hare  from  amongst  it,  (making  it  thus,  as  it  were,  the 
residue  of  his  meal.)  Vikukshi  was  therefore  abandoned  by  his 
offended  father,  and  the  epithet  Sasdda,  hare-eater,  was  affixed  to 
him  by  the  Guru.  But  on  the  death  of  Ikshvaku,  the  sovereignty 
of  Ayodhya  descended  to  Vikukshi.  The  Matsya  Purana  says 
that  Indra  was  born  as  Vikukshi,  and  that  Ikshvaku  had  a 
hundred  and  fourteen  other  sons  who  were  kings  of  the  countries 
south  of  Meru  ;  and  as  many  who  reigned  north  of  that  mountain. 
Wilson  says  that  it  seems  very  probable  that  by  these  sons  of 
Ikshvaku  we  are  to  understand  colonies  or  settlers  in  various 
parts  of  India. 

♦Marshman's  History  of  India,  I,  20, 


712  VIL— VIP 


Viloman — A  Yadava  chief,  the  sou  of  Kapotaroman. 

Vimada  — 1,  A  Rishi  mentioned  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  on  very 
friendly  terms  with  Indra  ;  2,  A  young  prince  to  whom  the  Asvius 
brouo-ht  in  a  car  a  bride  named  Kamadyu,  who  seems  to  have  been 
the  beautiful  wife  of  Purumitra.— 0.  S.  T.,  V.,  244. 

Vimala— One  of  the  sons  of  Sudyumna  after  his  transformation. 

Vimohana— One  of  the  Narakas  ;  the  place  of  bewildering  ; 
for  the  punishment  of  the  thief  and  the  contemner  of  prescribed 
observances. 

Vinata — A  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  was  married  to  Kasyapa 
and  became  the  mother  of  Garuda  and  Aruna.  The  Vayu  adds 
the  metres  of  the  Vedas  as  the  daughters  of  Vinata. 

Vinaya — Good  behaviour  ;  a  son  of  Dharma  by  Lajja,  modesty, 
daughter  of  Daksha,  obviously  allegorical. 

Vinda — One  of  the  sons  of  Jayasena,  king  of  Avanti. 
Vindhya — The  chain  of  mountains  that  stretches  across  Central 
India  ;  in  the  Purauas  it  is  often  restricted  to  the  Sathpura  range. 

Vindhyasakti — The  chief  of  the  Kailakila  Yavana  kings  ;  a 
warrior  of  a  mixed  race,  sprung  from  a  Brahman  father  and  a 
Kshatriya  mother.  Kailakila  was  a  city  in  the  Mahratta  country. 
Wilson  is  of  opinion  that  the  Purauas  refer  to  a  time  when  the 
Greek  princes,  or  their  Indo-Scythic  successors,  following  the 
course  of  the  Indus,  spread  to  the  upper  part  of  the  western  coast 
of  the  peninsula. 

Vindhya- Vasini — An  ancient  and  still  celebrated  shrine  of 
Durga,  a  short  distance  from  Mirzapur. 

Vindumati — The  wife  of  the  Raja  Mandhatri. 

Vindusara— The  son  and  successor  of  Chandragupta. 

Vinita— One  of  the  sons  of  the  sage  Pulastya. 

Vipaschit — The  Indra  of  the  second  Manwantara. 

Vipra— 1,  One  of  the  sons  of  Dhruva  ;  2,  A  king  of  Magadha, 
the  son  of  Srutanjaya. 


VIP— VIR  713 


Viprachitti — The  king  of  the  Danavas,  he  was  the  sou  of 
Kasyapa  and  Danu,  aud  the  hero  of  many  legends.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  in  the  contest  between  the  gods  and  demons  that  took 
place  after  the  churnhig  of  the  ocean. 

Vipritha — A  prhice  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of  Chitrika. 
Vipula— A  mountain  in  Ilavrita,   forming  the  western  buttress 
to  Meru. 

Virabhadra— A  formidable  being  created  from  the  mouth  of 


Siva,   for  the   purpose  of  spoiling  the  sacrifice  of  Daksha.     He  i 


IS 


thus  described  in  the  Vayu  Parana. 

"  A  divine  being,  with  a  thousand  heads,  a  thousand  eyes,  a 
thousand  feet  ;  wielding  a  thousand  clubs,  a  thousand  shafts  ; 
holding  the  shell,  the  discus,  the  mace,  and  bearing  a  blazing  bow 
and  battle-axe  ;  fierce  and  terrific,  shining  with  dreadful  splendour, 
aud  decorated  with  the  crescent  moon  ;  clothed  in  a  tiger's  skin 
dripping  with  blood,  having  a  capacious  stomach,  and  a  vast  mouth 
armed  with  formidable  tusks.  His  ears  were  erect  ;  his  lips  were 
pendulous  ;  his  tongue  was  lightning  ;  his  hand  brandished  the 
thunderbolt  ;  flames  streamed  from  his  hair  ;  a  necklace  of  pearls 
wound  round  his  neck  ;  a  garland  of  flame  descended  on  his  breast. 
Radiant  with  lustre,  he  looked  like  the  final  fire  that  consumes  the 
w^orld.  Four  tremendous  tusks  projected  from  a  mouth  which 
extended  from  ear  to  ear.  He  was  of  vast  bulk,  vast  strength,  a 
mighty  male  aud  lord,  the  destroyer  of  the  universe,  and  like  a 
large  fig-tree  in  circumference  ;  shining  like  a  hundred  moons  at 
once  ;  fierce  as  the  fire  of  love  ;  having  four  heads,  sharp  white 
teeth,  and  of  mighty  fierceness,  vigour,  activity,  and  courage  ; 
glowing  with  the  blaze  of  a  thousand  fiery  suns  at  the  end  of  the 
world  ;  like  a  thousand  undimmed  moons  ;  in  bulk,  like  Himadri, 
Kailasa,  or  Sumeru,  or  Mandara,  with  all  its  gleaming  herbs  ; 
bright  as  the  sun  of  destruction  at  the  end  of  ages  ;  of  irresistible 
prowess  and  beautiful  aspect  ;  irascible,  with  lowering  eyes,  and 
a  countenance  burning  like  fire  ;  clothed  in  the  hide  of  the  elephant 
and  lion,  and  girt  round  with  snakes  ;  wearing  a  turban  on  his 
head,  a  moon  on  his  brow  ;  sometimes  savage,  sometimes  mild  ; 
having  a   chaplet   of  many   flowers   on   his   head,   anointed   with 

90 


714  VIR 

various  unguents,  adorned  with  different  ornaments  and  many  sorts 
of  jewels,  wearing  a  garland  of  heavenly  Karnikara  flowers,  and 
rolling  his  eyes  with  rage.  Sometimes  he  danced  ;  sometimes  he 
laughed  aloud  ;  sometimes  he  stood  wrapt  in  meditation  ;  some- 
times he  trampled  upon  the  earth  ;  sometimes  he  sang  ;  sometimes 
he  wept  repeatedly.  And  he  was  endowed  with  the  faculties  of 
wisdom,  dispassion,  power,  penance,  truth,  endurance,  fortitude, 
dominion,  and  self-knowledge." 

Viraj — A  person  of  a  mythical  or  mystical  character.  Manu 
says  "  Having  divided  his  own  substance,  the  mighty  power  of 
Brahma  became  half  male,  half  female  :  and  from  that  female  he 
produced  Viraj.  Know  me  to  be  that  person  whom  the  male 
Viraj  produced  by  himself."  The  Linga  and  Vayu  Purana  describe 
the  origin  of  Viraj  and  Satarupa  from  Brahma  ;  in  the  first 
instance,  and  in  the  second,  with  Manu,  who  is  termed  Vairaja,  is 
the  son  of  Viraj.  It  is  also  explained  allegorically  ;  Viraj  being 
all  male  animals,  Satarupa  all  female  animals. 

Viraja — One  of  the  Rajas  of  India  in  the  Swayambhuva  or  first 
Manwantara  :  he  was  the  son  of  Tvashtri. 

Virajas — l,  A  son  of  the  sage  Paumaraasa  ;  2,  A  sou  of  the 
sage  Vasishtha. 

Virana — l,  A  sage,  the  father  of  Virani  and  Asikni  ;  2,  A 
teacher  of  the  White  Yajush. 

Virani — The  daughter  of  the  above,  and  mother  of  the  Manu 
Chakshusa. 

Virat — 1,  One  of  the  Rajas  of  India  in  the  first  Manwantara  j 
the  son  of  Nara  ;  2,  The  material  universe — Brahmanda. 

Virata— The  fourth  book  of  the  Mahabharata  is  called  Virdta- 
Parva,  as  it  recounts  the  adventures  of  the  Pandavas,  when,  being 
obliged  to  live  incognito,  they  journeyed  to  the  court  of  king 
Virata,  and  entered  his  service  in  various  disguises.  Virata's 
capital  was  called  Matsya,  (or  sometimes  Upaplavya.)  There, 
four  months  after  the  arrival  of  the  Pandavas,  a  great  festival  was 
held,  at  which  a  number  of  wrestlers  exhibited  their  prowess. 
Bhima  then  astonished  Virata  by  dashing  to  the  ground  and  killing 
the  strongest  of  the  wrestlers  named  Jirauta, 


VIR— VIS  715 


When  Susarman,  king  of  Trigarta,  made  a  raid  into  Virata's 
territory  for  the  sake  of  })1  under  and  carried  off  his  cattle,  Virata, 
accompanied  by  all  the  Pundavas  except  Arjuna,  invaded  Trigarta 
to  recover  the  property.  A  great  battle  was  fought  and  Virata 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Susarman.  Bhima,  as  usual,  tore  up  a  tree 
and  prepared  to  rescue  him  ;  but  Yudhishthira  advised  him  not  to 
display  his  strength  too  conspicuously,  lest  he  should  be  recognised. 
He  then  took  a  bow,  pursued  Susarman,  defeated  him,  released 
Virata,  and  recovered  the  cattle. 

Virochana — A  Daitya,  the  sou  of  Prahlada. 

Viruddhas — A  class  of  deities  in  the  tenth  Manwautara. 

Virupa — An  ancient  raja  who  reigned  somewhere  on  the  banks 
of  the  Yamuna,  he  was  the  son  of  Ambarisha. 

Virupaksha— One  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Visakha — A  sage,  one  of  the  sons  of  Kumara. 

Visakha — A  lunar  mansion  in  Jaradghavi,  in  the  Central 
Avashthana. 

Visakhayupa  —  A  king  of  Magadha,  the  sou  of  Palaka. 

Visala — The  founder  and  king  of  the  city  of  Vaisali  ;  he  was 
the  son  of  Trinaviuda,  by  the  celestial  nymph  Alambusha. 

Visasana — One  of  the  Narakas,  for  the  punishment  of  the 
maker  of  swords,  lances  and  other  weapons. 

Visoka— One  of  the  eight  original  properties  or  perfections  of 
man,  called  Siddhis  ;  it  means  exemption  alike  from  infirmity  or 
grief. 

Visravas — The  son  of  the  great  eage  Pulastya,  and  father  of 
Kuvera,  the  deity  of  wealth. 

Visrutavat — A  distinguished  prince  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku  ; 
he  was  the  son  of  Mahaswat  ;  and  took  paj-t  in  the  great  war. 

Vishnapu — In  the  legends  regarding  various  persons  delivered 
or  favoured  by  the  Asvins,  it  is  said  "  they  restored  Vishnapu, 
like  a  lost  animal,  to  the  sight  of  Visvaka,   !?ou  of  Krishna,  their 


716  VIS 

■worshipper.     The  names  both  of  Visvaka  and  Vishnapu  occur 
iu  the  Rig  Veda."— 0.  S.  T.,  V.,  p.  244. 

Vishnu — The  second  person  of  the  mythological  Hindu  triad, 
and  now  the  most  celebrated  and  popular  of  all  the  gods  of  India. 
But  it  appears  from  the  Rig- Veda  that  Indra  at  that  time  was 
regarded  as  superior  to  Vishnu,  who  is  there  classed  with  Varuna, 
the  Maruts,  Rudra,  Vayu,  the  luminous  deities  called  Adityas,  and, 
others.  *'  There  is  no  trace  of  Vishnu,  or  anything  relating  to  him 
in  the  Institutes  of  Manu,  although  the  allusions  to  idolaters  and 
the  worship  of  inferior  gods  might  possibly  have  some  reference  to 
him  also."  "  In  the  Mahabharata,  Vishnu  is  often  identified  with 
the  supreme  spirit  ;  but  while  in  some  portions  of  this  poem — the 
different  parts  of  which  belong  to  different  epochs  of  Hindu 
antiquity — he  is  thus  regarded  as  the  most  exalted  deity  ;  he  is 
again,  in  others,  represented  as  paying  homage  to  Siva  (q.  v.),  the 
third  person  of  the  Trimurti,  and  as  acknowledging  the  superiority 
of  this  god  over  himself.  Taking,  therefore,  the  Mahabharata  as 
a  whole,  he  does  not  occupy,  in  this  epos,  the  exclusive  supremacy 
which  is  assigned  to  him  in  the  Ramayana,  and  still  more  in  those 
Puranas  especially  devoted  to  his  praise. 

"  The  large  circle  of  myths  relating  to  Vishnu,  in  the  epic  poems 
and  Puranas,  is  distinguished  by  a  feature  which,  though  not  quite 
absent  from  theraythological  history  of  Siva,  especially  characterises 
that  of  Vishnu.  It  arose  from  the  idea,  that  whenever  a  great 
disorder,  physical  or  moral,  disturbed  the  world,  Vishnu  descended 
'  iu  a  small  portion  of  his  essence'  to  set  it  right,  to  restore  the 
law,  and  thus  to  preserve  creation.  Such  descents  of  the  god  are 
called  his  Avatdras  (from  ava  and  tri,  descend)  ;  and  they 
consist  iu  Vishnu's  being  supposed  to  have  either  assumed  the  form 
of  some  wonderful  animal  or  superhuman  being,  or  to  have  been 
born  of  human  parents,  in  a  human  form,  always,  of  course, 
possessed  of  miraculous  properties.  Some  of  these  Avataras  are 
of  an  entirely  cosraical  character  ;  others,  however,  are  probably 
based  on  historical  events,  the  leading  personage  of  which  was 
gradually  endowed  with  divine  attributes,  until  he  was  regarded  as 
the  incarnation  of  the  deity  itself.     With  the  exception  of  the  last, 


I 


VIS  717 

all  these  Avataras  belong  to  the  past  ;  the  last,  however,  is  yet  to 
come."* 

"His  ten  avataras  are:  '  1,  The  Matsya,  or  fish.  In  this 
avatar,  Vishnu  descendetl  in  the  form  of  a  fish  to  save  the  pious  king 
Satyavrata,  who  with  the  seven  Rishis  and  their  wives  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  ark  to  escape  the  deluge  which  then  destroyed  the 
earth  ;  2,  The  Kurma,  or  Tortoise.  In  this  he  descended  in  the 
form  of  a  tortoise,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  to  man  some  of  the 
comforts  lost  during  the  flood.  To  this  end  he  stationed  himself 
at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  allowed  the  point  of  the  great 
mountain  Mandara  to  be  placed  upon  his  back,  which  served  as  a 
hard  axis,  whereon  the  gods  and  demons,  with  the  serpent  Vasuki 
twisted  round  the  mountain  for  a  rope,  churned  the  waters  for  the 
recovery  of  the  amrita  or  nectar,  and  fourteen  other  sacred  things  ; 

3,  The  Varaha,  or  Boar.  In  this  he  descended  in  the  form  of  a  boar 
to  rescue  the  earth  from  the  power  of  a  demon  called  '  golden-eyed,' 
Hiranyaksha.  This  demon  had  seized  on  the  earth  and  carried  it 
with  him  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  Vishnu  dived  into  the 
abyss,  and  after  a  contest  of  a  thousand  years  slew  the  monster  ; 

4,  The  Narasinha,  or  Man-lion.  In  this  monstrous  shape  of  a 
creature  half-man,  half-lion,  Vishnu  delivered  the  earth  from  the 
tyranny  of  an  insolent  demon  called  Hiranyakasipu  ;  5,  Vamana,  or 
Dwarf.  This  avatar  happened  in  the  second  age  of  the  Hindus  or 
Tretayug,  the  four  preceding  are  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  first 
or  Satyayug  ;  the  object  of  this  avatar  was  to  trick  Bali  out  of  the 
dominion  of  the  three  worlds.  Assuming  the  form  of  a  wretched 
dwarf  he  appeared  before  the  king  and  asked,  as  a  boon,  as  much 
land  as  he  could  pace  in  three  steps.  This  was  granted  ;  and 
Vishnu  immediately  expanding  liimself  till  he  filled  the  world, 
deprived  Bali  at  two  steps  of  heaven  and  earth,  but  in  consideration 
of  some  merit,  left  Patala  still  in  his  dominion  ;  6,  Parasurama  ; 
7,  Ramachandra  ;  8,  Krishna,  or  according  to  some  Balarama  ;  9, 
Buddha.  In  this  avatar,  Vishnu  descended  in  the  form  of  a  sage 
for  the  purpose  of  making  some  reform  in  the  religion  of  the 
Brahmans,  and  especially  to  reclaim  them  from  their  proueness  to 

*  Chambers'  Encyclopaedia, 


718  VIS 

animal  sacrifice.  Many  of  the  Hindus  will  not  allow  this  to  have 
been  an  incarnation  of  their  favourite  god  ;  10,  Kalki,  or  White 
Horse.  This  is  yet  to  come.  Vishnu  mounted  on  a  white  horse, 
with  a  drawn  scimitar,  blazing  like  a  comet,  will,  according  to 
prophecy,  end  this  present  age,  viz.,  the  fourth  or  Kaliyug,  by 
destroying  the  world,  and  then  renovating  creation  by  an  age 
of  purity."* 

"  This  number  and  enumeration  of  Avataras,  however,  was  not 
at  all  times  the  same.  The  Mahabharata,  though  also  mentioning 
ten,  names  successively  the  Hansa-,  tortoise-,  fish-,  boar-,  man-lion-, 
dwarf-,  Parasu-Rama-,  Kama-,  Satvata-,  and  Kalk in- Avataras. 
The  Bhagavata-Purana  speaks  of  twenty-two  Avataras  of  Vishnu, 
which,  for  instance,  also  comprise  Prithu,  (q.  v.),  Dhanvantari, 
the  god  of  medicine  ;  and  Kapila,  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
Saukhya  (q.  v.)  philosophy.  Other  works  have  twenty-four  Ava- 
taras, or  even  call  them  numberless  ;  but  the  generally-received 
Avataras,  are  those  ten  mentioned  before. "f 

Vishnu-loka— Vaikuntha,  the  lofty  world  of  Vishnu. 

Vishnu-Purana  —  "  The  Yishnu-Purana  most  closely  conforms 
to  the  definition  of  a  Paucha-lakshana  Purana,  or  one  which  treats 
of  five  specified  topics.  It  comprehends  them  all ;  and,  although 
it  has  infused  a  portion  of  extraneous  and  sectarial  matter,  it  has 
done  so  with  sobriety  and  with  judgment,  and  has  not  suffered  the 
fervour  of  its  religious  zeal  to  transport  it  into  very  wide  deviations 
from  the  prescribed  path.  The  legendary  tales  which  it  has 
inserted  are  few,  and  are  conveniently  arranged,  so  that  they  do 
not  distract  the  attention  of  the  compiler  from  objects  of  more 
permanent  interest  and  importance. 

The  first  book  of  the  six,  into  which  the  Avork  is  divided,  is 
occupied  chiefly  with  the  details  of  creation,  primary  (Sarga)  and 
secondary  (Pratisarga)  ;  the  first  explaining  how  the  universe 
proceeds  from  Prakriti  or  eternal  crude  matter  ;  the  second,  in 
what  manner  the  forms  of  things  are  developed  from  the  elementary 
substances  previously  evolved,  or  how  they  re-appear  after  their 

*  Williams'  English  Sanskrit  Dictionary.        f  Chambers'  Encyclopaedia. 


VIS  719 

temporary  destruction.  l>oth  these  cnations  are  periodical ;  hut  the 
termination  of  the  first  occurs  only  at  the  end  of  the  life  of 
Brahm^,  when  not  only  all  the  gods  and  all  other  forms  are 
annihilated,  but  the  elements  are  again  merged  into  primary 
substance,  besides  which,  one  only  spiritual  being  exists.  The 
latter  takes  place  at  the  end  of  every  Kalpa  or  day  of  Brahma,  and 
affects  only  the  forms  of  inferior  creatures,  and  lower  worlds  ; 
leaving  the  substance  of  the  universe  entire,  and  sages  and  gods 
unharmed.  The  explanation  of  these  events  involves  a  description 
of  the  periods  of  time  upon  which  they  depend,  and  which  are, 
accordingly,  detailed.  Their  character  has  been  a  source  of  very 
unnecessary  perplexity  to  European  writers  ;  as  they  belong  to  a 
scheme  of  chronology  wholly  mythological,  having  no  reference 
to  any  real  or  supposed  history  of  the  Hindus,  but  applicable, 
according  to  their  system,  to  the  infinite  and  eternal  revolutions  of 
the  universe.  In  these  notions,  and  in  that  of  the  co-eternity  of 
spirit  and  matter,  the  theogony  and  cosmogony  of  the  Puninas,  as 
they  appear  in  the  Vishnu  Purana,  belong  to  and  illustrate  systems 
of  high  antiquity,  of  which  we  have  only  fragmentary  traces  in  the 
records  of  other  nations. 

The  course  of  the  elementary  creation  is,  in  the  Vishnu,  as  in 
other  Purdnas,  taken  from  the  Sankhya  philosophy  ;  but  the 
agency  that  operates  upon  passive  matter  is  confusedly  exhibited, 
in  consequence  of  a  partial  adoption  of  the  illusory  theory  of  the 
Vedanta  philosophy,  and  the  prevalence  of  the  Pauranik  doctrine 
of  pantheism.  However  incompatible  with  the  independent 
existence  of  Pradhana  or  crude  matter,  and  however  incongruous 
with  the  separate  condition  of  pure  spirit  or  Purusha,  it  is  declared, 
repeatedly,  that  Vishnu,  as  one  with  the  supreme  being,  is  not  only 
spirit,  but  crude  matter,  and  not  only  the  latter,  but  all  visible 
substance,  and  Time.  He  is  Purusha,  'spirit  ;'  Pradhana,  'crude 
matter  ;'  Vyakta,  '  visible  form  ;'  and  Kala,  '  time.'  This  cannot 
but  be  regarded  as  a  departure  from  the  primitive  dogmas  of  the 
Hindus,  in  which  the  distinctness  of  the  Deity  and  his  works  was 
enunciated  ;  in  which,  upon  his  willing  the  world  to  be,  it  was  ; 
and  in  which  his  interposition  in  creation,  held  to  be  inconsistent 
with  the  quiescence  of  perfection,   was  explained  away  by  the 


720  VIS 

persouificatiou  of  attributes  iu  action,  which  afterwards  came  to  be 
considered  as  real  divinities,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  charged, 
severally,  for  a  given  season,  with  the  creation,  preservation,  and 
temporary  annihilation  of  material  forms.  These  divinities  are 
declared  to  be  no  other  than  Vishnu.  In  Saiva  Puranas,  they 
are,  in  like  manner,  identified  with  Siva  ;  the  Puranas  thus 
displaying  and  explaining  the  seeming  incompatibility,  of  which 
there  are  traces  in  other  ancient  mythologies,  between  three 
distinct  hypostases  of  one  superior  deity,  and  the  identification  of 
one  or  other  of  those  hypostases  with  their  common  and  separate 
original. 

After  the  world  has  been  fitted  for  the  reception  of  living 
creatures,  it  is  peopled  by  the  will-engendered  sons  of  Brahma,  the 
Prajapatis  or  patriarchs,  and  their  posterity.  It  would  seem  as  if 
a  primitive  tradition  of  the  descent  of  mankind  from  seven  holy 
personages  had  at  first  prevailed,  but  that,  in  the  course  of  time, 
it  had  been  expanded  into  complicated,  and  not  always  consistent, 
amplification.  How  could  these  Rishis  or  patriarchs  have  poste- 
rity ?  It  was  necessary  to  provide  them  with  wives.  In  order  to 
account  for  their  existence,  the  Manu  Swayambhuva  and  his  wife 
Satarupa  were  added  to  the  scheme  ;  or  Brahma  becomes  twofold, 
male  and  female  ;  and  daughters  are  then  begotten,  who  are 
married  to  the  Prajapatis.  Upon  this  basis  various  legends  of 
Brahma's  double  nature,  some,  no  doubt,  as  old  as  the  Vedas,  have 
been  constructed.  But,  although  they  may  have  been  derived,  in 
some  degree,  from  the  authentic  tradition  of  the  origin  of  mankind 
from  a  single  pair,  yet  the  circumstances  intended  to  give  more 
interest  and  precision  to  the  story  are,  evidently,  of  an  allegorical 
or  mystical  description,  and  conduced,  in  apparently  later  times,  to 
a  coarseness  of  realization  which  was  neither  the  letter  nor  spirit 
of  the  original  legend.  Swayambhuva,  the  son  of  the  self-born  or 
uncreated,  and  his  wife  Satarupa,  the  hundred-formed  or  multi- 
form, are,  themselves,  allegories  ;  and  their  female  descendants, 
who  become  the  wives  of  the  Rishis,  are  Faith,  Devotion,  Content, 
Intelligence,  Tradition,  and  the  like  ;  whilst,  amongst  their 
posterity,  we  have  the  different  phases  of  the  moon  and  the 
sacrificial  fires.     In  another  creation,  the  chief  source  of  creatures 


VIS  721 

is  the  patriarch  Daksha  (ability,)  whose  daughters — Virtues,  or 
Passions,  or  Astronomical  Phenomena — are  the  mothers  of  all 
existiuj^  things.  These  legends,  perplexed  as  they  appear  to  be, 
seem  to  admit  of  allowable  solution,  in  the  conjecture  that  the 
Prajapatis  and  Rishis  were  real  personages,  the  authors  of  the 
Hindu  system  of  social,  moral,  and  religious  obligations,  and  the 
first  observers  of  the  heavens,  and  teachers  of  astronomical  science. 

The  regal  personages  of  the  Swayambhuva  Manwantara  are  but 
few  ;  but  they  are  described,  in  the  outset,  as  governing  the  earth 
in  the  dawn  of  society,  and  as  introducing  agriculture  and  civiliza- 
tion. How  much  of  their  story  rests  upon  a  traditional  remem- 
brance of  their  actions,  it  would  be  useless  to  conjecture  ;  although 
there  is  no  extravagance  in  supposing  that  the  legends  relate  to  a 
period  prior  to  the  full  establishment,  in  India,  of  the  Brahman ical 
institutions.  The  legends  of  Dhruva  and  Prahldda,  which  are 
intermingled  with  these  particulars,  are,  in  all  probability,  ancient  ; 
but  they  are  amplified,  in  a  strain  conformable  to  the  Vaishnava 
purport  of  this  Puraua,  by  doctrines  and  prayers  asserting  the 
identity  of  Vishnu  with  the  Supreme.  It  is  clear  that  the  stories 
do  not  originate  with  this  Purana.  In  that  of  Prahlada,  particu- 
larly, circumstances  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  story  arc 
only  alluded  to,  not  recounted  ;  showing,  indisputably,  the  writer's 
having  availed  himself  of  some  prior  authority  for  his  narration. 

The  second  book  opens  with  a  continuation  of  the  kings  of  the 
first  Manwantara  ;  amongst  whom,  Bharata  is  said  to  have  given 
a  name  to  India,  called,  after  him,  Bharata-varsha.  This  leads  to 
a  detail  of  the  geographical  system  of  the  Puranas,  with  mount 
Meru,  the  seven  circular  continents,  and  their  surrounding  oceans, 
to  the  limits  of  the  world  ;  all  of  which  are  mythological  fictions, 
in  which  there  is  little  reason  to  imagine  that  any  topographical 
truths  are  concealed.  With  regard  to  Bharata  or  India,  the  case 
is  different.  The  mountains  and  rivers  which  are  named  are 
readily  verifiable  ;  and  the  cities  and  nations  that  are  particularized 
may,  also,  in  many  instances,  be  proved  to  have  had  a  real  exist- 
ence. The  list  is  not  a  vciy  long  one,  in  the  Vishnu  Purann,  and 
is,  probably,  abridged  from  some  more  ample  detail,  like  that 
which  the  Mahabharata  affords,  and  which,  in  the  hope  of  supply- 

91 


VIS 


ing  information  with  respect  to  a  subject  yet  imperfectly  investi- 
gated, the  ancient  political  condition  of  India,  I  liave  inserted  and 
elucidated. 

The  description  which  this  book  also  contains  of  the  planetary 
and  other  spheres,  is  equally  mythological,  although  occasionally 
presenting  practical  details  and  notions  in  which  there  is  an 
approach  to  accuracy.  The  concluding  legend  of  Bharata — in  his 
former  life,  the  king  so  named,  but  now  a  Brahman,  who  acquires 
true  wisdom,  and  thereby  attains  liberation — is,  palpably,  an 
invention  of  the  compiler,  and  is  peculiar  to  this  Purana. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Vedas  and  other  writings  considered 
sacred  by  the  Hindus, — being,  in  fact,  the  authorities  of  their 
religious  rites  and  belief, — which  is  described  in  the  beginning  of 
the  third  book,  is  of  much  importance  to  the  history  of  Hindu 
literature  and  of  the  Hindu  religion.  The  sage  Vyasa  is  here 
i-epresented,  not  as  the  author,  but  the  arranger  or  compiler  of  the 
Vedas,  the  Itihasas,  and  Puranas.  His  name  denotes  his  character, 
meaning  tlie  '  arranger'  or  '  distributor  ;'  and  the  recurrence  of 
many  Vyasas,  many  individuals  who  new-modelled  the  Hindu 
scriptures,  has  nothing,  in  it,  that  is  improbable,  except  the 
fabulous  intervals  by  which  their  labours  are  separated.  The 
re-arranging,  the  refashioning,  of  old  materials  is  nothing  more 
than  the  progress  of  time  would  be  likely  to  render  necessary. 
The  last  recognized  compilation  is  that  of  Krishna  Dwaipayana, 
assisted  by  Brahmans  who  were  already  conversant  with  the  sub- 
jects respectively  assigned  to  them.  They  were  the  members  of  a 
college,  or  school,  supposed,  by  the  Hindus,  to  have  flourished  in 
a  period  more  remote,  no  doubt,  than  the  truth,  but  not  at  all 
unlikely  to  have  been  instituted  at  some  time  prior  to  the  accounts 
of  India  which  we  owe  to  Greek  writers,  and  in  which  we  see 
enough  of  the  system  to  justify  our  inferring  that  it  was  then 
entire.  That  there  have  been  other  Vyasas  and  other  schools  since 
that  date,  that  Brahmans  unknown  to  fame  have  remodelled  some 
of  the  Hindu  scriptures,  and  especially,  the  Puranas,  cannot 
reasonably  be  contested,  after  dispassionately  weighing  the  strong 
internal  evidence,  which  all  of  them  afford,  of  the  intermixture  of 
unauthorized   and    comparatively   modern    ingredients.     But  the 


VIS  723 

same  internal  testimony  furnishes  proof,  equally  decisive,  of  the 
anterior  existence  of  ancient  materials  ;  .ind  it  is,  therefore,  as  idle 
as  it  is  irrational,  to  dispute  the  autiquity  or  aulhenticity  of  the 
greater  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  Puranns,  in  the  face  of 
abundant  positive  and  circumstantial  evidence  of  the  prevalence  of 
the  doctrines  which  they  teach,  the  currency  of  the  legends  which 
they  narrate,  and  the  integrity  of  the  institutions  which  they 
describe,  at  least  three  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  But 
the  origin  and  development  of  their  doclrines,  traditions,  and  insti- 
tutions were  not  the  work  of  a  day  ;  and  the  testimony  that 
establishes  their  existence  tlirec  centuries  before  Christianity, 
carries  it  back  to  a  much  more  remote  antiquity,  to  an  antiquity 
that  is,  probably,  not  surpassed  by  any  of  the  prevaihng  lictions, 
institutions,  or  beliefs,  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  remainder  of  the  third  book  describes  the  leading  institu- 
tions of  the  Hindus,  the  duties  of  castes,  the  obligations  of  different 
stages  of  life,  and  the  celebration  of  obsequial  rites,  in  a  short  but 
primitive  strain,  and  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  Manu.  It  is  a 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  Vishnu  Puniua,  and  it  is  characteristic 
of  its  being  the  work  of  an  earlier  period  than  most  of  the  Puranas, 
that  it  enjoins  no  sectarial  or  other  acts  of  supererogation  ;  no 
Vratas,  occasional  self-imposed  observances  ;  no  holydays,  no 
birthdays  of  Krishna,  no  nights  dedicated  to  Lakshmi  ;  no  sacrifices 
or  modes  of  worship  other  than  those  conformable  to  the  ritual  of 
the  Vedas.  It  contains  no  Mahatmyas  or  golden  legends,  oven  of 
the  temples  in  which  Vishnu  is  adored. 

The  fourth  book  contains  all  that  the  Hindus  have  of  their 
ancient  history.  It  is  a  tolerably  comprehensive  list  of  dynasties 
and  individuals  ;  it  is  a  barren  record  of  events.  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted,  however,  that  much  of  it  is  a  genuine  chronicle  of 
persons,  if  not  of  occurrences.  That  it  is  discredited  by  palpable 
absurdities  in  regard  to  the  longevity  of  the  princes  of  the  earlier 
dynasties,  must  be  granted  ;  and  the  particulars  preserved  of  some 
of  them  are  trivial  and  fabulous.  Still,  there  is  an  inartificial 
simplicity  and  consistency  in  the  succession  of  persons,  and  a 
possibility  and  probability  in  some  of  the  transactions,  which  give 


724  VIS 

to  these  traditions  the  semblance  of  authenticity,  and  render  it 
likely,  tliat  they  are  not  altogether  without  foundation.  At  any 
rate,  in  the  absence  of  all  other  sources  of  information,  the  record, 
such  as  it  is,  deserves  not  to  be  altogether  set  aside.  It  is  not 
Ci^sential  to  its  credibility,  or  its  usefulness,  that  any  exact  chrono- 
logical adjustment  of  the  different  reigns  should  be  attempted. 
Their  distribution  amongst  the  several  Yugas,  undertaken  by  Sir 
William  Jones,  or  his  Pandits,  finds  no  countenance  from  the 
original  texts,  further  than  an  incidental  notice  of  the  age  in  which 
a  particular  monarch  ruled,  or  the  general  fact  that  the  dynasties 
prior  to  Krishna  precede  the  time  of  the  Great  War  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Kali  age  ;  both  which  events  we  are  not  obliged, 
with  the  Hindus,  to  place  five  thousand  years  ago.  To  that 
age  the  solar  dynasty  of  princes  offers  ninety-three  descents,  the 
lunar,  but  forty-five  ;  though  they  both  commence  at  the  same 
time.  Some  names  may  have  been  added  to  the  former  list,  some 
omitted  in  the  latter  ;  and  it  seems  most  likely,  that,  notwith- 
standing their  synchronous  beginning,  the  princes  of  the  lunar  race 
were  subsequent  to  those  of  the  solar  dynasty.  They  avowedly 
branched  off  from  the  solar  line  ;  and  the  legend  of  Sudyumna, 
that  explains  the  connexion,  has  every  appearance  of  having  been 
contrived  for  the  purpose  of  referring  it  to  a  period  more  remote 
than  the  truth.  Deducting,  however,  from  the  larger  number  of 
princes  a  considerable  proportion,  there  is  nothing  to  shock  proba- 
bility in  supposing,  that  the  Hindu  dynasties  and  their  ramifications 
w^ere  spread  through  an  interval  of  about  twelve  centuries  anterior 
to  the  war  of  the  Mahabharata,  and,  conjecturing  that  event  to 
have  happened  about  fourteen  centuries  before  Christianity,  thus 
carrying  the  commencement  of  the  regal  dynasties  of  India  to 
about  two  thousand  six  hundred  years  before  that  date.  This  may, 
or  may  not,  be  too  remote  ;  but  it  is  sufficient,  in  a  subject  where 
precision  is  impossible,  to  be  satisfied  with  the  general  impression, 
that,  in  the  dynasties  of  kings  detailed  in  the  Puranas,  we  have  a 
record  which,  although  it  cannot  fail  to  have  suffered  detriment 
from  age,  and  may  have  been  injured  by  careless  or  injudicious 
compilation,  preserves  an  account,  not  wholly  undeserving  of 
ronfidenoe^  of  the  c&tablibhmcnt  and  BuccCosion  of  regular  mouai- 


YIS  725 

chies,  amongst  the  Hindus,  from  as  early  an  era,  and  for  as  conti- 
nuous a  duration,  as  any  in  the  credible  annals  of  mankind. 

After  the  date  of  the  great  war,  the  Vishnu  Purana,  in  common 
with  those  Puranas  which  contain  similar  lists,  specifics  kings  and 
dynasties  with  greater  precision,  and  offers  political  and  chronolo- 
gical particulars  to  which,  on  the  score  of  probability,  there  is 
nothing  to  object.  In  truth,  their  general  accuracy  lias  been 
incontrovertibly  established.  Inscriptions  on  columns  of  stone,  on 
rocks,  on  coins,  deciphered  only  of  late  years,  through  the  extra- 
ordinary ingenuity  and  perseverance  of  Mr.  James  Priusep,  have 
verified  the  names  of  races  and  titles  of  princes — the  Gupta  and 
Andhra  Rajas,  mentioned  in  the  Puranas — and  have  placed  beyond 
dispute  the  identity  of  Chandragupta  and  Sandrocoptus  ;  thus 
giving  us  a  fixed  point  from  which  to  compute  the  date  of  other 
persons  and  events.  Thus,  the  Vishnu  Purana  specifies  the  interval 
between  Chandragupta  and  the  Great  War  to  be  eleven  hundred 
years  ;  and  the  occurrence  of  the  latter  little  more  than  fourteen 
centuries  b.  c,  remarkably  concurs  with  inferences  of  the  like  date 
from  different  pi-eraises.  The  historical  notices  that  then  follow 
are  considerably  confused  ;  but  they  probably  afford  an  accurate 
picture  of  the  political  distractions  of  India  at  the  time  when  they 
were  written  :  and  much  of  the  perplexity  arises  from  the  corrupt 
state  of  the  manuscripts,  the  obscure  brevity  of  the  record,  and 
our  total  want  of  the  means  of  collateral  illustration. 

The  fifth  book  of  the  Vishnu  Purana  is  exclusively  occupied 
with  the  life  of  Krishna.  This  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  charac- 
teristics of  the  Purana,  and  is  one  argument  against  its  antiquity. 
It  is  possible,  though  not  yet  proved,  that  Krishna,  as  an  Avatara 
of  Vishnu,  is  mentioned  in  an  indisputably  genuine  text  of  the 
Vedas.  He  is  conspicuously  prominent  in  the  Mahabharata,  but 
very  contradictorily  described  there.  The  part  that  he  usually 
performs  is  that  of  a  mere  mortal  ;  although  the  passages  are 
numerous  that  attach  divinity  to  his  person.  There  are,  however, 
no  descriptions,  in  the  Mahabharata,  of  his  juvenile  frolics,  of  his 
sports  in  Vrindavana,  his  pastimes  with  the  cow-boys,  or  even  his 
destruction  of  the  Asuras  sent  to  kill  him.  These  stories  have, 
all,  a  modern  complexion  ;  they  do  not  harmonize  with  the  tone 


726  VIS 

of  the  ancient  legends,  which  is,  generally,  grave,  and,  sometimes, 
majestic.  They  are  the  creations  of  a  puerile  taste  and  grovel- 
liug  imagination.  These  chapters  of  the  Vishnu  Purana  offer  some 
difficulties  as  to  their  originality.  They  are  the  same  as  those  on 
the  same  subject  in  the  Brahma  Purana  :  they  are  not  very  dissi- 
milar to  those  of  the  Bhagavata.  The  latter  has  some  incidents 
which  the  Vishnu  has  not,  and  may,  therefore,  be  thought  to  have 
improved  upon  the  prior  narrative  of  the  latter.  On  the  other 
hand,  abridgment  is  equally  a  proof  of  posteriority  as  amplification. 
The  simpler  style  of  the  Vishnu  Purana  is,  however,  in  favour  of 
its  priority  ;  and  the  miscellaneous  composition  of  the  Brahma 
Purana  renders  it  likely  to  have  borrowed  these  chapters  from  the 
Vishnu.  The  life  of  Krishna  in  the  Hari  Vamsa  and  the  Brahma 
Vaivarta  are,  indisputably,  of  later  date. 

The  last  book  contains  au  account  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
world,  in  both  its  major  and  minor  cataclysms  ;  and,  in  the  parti- 
culars of  the  end  of  all  things  by  fire  and  water,  as  well  as  in  the 
principle  of  their  perpetual  renovation,  presents  a  faithful  exhibi- 
tion of  opinions  that  were  general  in  the  ancient  world.  The 
metaphysical  annihilation  of  the  uciverse,  by  the  release  of  the 
spirit  from  bodily  existence,  offers,  as  already  remarked,  other 
analogies  to  doctrines  and  practices  taught  by  Pythagoras  and 
Plato,  and  by  the  Platonic  Christians  of  later  days. 

The  Vishnu  Purana  has  kept  very  clear  of  particulars  from 
wdiich  an  approximation  of  its  date  may  be  conjectured.  No  place 
is  described  of  which  the  sacreduess  has  any  known  limit,  nor  any 
work  cited  of  probable  recetit  composition.  The  Vedas,  the 
Puranas,  other  works  forming  the  body  of  Sanskrit  literature,  are 
named  ;  and  so  is  the  Mahabharata,  to  which,  therefore,  it  is  subse- 
quent. Both  Bauddhas  and  Jainas  are  adverted  to.  It  was, 
therefore,  written  before  the  former  had  disappeared.  But  they 
existed,  in  some  parts  of  India,  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century, 
at  least  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Purana  was  compiled  before 
that  period.  The  Gupta  kings  reigned  in  the  seventh  century. 
The  historical  record  of  the  Purana  which  mentions  them  was, 
therefore,  later  ;  and  there  seems  little  doubt  that  the  same  alludes 
to  the  first  incursions  of  the  Mohammedans,   which  took  place  in 


VIS  72 


/z/ 


the  eighth  century  ;  which  brings  it  still  lower.  In  describing  the 
latter  dynasties,  some,  if  not  all,  of  which  were,  no  doubt,  contem- 
porary, they  are  described  as  reigning,  altogether,  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  ninety-six  years.  Why  this  duration  shoukl 
have  been  chosen  does  not  appear  ;  unless,  in  conjunction  with 
the  number  of  years  which  are  said  to  have  elapsed  between  the 
Great  War  and  the  last  of  the  Andhra  dynasty,  which  preceded 
these  different  races,  and  which  amounted  to  two  thousand  three 
hundred  and  fifty,  the  compiler  was  influenced  by  the  actual  date 
at  which  he  wrote.  The  aggregate  of  the  two  periods  would  be 
the  Kali  year  4146,  equivalent  to  a.  d.  104o.  There  are  some 
variety  and  indistinctness  in  the  enumeration  of  the  periods  which 
compose  this  total  :  but  the  date  which  results  from  it  is  not 
unlikely  to  be  an  approximation  to  that  of  the  Vishnu  Purana." — 
Wilson's  Works,  Vol.  VI,  102-112. 

Visva — A  daughter  of  the  patriarch  Daksha,  who  was  married 
to  Dharma  and  became  the  mother  of  the  Visvadevas. 

Visvabhavana — A  name  of  Vishnu,  as  creator  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  meaning  one  with  crude  nature. 

Visvachi — One  of  the  Daiviki  Apsarasas,  or  divine  nymphs 
who  engage  in  the  interruption  of  the  penances  of  holy  sages. 

Visvadevas — A  class  of  deities  to  whom  sacrifices  are  daily 
offered.  The  worship  of  the  Visvadevas  forms  a  part  of  the 
general  Sr^ddhas,  and  of  the  daily  sacrifices  of  the  householder. 
According  to  the  Vayu  this  was  a  privilege  conferred  on  them  by 
Brahma  and  the  Pitris,  as  a  reward  for  religious  austerities  practis- 
ed by  them  upon  Himalaya.  Their  introduction  as  a  specific  class 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  custom  of  sacrificing  to  the  gods 
collectively,  or  to  all  the  gods,  as  the  name  Visvadevas  implies. 
They  appear,  however,  as  a  distinct  class  in  the  Vedas,  and  their 
assumption  of  this  character  is  therefore  of  ancient  date.  The 
daily  offering  to  them  is  noticed  by  Manu. —  Wilson's  Notes  to 
Vishnu  Furdiia. 

Visvagaswa — An  ancient  raja  of  the  solar  line— the  son  of 
Prithu. 


728  VIS 

Visvagjyotish — The  eldest  of  the  hundred  sous  of  Satajit, 
who  reigned  in  India  in  the  first  Manwantara. 

Visvajit — 1,  A  king  of  Hastinapura,  the  sou  of  eTayadratha  ; 
2,  A  king  of  Magadha,  the  sou  of  Satyajit. 

Visvakarma — The  celestial  architect,  the  ludian  Hephasstus, 
Mulciber,  or  Vulcan  ;  originally  called  Tvashtri  (q.  v.)  The 
architect  and  artist  of  the  gods.  He  was  the  sou  of  the  Vasu 
Prabhasa  and  his  wife,  the  lovely  and  virtuous  Yogasiddha.  He 
is  said  in  the  V.  P.  to  be  the  author  of  a  thousand  arts,  the 
mechanist  of  the  gods,  the  fabricator  of  all  ornaments,  the  chief 
of  artists,  the  constructor  of  the  self-moving  chariots  of  the  deities, 
and  by  whose  skill  men  obtain  subsistence.  Sir  W.  Jones  con- 
siders Visvakarma  to  be  the  Vulcan  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
being,  like  Vulcan,  the  forger  of  arms  for  the  gods,  and  inventor 
of  the  agnyastra,  or  fire  shaft,  in  the  war  between  them  and  the 
Daityas  or  Titans. — /is.  Res.,  Vol.  /,  2G4.     See  Tvashtri. 

Visvakarman,  Visvakarya — Two  of  the  seven  principal 

solar  rays. 

ViSVakena — l,  The  Manu  of  the  fourteenth  Manwantara 
according  to  the  lists  in  the  Matsya  and  Padma  Puranas  ;  2,  A  king 
of  Hastinapura,  the  sou  of  Brahmadatta. 

Visvamitra — A  celebrated  Rishi.  According  to  the  Rama- 
yaua  he  had  originally  been  a  Kshatriya  and  a  great  warrior,  but 
subsequently  practised  so  may  religious  austerities  in  the  Himalaya 
mountains  that  he  ultimately  became  a  brahman.  His  character  is 
therefore  somewhat  anomalous.  Max  MUller  considers  that  he 
opposed  the  ambition  of  the  brahmans,  and  would  not  submit  to 
their  exclusive  claims.  He  at  length  succeeded  in  gaining  for 
himself  and  family  the  rights  for  which  he  struggled,  and  which 
the  Brahmans  had  previously  withheld  from  all  but  their  own  caste. 
Visvamitra,  however,  was  reconciled  as  soon  as  he  was  allowed  to 
share  in  the  profits  of  the  priestly  power,  and  became  a  favourite 
hero  in  Brahraanical  tradition. 

When  Maharaja  Dasaratha  was  one  day  discussing  with  his 
Councillors   the  subject  of  his  son  Rama's  marriage,  Visvamitra 


VIS  729 

arrived  at  the  gate  of  the  palace,  and  desired  the  doorkeeper  to  go 
withiu  and  tell  the  Maharaja  that  Visvamitra  the  son  of  Gadhi,  \vu« 
there.  The  Maharaja  on  hearing  the  message  rose  up  with  his 
two  priests  and  went  out  to  meet  the  sage,  whom  he  received  with 
every  honour,  saying,  "  Your  coming,  0  great  sage,  is  as  grateful  to 
me  as  amrita,  as  the  fall  of  rain  in  the  proper  season,  as  the.  birth  ol' 
a  sou  to  a  childless  father,  as  the  recovery  of  lost  treasure,  as  the 
dawning  of  a  great  joy."  Visvamitra  then  stated  the  object  of  his 
visit — that  Rama  should  accompany  him  back  to  his  hermitage  to 
destroy  the  Rakshasas  ;  an  arrangement  to  which  the  Maharaja 
reluctantly  consented.  He  then  acted  as  Guru  to  Rama  and 
commanded  him  to  slay  Taraka  ;  removing  his  objections  about 
killing  a  woman,  and  providing  him  with  divine  weapons  and 
mantras.  After  the  marriage  of  Rama,  Visvamitra  retired  to  the 
Himalaya  mountains.  During  a  twelve  years'  famine,  Trisanku 
provided  food  for  Visvamitra  and  his  family,  and  the  sage  beiug 
highly  pleased,  elevated  him  in  his  living  body  to  heaven.  This 
legend  Wilson  thinks  is  astronomical,  and  alludes  possibly  to  some 
reformation  of  the  sphere  by  Visvamitra  under  the  patronage  of 
Trisanku,  and  in  opposition  to  a  more  ancient  system  advocated  by 
the  school  of  Vasishtha,  q.  v.  The  fact  of  Visvamitra  having  been 
both  a  rishi  and  an  officiating  priest,  is  undoubted.  If  we  look  to 
the  number  of  Vedic  hymns  ascribed  to  him  and  to  his  family,  to 
the  long  devotion  to  sacerdotal  functions  which  this  fact  implies, 
and  to  the  apparent  improbability  that  a  person  who  had  himself 
stood  in  the  position  of  a  king  should  afterwards  have  become  a 
professional  priest,  we  may  find  it  difficult  to  believe  that  although 
(as  he  certainly  was)  a  scion  of  roy^l  stock,  he  had  ever  himself 
exercised  royal  functions. —  0.  S.  T.,  I,  364. 

"A  kind  of  consecutive  biography  of  Visvdmitra  is  given  in  the 
first  book  of  the  Ramayana,  of  which  it  forms  one  of  the  most 
interesting  episodes.  Its  substance  is  as  follows  : — Once,  when 
roaming  over  the  earth  with  his  armies,  Visvamitra  came  to  the 
hermitage  of  Vasishtha,  and  was  there  received  by  the  saint  in  the 
most  sumptuous  style.  Vasishtha  could  afford  to  entertain  the 
king  in  this  manner  because  he  possessed  a  fabulous  cow  of  plenty 
that   yielded  him  everything  he   desired,     Visvamitra  becoming 

92 


730         ,  VIS 

aware  of  the  source  of  Yasislitlia's  wealth,  strongly  wished  to 
possess  the  cow,  and  asked  Vasishtha  to  sell  her  to  him.  The  saint 
however  refusing  this  offer,  the  king  seized  her,  intending  to  carry 
her  off  by  force.  But  the  cow  resisted  and  ultimately  displayed 
her  supernatural  powers  in  producing  from  different  parts  of  her 
body  numerous  peoples,  and  by  them  destroying  the  armies  of 
Visvamitra.  The  king  then  had  recourse  to  the  magical  weapons 
he  possessed,  but  they  w^ere  defeated  by  those  of  Vasishtha,  and  to 
the  humiliation  thus  inflicted  on  him  he  then  gave  vent  in 
exclaiming :  '  Contemptible  is  the  might  of  a  Kshatriya  ;  a 
Brahman's  might  alone  is  might.'  And  reflecting  what  he  should 
do  in  this  emergency,  he  resolved  to  practise  austerities  in  order 
to  attain  the  rank  of  a  Brahman.  In  consequence  he  went  to  the 
south;  and  performed  severe  penance  during  a  thousand  years  ; 
when  at  the  end  of  this  period  the  god  Brahma  appeared  to  him, 
and  announced  that  he  had  become  a  Rajarshi,  or  Royal  Rishi. 
But  Visvamitra  was  not  satisfied  with  this  degree  of  promotion,  and 
continued  his  austerities  for  another  such  period.  During  that 
time,  king  Trisanku  of  Ayodhya,  of  the  family  of  Ikshvaku,  had 
determined  to  perform  a  sacrifice  that  w^ould  enable  him  to  proceed 
bodily  to  heaven,  and  solicited  for  this  purpose  the  assistance  of 
Vasishtha,  who  was  the  family  priest  of  "  all  the  Ikshvakus."  This 
saint,  however,  having  declared  the  scheme  of  the  king  impossible, 
and  his  sons  also  having  refused  to  act  in  their  father's  place, 
Trisanku  told  them  he  would  resort  to  another  priest.  He  applied 
to  Visvamitra,  who  showed  his  power  by  performing  the  sacrifice 
so  much  desired  by  Trisanku,  and  accomplishing  his  object  in  spite 
of  the  resistance  of  Vasishtha  and  his  sons,  and  that  of  the  gods 
themselves. 

This  event  having  caused  a  serious  interruption  in  the  austerities 
of  Visvamitra,  he  proceeded  to  the  forest  Pushkara  in  the  west,  to 
remain  undisturbed.  It  was  then  the  tragic  incident  related  under 
Harischandra  occurred.  It  was  in  the  forest  that  Sunasepha 
saw  his  uncle  Visvamitra,  and  implored  him  to  come  to  his  rescue. 
Visvamitja  first  commanded  fifty  of  his  own  sons  to  offer  themselves 
up  as  a  ransom  for  their  cousin.  And  on  their  refusing  to  do  so, 
cursed  them  to  become  outcastes  :  but  afterwards  taught  Sunasepha 


VIS 731 

two  hymus,  which  if  sung  by  him  at  tlie  sacrifice  would  save  his 
life.  The  liberation  of  Sunasepha  having  been  effected,  and 
Visvamitra  having  continued  his  penance  for  another  thousand 
years,  Brahma  conferred  on  him  the  dignity  of  a  Rishi.  But  not 
satisfied  with  this  distinction  he  went  on  practising  still  fiercer 
austerities  than  ever.  These  the  gods  interrupted  by  sending  a 
heavenly  nymph  Menaka,  who  excited  his  worldly  passions  ;  still 
in  the  end  he  attained  the  rank  of  a  Maharshi,  or  great  Rishi.  And 
after  two  thousand  years  of  still  more  rigorous  penance  which  for 
a  time  was  again  interrupted  by  the  allurements  of  a  nymph 
Rambha,  the  gods  headed  by  Drahma,  came  to  acknowledge  that 
he  had  noAv  become  a  Brahmarshi,  or  Brahman  Rishi  ;  and 
Vasishtha  himself  was  compelled  to  express  acquiescence  in  the 
result  he  had  achieved. 

The  above  three  paragraphs  arc  abricged  from  Goldstiicker's 
article  in  Chambers's  Eucyclopasdia.  Many  other  legends  are 
given  in  Muir's  O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  I.  Yisvamitra's  cruel  treatment  of 
Harischandra  and  his  family  has  already  been  quoted.  (See 
vSaivya).  Various  versions  are  given  of  the  legend  of  Trisanku  ; 
and  of  the  conflicts  between  Vasishtha  and  Visvamitra.  Professor 
Lassen,  who  quotes  the  stories,  makes  the  following  remarks  on 
their  import  : 

"  The  legend  of  the  struggle  between  Vasishtha  and  Visvamitra 
embraces  two  distinct  points  ;  one  is  the  contest  between  the 
priests  and  warriors  for  the  highest  rank  ;  the  other  is  the 
temporary  alienation  of  the  Ikshvakus  from  their  family  priests. 
Vasishtha  is  represented  as  the  exemplar  of  such  a  priest ;  and  the 
story  of  Kalmashapada  is  related  for  the  express  purpose  of 
showing  by  an  example  that  the  Ikslivakus,  after  they  had  retained 
him,  were  victorious  ;  in  his  capacity  of  priest  he  continued  to  live 
on,  and  is  the  representative  of  his  whole  race.  We  may  conclude 
from  the  legend  that  his  descendants  had  acquired  the  position  of 
family  priests  to  the  Ikshvakus,  though  neither  he  himself  nor  his 
son  Saktri  belonged  to  their  number.  Trisanku  is  the  first  prince 
who  forsook  them,  and  had  recourse  to  Visvamitra.  His  successor 
Ambarisha  received  support  from  that  personage,  as  well  as  from 
Richika,  oneof  the  Bhrigus  ;— a  la-nily  who^e  connection  with  the 


732  VIS 

Kusikas  appears  also  in  the  story  of  Parusarama.  The  hostility 
between  the  Ikshv^kus  and  the  family  of  Vasishstha  continued 
down  to  Kalmashapada.  Visvamitra  is  represented  as  having 
intentionally  fostered  the  alienation  ;  while  Vasishtha  is  represented 
as  forbearing  (though  he  had  the  power)  to  annihilate  his  rival. 

The  conflict  between  the  two  rivals,  with  its  motives  and 
machinery,  is  described  in  the  forms  peculiar  to  the  fully-developed 
epos.  To  this  style  of  poetry  is  to  be  referred  the  wonder-working 
cow,  which  supplies  all  objects  of  desire.  There  is  no  ground  for 
believing  in  any  actual  war  with  weapons  between  the  contending 
parties  ;  or  in  any  participation  of  degraded  Kshatriyas,  or  aboriginal 
tribes,  in  the  contest  ;  for  all  these  things  are  mere  poetical  creations. 
Besides,  the  proper  victory  of  Vasishtha  was  not  gained  by  arms, 
but  by  his  rod.  The  legend  represents  the  superiority  of  the 
Brahmans  as  complete,  since  Visvamitra  is  forced  to  acknowledge 
the  insufficiency  of  a  warrior's  power  ;  and  acquires  his  position  as 
a  Brahman  by  purely  Brahmanical  methods. 

From  Visvamitra  are  derived  many  of  the  sacerdotal  families 
which  bear  the  common  name  of  Kausika,  and  to  which  many 
rishis,  famous  in  tradition  belong.  As  there  w^ere  also  kings  in 
this  family,  w^e  have  here  an  example  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the 
old  vedic  races  became  divided,  and  in  later  times  belonged  to  both 
of  the  two  higher  castes.  It  appears  impossible  that  any  of 
the  aboriginal  tribes  should  have  been  among  the  descendants  of 
Visvamitra's  sons,  as  the  legend  represents  ;  and  the  meaning  of 
this  account  may  therefore  be  that  some  of  his  sons  and  their 
descendants  accepted  the  position  of  priests  among  these  tribes,  and 
are  in  consequence  described  as  accursed." — 0.  S.  21,  /,  426. 

VisvamitraS — The  Visvdmitras  are  known  as  Kusikas  or 
Kausikas  ;  that  is,  they  came  from  Kush,  to  this  day  the  name 
of  a  river  near  the  Asia  Palus,  where  M.  Ferrier  found  the  ruins 
of  a  large  place  called  Kussan.  The  Kushan,  he  tells  us,  were  a 
famous  Scythian  race,  who  held  Balkh  in  remote  antiquity.  Sir 
H.  Rawlinson  found  their  bricks,  with  cuneiform  Scythic  legends 
at  Susa  and  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Kush  is  largely  used  in  a  local 
nomenclature  in  Central  Asia.  The  Caspian  Sea,  Cashgar,  Kash- 
mere,  Khas-Saks,  (Sacas  or  Cossaks)  Caucas-as  (Khas-mountain) 


VIS— VIT  783 


Coss£»  or  Cisii  in  Persia,  the  Bal-kash  lake  and  the  Kush,  and 
these  are  but  a  mere  sample,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  Scythians 
did  not  come  to  the  Cushites,  but  that  the  Cushites  colonized 
Mongolia  as  they  colonized  Arabia,  Ethiopia  and  the  N.  coast  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Indra  himself  is  called  a  son  of  Kusika.  Fire 
and  Indra-worship  seem  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Visva- 
mitras  and  to  have  supplanted  a  previous  sun-worship  of  earlier 
immigrants. —  Calcutta  Revieiv. 

Visvarupa — l,  A  name  of  Vishnu  ;  who  is  both  Bhutesa, 
*  lord  of  created  things  ;'  and  Visvarupa,  '  universal  substance  ;'  he 
is  therefore  as  one  with  sensible  things  subject  to  his  own  control  ; 
2,  A  name  of  one  of  the  Rudras. 

Visvasaha — l,  A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Ilavila  ;  2, 
Another  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Abhyutthi-taswa,  descendant 
of  Rama. 

Visvasphatika — A  Raja  of  Magadha,  who  is  said  to  have 
extirpated  the  Kshatryas  and  elevated  fishermen,  barbarians, 
Brahmans,  and  other  castes,  to  power.  His  name  is  sometimes 
made  Viswasphurtti. 

Visvavasa— One  of  the  sons  of  Pururavas. 


Visvesa — A  daughter  of  Daksha  married  to  Dharma. 

Vitahavya — A  king  of  Mithila,  the  son  of  Sunaya. 

Vitala — The  second  of  the  seven  divisions  of  Patala  ;  whose 
soil  is  black. 

Vitasta — A  river,  the  modern  Jhelum,  but  still  called  in  Kash- 
mere  the  Vitasta  or  Hydaspes. 

Vitatha — Unprofitable  ;  a  name  given  to  Raja  Bharatwdja, 
who  was  a  sage  as  well  as  kiug. 

Vithi — A  division  of  the  planetary  sphere. 

Vitihotra — l,  The  ninth  sou  of  Priyavrata,  according  to  the 
Bhagavata  ;  he  is  called  Piitra  in  the  other  Purauas,  and  adopted  a 
religious  life  ;  2,  The  oldest  son  of  Talajaugha,  a  Yadava  chief. 

Vitihotras— A  branch  of  the  Ilaihava  tribe. 


734  VIT— VRI 


Vitunda — A  demon,  the  son  of  Tunda  ;  the  Padma  Purdna 
contains  an  account  of  its  destruction  by  Bhagavati. 

Vivaswat — l,  A  Prajapati  ;  2,  One  of  the  twelve  Adityas  ;  3, 
The  Sun,  and  father  of  Vaivaswata  Manu. 

Vivinsati — A  prince  of  the  solar  dynasty,  the  son  of  Vinsa. 

Vraja — One  of  the  sons  of  Havirdhana  and  uncle  of  the 
Prachetasas. 

Vrata— 'An  occasional  self-imposed  observance  or  ceremony. 

Vrihadbala — A  prince  of  the  solar  race,  the  son'  of  Visruta- 
vat ;  he  was  slain  in  the  great  war  by  Abhimanyu,  the  son  of  Arjuna. 

Vrihadaswa — A  Raja  of  Bharata,  the  father  of  the  celebrated 
Kuvalayaswa,  q.  v, 

Vrihadbhanu— A  Raja  of  Bharata,  the  son  of  Vrihatkarman. 

Vrihadisha — l,  A  king  of  Hastinapura,  the  son  of  Ajamidha  ; 
2,  One  of  the  five  sons  of  Haryyaswa,  termed  the  Panchalas. 

Vrihadratha — l,  A  Raja  of  Bharata,  the  son  of  Bhadraratha  ; 
2,  A  son  of  Uparichara  the  Vasu  ;  3,  A  sou  of  Tigma  of  the  race 
of  Puru  ;  4,  The  last  of  the  ten  Mauryan  kings  of  Magadha,,  the 
son  of  Sasadharman. 

Vrihannaradiya  Purana — A  modern  compilation,  erroneously 
termed  a  Purana,  containing  paueygrical  prayers  addressed  to 
Vishnu,  and  injunctions  to  observe  various  rites  and  keep  holy 
certain  seasons  in  honour  of  him. 

Vrihaspati — A  sage,  the  son  of  Angiras,  the  priest  and  pre- 
ceptor of  the  Devatas  ;  a  teacher  of  the  science  of  government. 
He  had  a  handsome  wife  named  Tara,  who  was  carried  off  by  Soma 
(the  moon),  which  led  to  a  fierce  contest  termed  the  Taraka  war. 
The  Daityas,  Danavas,  and  other  foes  of  the  gods  took  part  with 
Soma  ;  whilst  Indra  and  all  the  gods  were  the  allies  of  Vrihaspati. 
Peace  was  not  restored  till  Brahma  interposed  and  compelled  Soma 
to  restore  Tara  to  her  husband.  Vrihaspati  was  Vyasa  of  the 
fourth  Manwantara. 

Vrihaspati — The  planet  Jupiter  ;  described  in  the  V.  P.  as 
having  a  golden  car  drawn  by  eight  pale-coloured  horses. 


VRI  735 

Vrihatkarman — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  the  Eaja  of  Eharata, 
Bhadraratha  ;  2,  A  king  of  Hastinapilr,  son  of  Viihadvasu  ;  3, 
A  kiug  of  Magadha,  sou  of  Sukshatra. 

Vrihatshana — A  Raja  of  the  solar  race  after  the  great  war. 
His  father  Vrihadbala,  was  killed  by  Abhimanyu. 

Vrihatkshatra — A  prince  of  Bharata,  the  son  of  Bhavan- 
niauya. 

Vrihat-sama — A  portion  of  the  Sama  Veda,  created  from  the 
southern  mouth  of  Brahma. 

Vrijinivat — A  Yddava  prince,  the  son  of  Kroshtri. 

Vrika — l,  One  of  the  sons  of  Prithu,  according  to  the  Bhaga- 
vata  ;  2,  The  son  of  Raja  Ruruka  ;  3,  A  son  of  Krishna. 

Vrikadeva — One  of  the  daughters  of  Devaka,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Vasudeva. 

Vrikala,  Vrikatejas — Two  sons  of  Slishti,  and  grandsons  of 
Dhruva. 

Vrisha — l,  The  Indra  of  the  eleventh  Manwantara  ;  2,  A 
Yddava  chief,  the  son  of  Vitihotra. 

Vrishadarbha — A  Raja  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of  Sivi. 
Vrishakapi — An  appellation  of  one  of  the  eleven  Rudras. 

Vrishana — One  of  the  hundred  sons  of  the  Maharaja  Kart- 
tavirya. 

Vrishaparvan — A  powerful  Ddnava  chief,  the  son  of  Kasyapa 
and  Danu. 

Vrishasena — One  of  the  Anga  kings,  the  son  of  Karna. 

Vrishni— 1,  A  Yadava  chief,  the  eldest  son  of  Madhu  ;  2, 
Another  Yadava  chief,  the  son  of  Kunti  or  Kumbhi  ;  3,  A  son  of 
Satwata,  a  Raja  of  Mrittikavati  ;  4,  A  cousin  of  the  above,  the 
son  of  Bhajamana. 

Vrishnimat — A  Raja  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of  Chitraratha. 

Vritra — The  demon  who  personifies  drought  ;  the  cloud  enemy 
of  Indra,  who  imprisons  the  rain  in  the  storm-cloud.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  false  and  treacherous  as  he  is  malignant.  He  is  termed 
the  thief  who  hides  away  the  rain-cloud.s.     He  constantly  appears 


736  VRI 

as  the  enemy  of  Indra,  who  is  called  Vritrahaii,  the  Vritra-slayer, 
Vritra  became  a  name  applied  to  any  enemy.  "  The  Vrittra  of  the 
Vrittras  denoted  the  most  malignant  of  adversaries.  So  again 
Vrittra  the  thief  is  also  called  Ahi,  the  throttling  snake,  or  dragon 
with  three  heads."* 

"  Who  is  that,  Avithout  alarm, 

Defies  the  might  of  Indra's  arm  ; 

That  stands  and  sees  without  dismay 

The  approaching  Maruts'  dread  array  ; 

That  does  not  shun  in  wild  affright, 

The  terrors  of  the  deadl);  fight  ? 

'Tis  Vrittra,  he  whose  magic  powers 

From  earth  withhold  the  genial  showers, 

Of  mortal  men  the  foe  malign. 

And  rival  of  the  race  divine 

Whose  demon  hosts  from  age  to  age, 

W^ith  Indra  war  unceasing  wage, 

Who,  times  unnumbered,  crushed  and  slain, 

Is  ever  newly  born  again. 

And  evermore  renew  the  strife 

In  which  again  he  forfeits  life. 

Perched  on  a  steep  aerial  height, 

Shone  Vrittra's  stately  fortress  bright. 

Upon  the  wall,  in  martial  mood, 

The  bold  gigantic  demon  stood, 

Confiding  in  his  magic  arts. 

And  armed  with  store  of  fiery  darts. 

And  then  was  seen  a  dreadful  sight. 

When  god  and  demon  met  in  fight. 

His  sharpest  missiles  Vrittra  shot, 

His  thunderbolts  and  lightnings  hot 

He  hurled  as  thick  as  rain. 

****** 

And  soon  the  knell  of  Vrittra's  doom 
Was  sounded  by  the  clang  and  boom 

*  Cox,  Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations. 


VYA 737 

Of  Indra's  irou  shower  ; 
Pierced,  cloven,  crushed,  with  horrid  3'cll, 
The  dying  demou  headlong  fell 
Down  from  his  cloud-built  tower."* 

Vyadhi — Disease  ;  Represented  as  the  son  of  Mritya,  (Death.) 

Vyadi — A  brahman  who  stopped  at  the  dwelling  of  Vararuchi 
on  one  occasion  and  solicited  hospitality,  as  a  stranger  weary  with 
long  travel.  He  then  became  acquainted  with  Vaiaruchi's  won- 
derful powers  of  memory — was  instructed  by  him,  and  became  a 
writer  of  note  on  philological  topics. —  Wilson,  III,  165. 

Vyahritis— The  three  mystical  words,  Bhiih,  Bhuvar,  Swar  ; 
which,  with  the  monosyllable  Om,  and  the  Vedas,  are  considered 
as  forms  of  Vasudeva  (Brahma,)  diversified  as  to  their  typical 
character,  but  essentially  one  and  the  same.  The  daily  prayers  of 
the  Brahman  commence  with  the  formula,  Oni  bliuh,  bhuvar, 
swar  ;  Om  earth,  sky,  heaven  ;  these  three  mystical  terms  called 
Vyahritis,  are  scarcely  of  less  sanctity  than  the  Pranava  itself. 
Their  efficacy,  and  the  order  of  their  repetition  preceding  the 
Gayatri,  are  fully  detailed  in  Manu,  II,  76-SI.  In  the  Mitakshara 
they  are  directed  to  be  twice  repeated  mentally,  with  Om  prefixed 
to  each  ;  Om  bhiih,  Om  bhuvah,  Om  swar  ;  the  breath  l)eing 
suppressed  by  closing  the  lips  and  uoatvih.—  JVifsoft's  liofcs  to 
Vishnu  Pur  ana. 

Vyakarana — Grammar  ;  an  Anga  of  the  Veda.<>.  That  a 
scientific  study  of  Grammar  was  cultivated  at  a  very  early  period 
of  Hindu  literature  is  borne  out  by  the  testimony  of  the  oldest 
glossator  on  the  Vedas,  Yaska  (q.  v.)  The  oldest  extant  work, 
however,  on  Sanskrit  Grammar  is  posterior  to  the  work  of  Yaska  ; 
it  is  the  Grammar  of  Paniui  (q.  v.)  which  was  criticised  by 
Katgaya,  in  the  Varttikas,  these  again  being  commented  on  and 
criticised  by  Patanjali  in  the  Mahdbhdsya.  (See  Panini,  where 
some  of  the  principal  later  works  connected  with  his  system  are 
mentioned.)  — Goldstucker. 

Vyalcta — Visible  substance  ;  a  form  of  Vishnu. 

*  MriiJ,  0.  S.  T.,  V,  133—5. 

.03 


738  VYA 

Vyansa— A  powerful  Danava,  the  eldest  son  of  Viprachitti. 

Vyapti — Universal  ;  tl;e  inherent  and  essential  presence  of  any 
one  tiling  or  property  in  another,  as  the  deity  in  the  universe,  &c. 
In  the  Nyaya  system  of  Gautama  a  Vyapti  means  a  pervading  rule. 
It  is  thus  explained  by  Professor  Max  Miiller  :  knowledge  is  a 
quality  of  the  Self,  in  the  same  manner  as  colour  is  of  light.  It 
is  inseparably  connected  with  it,  and  is  explained  as  the  cause  of 
every  conception  that  is  expressed  in  language.  Knowledge  is 
either  remembrance  or  perception.  Perception  is  two-fold,  right 
or  wrong.  Right  perception  represents  the  thing  such  as  it  is, 
silver  as  silver.  Wrong  perception  represents  the  thing  as  the 
thing  is  not,  mother  o'pearl  as  silver.  Right  perception  is  four-fold, 
sensuous,  conclusive,  comparative,  and  authoritative.  It  is  produced 
by  the  senses,  by  inferring,  by  comparing,  and  by  revealed  authority.     1 

The  different  kinds  of  sensuous  perception  arise  from  the  different 
ways  in  Avhich  the  organs  of  sense  are  brought  iuto  contact  with 
their  objects,  which  objects  may  be  either  substantial  matter,  or 
qualities  and  actions,  as  inherent  in  substance,  or  the  Genus  as 
inherent  in  substances,  qualities  and  actions. 

After  sensuous  knowledge  comes  conclusive  knowledge,  which 
is  gained  by  means  of  inferring.  Conclusive  knowledge  is  for 
instance.  *'  This  mountain  is  a  volcano,"  whereas  our  sensuous 
perception  is  only  that  the  mountain  smokes.  In  order  to  arrive 
from  this  at  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  volcano,  we  must  be  in 
possession  of  what  is  called  a  pervading  rule  or  a  Vyapti.  This 
smoke  is  inseparably  connected  with  fire,  or  as  the  Hindu  calls  it, 
that  smokiuess  is  pervaded  by  fieriness,  that  wherever  there  is 
smoke  there  is  fire.  If  Ave  possess  this  Vyapti,  which  we  may 
remember  by  such  instances  as  a  culinary  heartli,  &c.,  then  in 
order  to  arrive  at  conclusive  knowledge  we  only  require  considera- 
tion, (paramarsa)  in  order  to  find  out  in  any  sensuous  impressiop 
something  which  can  be  pervaded,  something  which  can  make  the 
mountain  the  member  of  a  Vyapti,  this  something  being  in  our 
case  the  smoke.  If  we  know  that  the  smoke  which  we  perceive  is 
qualified  to  become  part  of  a  Vyapti  (this  Vyapti  being  *  wherever 
there  is  smoke  there  is  fire'),  then  we  know  conclusively  that  this 
mountain  is  fiery  because  it  smokes. 


VYA  739 

The  conditions  under  which  it  is  allowed  to  form  a  Vyapti,  that 
is  to  say  to  form  Universals,  have  occupied  the  attention  of  Hindu 
philosophers  more  than  any  other  point  in  Logic.  They  distinctly 
exclude  the  mere  accumulation  of  observations.  For  things  they 
say  may  be  together  a  hundred  times  and  may  still  not  be  mutually 
inherent.  They  make  exceptions  for  practical  purposes.  Their 
repeated  observations  may  be  turned  into  a  general  rule,  but  not  in 
philosophical  discussions.  Volumes  after  volumes  have  been  written 
on  this  subject,  and  though  I  do  not  believe  they  will  throw  new 
light  on  the  question  of  the  origin  of  Universals,  yet  they  would 
furnish  a  curious  parallel  to  the  history  of  the  European  intellect.* 

Vyasa — A  great  brahman  sage  who  lived  in  the  forest,  and  by 
a  long  course  of  religious  penances  had  become  emaciated  and 
hideous  in  appearance.  He  is  described  as  the  son  of  Parasara  and 
a  fish  girl  named  Matsya,  who  was  employed  as  a  ferry  woman  in 
cue  of  the  many  small  rivers  which  intersect  eastern  Bengal,  and 
flow  into  the  Brahmaputra.  His  original  name  was  Krishna 
Dwaipayana,  but  having  become  famous  as  the  compiler  of  the 
Mahabharata,  and  the  Vedas,  he  is  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  Vyasa,  or  "  the  arranger."  Among  all  the  Brahman  sages  of 
antiquity  famous  for  their  learning,  their  austerities,  and  their 
miracles  few  can  be  compared  with  the  Rishi  Vyasa.  The  follow- 
ing legend  is  related  to  show  that  he  was  the  direct  ancestor  of 
the  Kauravas  and  Pandavas  who  fought  in  the  great  war  ;  but  is 
considered  by  Mr.  Wheeler  to  be  open  to  the  gravest  suspicion. 
After  the  death  of  Raja  Vichitra  Virya  (q.  v.)  his  widows  were 
filled  with  sorrow,  because  they  had  no  son  to  perpetuate  the  race 
of  Bharata.  The  custom  was  that  when  a  man  died  without  issue, 
his  brother  or  near  kinsman  should  marry  his  widows.  The  Rani 
Satyavati  therefore  applied  to  Bhishma,  who  refused  on  account 
of  his  vow.  She  then  requested  the  sage  Vyasa  to  take  his  place. 
He  proceeded  to  the  palace  of  Hastinapur  and  fulfilled  the  wishes 
of  the  Rani  ;  but  his  presence  filled  the  widows  with  terror.  The 
first  shut  her  eyes    when  she  beheld  him,  and  she  gave  birth  to  a 


*  Indian  Logic.     Outline  of  the  necessary  Laws  of  Thought,  by  Archbishop 
of  York.     286-90. 


740  VYA 

soo  wlio  was  blind,  and  who  was  named  Dhritarashtra  ;  and  the 
second  widow  was  so  white  with  fear  that  she  gave  birth  to  a  son 
who  was  pale,  and  who  was  named  Pandu.  Then  Satyavati 
requested  Vyasa  to  become  the  father  of  a  third  son  who  should 
be  without  blemish  ;  and  the  first  widow  would  not  go  to  him,  but 
arrayed  her  maid  servant  in  garments  of  her  own,  and  sent  her  to 
the  sage  in  her  stead  ;  and  the  servant  gave  birth  to  a  third  son 
who  was  named  Vidura.  Thus  were  born  three  sons  to  the  royal 
house  at  Hastinapur  ;  viz  : — 

Dhritarashtra  the  blind  ;  P^ndu,  the  pale  ;  and  Vidura,  the 
slave-born. 

Vyasas — Arrangers  of  the  Vedas  in  every  Dwapara  age  ; 
twenty-eight  are  enumerated  :  The  following  is  the  list  contained 
in  Vishnu  Purana  : — 

"  Twenty-eight  times  have  the  Vedas  been  arranged  by  the 
great  Rishis,  in  the  Vaivaswata  Manwantara  in  the  Dwapara  age  ; 
and,  consequently,  eight  and  twenty  Vyasas  have  passed  away  ;  by 
whom,  in  their  respective  periods,  the  Veda  has  been  divided  into 
four.  In  the  first  Dwapara  age,  the  distribution  was  made  by 
Swayambhu  (Brahma)  himself ;  in  the  second,  the  arranger  of  the 
Veda  (Vedavyasa)  was  Prajapati  (or  Manu)  ;  in  the  third, 
Usanas  ;  in  the  fourth,  Brihaspati  ;  in  the  fifth,  Savitri  ;  in  the 
sixth,  Mrityu  (Death,  or  Yama)  ;  in  the  seventh,  Indra ;  in  the 
eighth,  Vasishtha  ;  in  the  ninth,  Saraswata  ;  in  the  tenth,  Tridha- 
man  ;  in  the  eleventh,  Trivrishan  ;  in  the  twelfth,  Bharadwaja  ; 
in  the  thirteenth,  Antariksha  ;  in  the  fourteenth,  Vaprivan  ;  in 
the  fifteenth,  Trayyaruna  ;  in  the  sixteenth,  Dhananjaya  ;  in 
the  seventeenth,  Kritanjaya  ;  in  the  eighteenth,  Rinajaya ;  in 
the  nineteenth,  Bharadwaja  ;  in  the  twentieth,  Gautama  ;  in  the 
twenty-first,  Uttama,  also  called  Haryatman  ;  in  the  twenty- 
second,  Vena,  who  is  likewise  named  Rajasravas  ;  in  the  twenty- 
third,  Saumasushmayana,  also  Trinabindu  ;  in  the  twenty-fourth, 
Riksha,  the  descendant  of  Bhrigu,  who  is  known  also  by  the  name 
Valmiki  ;  in  the  twenty-fifth,  my  father,  Sakti,  was  the  Vyasa  ; 
I  was  the  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-sixth  Dwapara,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  Jdtukarna  ;  the  Vyasa  of  the  twenty-eighth,  who  follow- 


VYA— VYU  741 


ed  him,  was  Krishna  Dwaipayana.  These  are  the  twenty-eight 
elder  Vyasas,  by  whom,  in  the  preceding  Dwapara  ages,  the  Veda 
has  been  divided  into  four.  In  the  next  Dwapara,  Drauni  (the  son 
of  Drona)  will  be  the  Vydsa,  when  my  son,  the  Muni  Krishna 
Dwaipayana,  who  is  the  actual  Vyasa,  shall  cease  to  be  (in  that 
character)." 

"  A  similar  list  is  given  in  the  Kurma  and  Vayu  Puranas. 
Many  of  the  individuals  appear  as  authors  of  different  hymns  and 
prayers  in  the  Vedas  ;  and  it  is  very  possible  that  the  greater 
portion,  if  not  all  of  them,  had  a  real  existence,  being  the  framers 
or  teachers  of  the  religion  of  the  Hindus  before  a  complete  ritual 
was  compiled." —  Wilson's  Notes  to  V.  P. 

Vyavasaya — Perseverance.  One  of  the  allegorical  sons  of 
Dharma. 

Vyaya — A  name  of  Pradhaua — meaning  "  that  which  may  bo 
expended." 

Vyoman — A  Raja  of  the  solar  race,  the  son  of  Dasarha. 

Vyushta — A  name  of  Day  :  night  is  called  Usha,  and  the 
interval  between  them,  Sandhya. 


YadavaS — The  descendants  of  Yadu,  tlie  eldest  son  of  Yayiti 
and  Devayani.  A  nomade  race  who  grazed  cattle  and  made 
butter,  and  occasionally  migrated  to  different  places  accompanied 
by  their  cows  and  waggons.  The  time  and  circumstances  under 
which  they  first  entered  Hindustan  are  alike  unknown.  At  the 
birth  of  Krishna  they  appear  to  have  settled  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  of  Matbura,  the  modern  Muttra,  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Jumna,  and  about  a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  to  the 
south  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Hastinapur.  They  dwelt 
on  both  sides  of  the  river,  in  the  village  of  Vriudavana  on  the 
western  bank,  and  in  the  country  of  Gokula  on  the  opposite 
shore.  They  afterwards  migrated  to  Dwaraka,  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Guzerat,  above  seven  hundred  miles  from 
Hastinapur, 

Krishna  belonged  to  this  tribe  ;  and  many  mythical  details 
seem  to  have  been  connected  with  its  history  for  the  purpose 
of  exalting  the  tribe  from  which  the  favourite  deity  sprung. 
It  is  plain  that  great  violence  and  disorder  prevailed  wherever  the 
Yadavas  settled.  They  were  induced  by  Krishna  to  renounce  the 
worship  of  Indra  and  substitute  the  mountain  Govarddhana  in  his 
place  ;  an  incident  which  Mr.  Wheeler  thinks  seems  to  imply 
a  conflict  between  a  low  Fetische  worship,  and  the  worship  of  the 
Vedic  deities. 

The  Puranas  describe  the  destruction  of  the  whole  tribe  in  a 
drunken  affray  at  Prabbasa.  The  Mahabharata  says  that  all  the 
Yadavas  were  slaughtered  by  the  curse  of  the  three  Rishis,  and  all 
the  sons  and  grandsons  of  Krishna  were  among  the  slain. 

"The  Rajas  of  Vijayanagur,  who  in  the  15th  century  of  the 
Christian   era   maintained    a   supremacy  over  the  whole  of  the 


YAD— YAJ  743 


country  south  of  the  Krishna  river,  and  thus  possessed  the  last 
great  Hindu  empire  which  was  established  in  India,  claimed  to  be 
descendants  of  the  Yadava  tribe  ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that 
it  was  from  one  of  the  decayed  chieftains  of  this  fallen  dynasty 
that  the  East  India  Company  obtained,  in  the  (irst  half  of  the  17th 
century,  the  grant  of  land  on  the  coast  of  Coromaudel  on  which 
stands  the  modern  city  of  Madras.  The  original  grant  on  a  gold 
plate  appears  to  have  been  preserved  for  more  than  a  century  ; 
but  was  finally  lost  in  1746  when  Madras  was  captured  by  the 
French  under  Labourdonnais." —  Wheeler. 

Yadu — The  eldest  son  of  Yayati,  and  ancestor  of  the  Yadavas. 
When  Yayati  ceased  to  reign  he  installed  his  youngest  son  Puru 
iu  the  sovereignty,  and  consigned  the  southern  districts  of  the 
kingdom  to  Yadu. 

Yajna — Sacrifice  ;  the  character  of  Brahmanical  sacrifice  is 
thus  expressed  by  Dr.  Hang,  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Aitareya 
Brahmana.*  "  The  sacrifice  is  regarded  as  the  means  for  obtaining 
power  over  this  and  the  other  world,  over  visible  as  well  as 
invisible  beings,  animate  as  well  as  inanimate  creatures.  Who 
knows  its  proper  application,  and  has  it  duly  performed,  is  in  fact 
looked  upon  as  the  real  master  of  the  world  :  for  any  desire 
he  may  entertain,  even  if  it  be  the  most  ambitious,  can  be 
gratified  ;  any  object  he  has  iu  view  can  be  obtained  by  means  of 
it.  The  Yajna  taken  as  a  whole  is  conceived  to  be  a  kind  of 
machinery,  in  which  every  piece  must  tally  with  the  other  ;  or  a 
sort  of  large  chain  in  which  no  link  is  allowed  to  be  wanting  ;  or 
a  staircase  by  which  one  may  ascend  to  heaven  ;  or  as  a  personage, 
endowed  with  all  the  characteristics  of  the  human  body.  It  exists 
from  eternity  and  proceeded  from  the  Supreme  Being,  (Prajapati 
or  Brahma  neuter)  along  with  the  Traividya,  i.  e.,  the  three-fold 
science.  The  creation  of  the  world  was  even  regarded  as  the 
fruit  of  a  sacrifice  performed  by  the  Supreme  Being.  The  Yajna 
exists  as  an  invisible  thing  at  all  times.  It  is  like  the  latent 
power  of  electricity  in  an  electrifying  machine,  requiring  only  the 

*  Vql.  I,  p.  73. 


744  YAJ 

operation  of  a  suitable  apparatus  in  order  to  be  elicited.  It  is 
supposed  to  extend,  when  unrolled  from  the  Ahavaniya  or  sacrifi- 
cial fire,  (into  which  all  oblations  are  thrown,)  to  heaven,  forming 
thus  a  bridge  or  ladder,  by  means  of  which  the  sacrifice  can 
communicate  with  the  world  of  gods  and  spirits,  and  even  ascend 
when  alone  to  their  abodes." 

Yajna — Sacrifice  ;  an  allegorical  son  of  the  patriarch  Ruchi,  said 
to  have  been  married  to  his  sisterDakshina,  "  donation"  to  brahmans. 
At  the  spoiling  of  Daksha's  sacrifice  Yajna  was  decapitated,  and' 
afterwards  became  the  constellation  Mrigasiras,  being  elevated  to 
the  planetary  region  by  Brahma. 

Yajnabahu — The  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Priyavrata,  as 
given  in  the  Bhagavata.     See  Agnibahu. 

Yajnas — Five  are  enumerated,  which  are  translated  great 
sacrifices,  or  great  obligations:  1,  Brahmayajna,  sacred  study;. 
Pitriyajna,  libations  to  the  manes  ;  Devayajua,  burnt  offerings 
to  the  gods  ;  Baliyajua,  offerings  to  all  creatures  ;  Nriyajna^ 
hospitality^ 

The  Prajapatiyajna,  propagation  of  offspring,  and  Satyayajua, 
observance  of  truth,  are  apparently  later  additions. —  Wilso7t& 
Notes  to  V.  P. 

Yajnasri — One  of  the  Andhrabhritya  rajas  :  the  son  of  Swas- 
kandha. 

Yajnawalka — A  teacher  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

Yajnawalkya — A  celebrated  ascetic,  the  pupil  of  Vaisampa- 
yana  who  adored  the  sun  until  the  luminary  in  the  form  of  a 
horse,  appeared  to  him,  and  imparted  to  him  the  text  of  the 
Yajush  called  Ay^tayama  (unstudied,)  which  were  unknown  to 
Vaisampayana.  It  was  Yajnawalkya  who  officiated  as  one  of  the 
Hotris,  and  cooked  the  sacrifice  at  the  great  Rajasuya  of  Yudhish- 
thira.  Professor  Max  Miiller  observes  *'  that  it  would  be  a  mis- 
take to  call  Yajnawalkya  the  author,  in  our  sense  of  the  word  of 
the  Vajasaneya  Sauhita  and  the  Satapatha  Brahmana.  But  we 
have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was  Yajnawalkya  who  brought  the 
ancient  Mantras  and  Brahmanas  into  their  present  form."     A.  S.  L. 


YAJ— YAM  745 


"  Yajnawalkya  Vajasaiieya  was  evidently  a  man  of  great  influence, 
a  leader  of  public  opinion  in  his  day  ;  and  one  longs  to  know 
when  he  lived.  But  this  is  a  subject  still  requiring  much  elucidation, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  Introduction  to  Professor  GoldstUcker's 
Piinini." — Mrs.  Maiming,  A.  Sf  M.  I. 

Yajur  Veda— See  Appendix. 

Yajush — The  Yajur  Veda, 

Yaksha — The  sou  of  Khasa  and  parent  of  the  Yakshas,  as  his 
brother  Rakshas  was  of  the  Rakshasas. 

Yakshas— Minor  deities  ;  inferior  divinities.  Demi-gods  espe- 
cially attendant  on  Kuvera,  and  employed  by  him  on  the  care  of 
his  garden  and  treasures. 

Yama — l,  One  of  the  minor  Dwipas  ;  2,  A  watch  of  the 
day  or  night. 

Yama— The  monarch  of  the  Pitris  and  judge  of  the  dead — 
the  Pluto  of  Hindu  mythology.  He  is  represented  to  be  the  son 
of  the  Sun. 

"  Yama  is  the  son  of  Vivasvat,  and  of  Saranyu,  the  immortal 
dau""hter  of  Tvashtri.  He  is  elsewhere  said  to  have  been  one  of 
the  original  pair  of  human  beings,  and  to  have  sprung  from  the 
Gandharva,  a  deity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  his  wife.  In  the  same 
hymn  he  is  said  to  have  resisted  the  solicitations  of  his  twin  sister 
Yami  to  form  a  sexual  union  with  her  for  the  continuation  of  the 
species.  He  was  the  first  of  mortals  who  died,  and  discovered  the 
way  to  the  other  world  ;  he  guides  other  men  thither,  and  assembles 
them  in  a  home  which  is  secured  to  them  for  ever.  In  one  place 
he  is  represented  as  carousing  with  the  gods  under  a  leafy  tree. 
He  is  a  king  and  dwells  in  celestial  light,  in  the  innermost  sanc- 
tuary of  heaven,  where  the  departed  behold  him  associated  in 
blessedness  with  Varuna.  He  grants  luminous  abodes  in  heaven 
to  the  pious,  who  dwell  with  him  in  festive  enjoyment. 

"  In  the  Ri""  Veda  Yama  is  nowhere  represented  (as  he  is  in  the 
later  Indian  Mythology,)  as  having  anything  to  do  with  the  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked.  Nevertheless,  Yama  is  still,  to  some  extent, 
an  object  of  terror.     He  is  represented  as  having  two   insatiable 

9-i 


746  YAM 

dogs,  with  four  eyes  and  wide  nostrils,  which  guard  the  road  to  his 
abode,  and  which  the  departed  are  advised  to  hurry  past  with  all 
possible  speed.  These  dogs  are  said  to  wander  about  among  men 
as  his  messengers,  for  the  purpose  of  summoning  men  to  the  presence 
of  their  master,  who  is  in  another  place  identified  with  death,  and 
is  described  as  sending  a  bird  as  the  herald  of  doom.  Again, 
death  is  said  to  be  the  messenger  of  Yama,  who  conveys  the  spirits 
of  men  to  the  abode  of  their  forefathers. 

"  To  great  king  Yama  homage  pay, 

Who  was  the  first  of  men  that  died. 
That  crossed  the  mighty  gulf,  and  spied 
For  mortals  out  the  heavenly  way. 

No  power  can  ever  close  the  road 

Which  he  to  us  laid  open  then. 

By  which  in  long  succession,  men 
Ascend  to  his  sublime  abode. 

By  it  our  fathers  all  have  passed  ; 

And  that  same  path  we  too  shall  trace, 

And  every  new  succeeding  race 
Of  mortal  men,  while  time  shall  last. 

The  god  assembles  round  his  throne 

A  growing  throng,  the  good  and  wise 

All  those  whom,  scanned  with  searching  eyes, 

He  recognizes  as  his  own.         '^ 

Departed  mortal,  speed  from  earth 

By  those  old  ways  thy  sires  have  trod  ; 
Ascend,  behold  the  expectant  god. 

Who  calls  thee  to  a  higher  birth. 

First  must  each  several  element 

That  joined  to  form  thy  living  frame 
Flit  to  the  region  whence  it  came, 

And  with  its  parent  source  be  blent. 


YAM  747 


Thine  eye  shall  seek  the  solar  orb, 

Thy  life-l»reath  to  the  wind  shall  fly, 
Thy  part  ethereal  to  the  sky  ; 

Thine  earthy  part  shall  earth  absorb. 

Thine  unborn  part  shall  Agni  bright 
With  his  benignest  rays  illume  ; 
And  guide  it  through  the  trackless  gl 

To  yonder  sphere  of  life  and  light. 


com 


All  imperfections  leave  behind  ; 

Assume  thine  ancient  form  once  more, 
Each  limb  and  sense  thou  hadst  before, 

From  every  earthly  taint  refined. 

And  now  with  heavenly  glory  bright, 

With  life  intenser,  nobler,  blest. 

With  large  capacity  to  taste 
A  fuller  measure  of  delight. 

Thou  there  once  more  each  well  known  face 
Shalt  see  of  those  thou  lovedst  here  ; 
Thy  parents,  wife,  and  children  dear, 

With  rapture  shalt  thou  soon  embrace. 

The  good  which  thou  on  earth  hast  wroiigbr, 
Each  sacrifice,  each  pious  deed. 
Shall  there  receive  its  ample  meed  ; 

No  worthy  act  shall  be  forgot. 

In  those  fair  realms  of  cloudless  day 

Where  Yama  every  joy  supplies, 

And  every  longing  satisfies 
Thy  bliss  shall  never  know  decay." 

Muir,  0.  S.  r.,  F,  329. 

Yama — The  first  of  the  eight  stages  of  Yoga,  being  self-govern- 
ment, of  which  five  kinds  are  specified  : — 

1 — Freedom  from  any  wish  to  injure  others. 

2 — Truth  in  reference  to  words  and  thoughts. 


748  YAM— YAS 


3 — Freedom  from  appropriation  of  others'  property  in  thought, 
word  or. deed. 

4 — The  subjection  of  one's  members  in  order  to  overcome 

desire. 
5 — Renunciation  of  all  iudulgeuce  of  pleasure. 

Yama-gita — The  song  of  Yama  ;  a  name  given  to  the  seventh 
chapter  of  the  third  book  of  the  Vishnu  Puraua. 

Yamas — Moral  duties  ;  five  acts  of  restraint :  absence  of  cruelty 
or  violence,  (Ahinsa),  honesty  (Asteya),  truth  (Satya),  chastity 
(Bramacharyya),  disinterestedness  (Aparigraha). 

Yamas — Twelve  deities,  sons  of  Yajua  and  Dakshina. 

Yami — l,  A  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of  Dharma  ;  2,  A 
daughter  of  the  sun,  the  twin  sister  of  Yama  ;  she  became  the 
Yamuna  river. 

Yamuna — A  celebrated  river,  described  in  the  Puranas  as  the 
daughter  of  the  sun.  There  is  a  legend  that  Balarama  comj^elled 
the  river  to  chauo;e  its  course  and  follow  him  in  his  wanderiuos  ; 
which  Wilson  thinks  may  allude  to  the  construction  of  canals  from 
the  Jumna,  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation. 

Yasas — A  son  of  Dharma. 

Yaska — A  predecessor  of  Panini  (q.  v.)  and  author  of  IsTirukta, 
explaining  different  Vedic  words.  Yaska  was  also  the  author  of  a 
Commentary  which  bears  the  name  of  Nirukta.  "  Besides  the 
great  importance  which  Yaksha's  Nirukta  possesses  for  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  Vedic  texts  ;  it  is  valuable  also  on  account 
of  several  discussions  which  it  raises  on  grammatical  and  other 
questions  ;  and  on  account  of  the  insight  it  affords  us  into  the 
the  scientific  and  religious  condition  of  its  time." — GoLDSTacKER. 

Yasoda — l.  The  daughter  of  king  Samoravira,  who  was  married 
to  Varddhamana,  who  afterwards  became  the  twenty-fourth 
Tirthankara  of  the  Jains,  Mahavira. 

Yasoda — 2,  The  nurse  of  Krishna  ;  who  was  conveyed  at  his 
birth  to  the  bed  of  Yasoda,  by  his  father  Vasudeva,  and  her  own 


YAS— YAY  749 


new  born  infant  Yoganidra,  removed  to  the  bed  of  Devaki,  and 
destroyed  by  Kansa. 

Yasodhara — The  wife  of  Sahishnu  and  mother  of  Kamadeva. 

Yati — One  of  the  sous  of  Nahusha  and  brother  of  Yayati. 

Yavanas — louians  or  Greeks.  The  term  Yavanas,  though 
in  later  times  applied  to  the  Mohammedans,  designated  formerly 
the  Greeks.    They  are  placed  by  the  V.  P.  in  the  west  of  Bharata. 

Yavinara — A  king  of  Ilastinapnra,  the  son  of  Dwinudha  and 
grandson  of  Ilastiu. 

Yaudheya — The  wife  of  Yudhishthira  and  mother  of  Devaka. 

Yayati — The  son  of  Raja  Nahusha.  He  had  two  wives, 
Devayaui,  the  daughter  of  Usanas,  and  Sarmishtha,  the  daughter 
of  Vrishaparvan  ;  of  whom  this  genealogical  verse  is  recited  : 
"Devayani  bore  two  sous,  Yadu  and  Turvasu.  Sarmishtha,  the 
daughter  of  Vrishaparvan,  had  three  sons,  Druhyu,  Anu,  and 
Puru."  Through  the  curse  of  Usanas,  Yayati  became  old  and 
infirm  before  his  time  ;  but,  having  appeased  his  father-iu-law,  he 
obtained  permission  to  transfer  his  decrepitude  to  any  one  who 
would  consent  to  take  it.  He  first  applied  to  his  eldest  son,  Yadu, 
and  said  :  "  Your  maternal  grandfather  has  brought  this  premature 
decay  upon  me.  By  his  permission,  however,  I  may  transfer  it  to 
you  for  a  thousand  years.  I  am  not  yet  satiate  with  worldly 
enjoyments,  and  wish  to  partake  of  them  through  the  means  of  your 
youth.  Do  not  refuse  compliance  with  my  request."  Yadu, 
however,  was  not  willing  to  take  upon  hini  his  father's  decay  ;  on 
which,  his  father  denounced  an  imprecation  upon  him,  and  said  : 
"  Your  posterity  shall  not  possess  dominion."  He  then  applied, 
successively,  to  Druhyu,  Turvasu,  and  Anu,  and  demanded  of 
them  their  juvenile  vigour.  They  all  refused,  and  were,  in 
consequence,  cursed  by  the  king.  Lastly,  he  made  the  same 
request  of  Sarmishtha's  youngest  son  Puru,  who  bowed  to  his 
father,  and  readily  consented  to  give  him  his  youth,  and  receive, 
in  exchange,  Yay^ti's  infirmities,  saying  that  his  father  had  con- 
ferred upon  him  a  great  ftivour. 

The  king  Yayati  being,  thus,  endowed  with  renovated  youth, 


750  YAY 

conducted  the  affairs  of  State  for  the  good  of  his  people,  enjoying 
such  pleasures  as  were  suited  to  his  age  and  strength,  and  were  not 
incompatible  with  virtue.  He  formed  a  connexion  with  the  celestial 
nymph  Viswachi,  and  was  wholly  attached  to  her,  and  conceived 
no  end  to  his  desires.  The  more  they  were  gratified,  the  more 
ardent  they  became  ;  as  it  is  said  in  this  verse  :  "  Desire  is  not 
appeased  by  enjoyment :  fire  fed  with  sacrificial  oil  becomes  but  the 
more  intense.  No  one  has  ever  more  than  enough  of  rice,  or  barley, 
or  gold,  or  cattle,  or  women.  Abandon,  therefore,  inordinate  desire. 
When  a  mind  finds  neither  good  nor  ill  in  all  objects,  but  looks  on 
all  with  an  equal  eye,  then  everything  yields  it  pleasure.  The  wise 
man  is  filled  with  happiness,  who  escapes  from  desire,  which  the 
feeble-minded  can  with  difficulty  relinquish,  and  which  grows  not 
old  with  the  aged.  The  hair  becomes  grey,  the  teeth  fall  out,  as 
man  advances  in  years  ;  but  the  love  of  wealth,  the  love  of  life,  are 
not  impaired  by  age."  "  A  thousand  years  have  passed,"  reflected 
Yayali,  "  and  my  mind  is  still  devoted  to  pleasure  :  every  day  my 
desires  are  awakened  by  new  objects.  I  will,  therefore,  now 
renounce  all  sensual  enjoyment,  and  fix  my  mind  upon  spiritual 
truth.  Unaffected  by  the  alternatives  of  pleasure  and  pain,  and 
having  nothing  I  may  call  my  own,  I  will,  henceforth,  roam  the 
forests  with  the  deer." 

Having  made  this  determination,  Yayati  restored  his  youth  to 
Puru,  resumed  his  own  decrepitude,  installed  his  youngest  son  in 
the  sovereignty,  and  departed  to  the  wood  of  penance  (Tapovana). 
To  Turvasu  he  consigned  the  south-east  districts  of  his  kingdom  ; 
the  west,  to  Druhyu  ;  the  south,  to  Yadu  ;  and  the  north,  to  Anu  ; 
to  govern,  as  viceroys,  under  their  younger  brother  Puru,  whom 
he  appointed  supreme  monarch  of  the  earth."     V.  P. 

A  different  account  is  given  in  the  Padma  Purana.  It  is  there 
said  that  Yayd,ti  was  invited  by  Indra  to  heaven,  and  conveyed  on 
the  way  thither  by  Matali,  Indra's  charioteer.  For  the  conver- 
sation that  took  place  between  them,  see  Matali  ;  the  result  was 
that  Yayati  returned  to  earth,  where,  by  his  virtuous  administration 
he  rendered  all  his  subjects  exempt  from  passion  and  decay  :  Yama 
complained  that  men  had  ceased  to  die,  and  Indra  sent  Kamadeva 


YED  751 

and  his  daughter  Asruvindumati  to  endeavour  to  excite  passion  in 
the  breast  of  Yayati  ;  they  succeeded,  and  it  was  then  the  aged 
king  asked  his  sons  to  give  him  their  youth  in  exchange  for  his 
decrepitude.  As  related  above  they  all  refused  except  Puru,  the 
youngest.  Not  long  after  Yayati  proceeded  with  his  subjects  to 
Indra  and  ultimately  to  the  abode  of  Vishnu. —  Wilson,  III,  37. 

Yedillian  — The  wife  of  Ladurlad.  It  was  on  the  latter  tliat 
Southey  makes  the  terrible  curse  of  Kehama  to  rest.  ladurlad 
was  at  this  time  a  widower,  but  his  beloved  daughter  Kaliyal 
was  miraculously  preserved  to  him,  and  afforded  him  some  solace 
amidst  his  wanderings  and  sufferings,  so  well  depicted  in  Southey's 
poem.  When  at  length  by  the  descent  of  the  Gauges  to  the  earth 
the  father  and  daughter  are  enabled  to  escape  to  Mount  Meru  and 
find  a  place  of  rest  beyond  the  influence  of  Kehama's  Curse,  and 
then  the  long-lost  Yedillian  returns  to  him  in  this  bower  of  bliss  to 
complete  his  happiness.  The  scene  is  so  affectingly  described  that 
the  whole  passage  may  be  quoted  : 

Three  happy  beings  are  there  here. 
The  Sire,  the  Maid,  the  Glendoveer ; 
A  fourth  approaches,  ...who  is  this 
That  enters  in  the  Bower  of  Bliss  ? 
No  form  so  fair  might  painter  find 
Among  the  daughters  of  mankind  ; 
For  death  her  beauties  hath  refined, 

And  unto  her  a  form  hath  given 
Framed  of  the  elements  of  Heaven  ; 
Pure  dwelling  place  for  perfect  mind. 
She  stood  and  gazed  on  Sire  and  Child  ; 
Her  tongue  not  yet  had  power  to  speak, 
The  tears  were  streaming  down  her  cheek  ; 
And  when  those  tears  her  sight  beguiled, 

And  still  her  faltering  accents  fail'd, 
The  Spirit,  mute  and  motionless. 
Spread  out  her  arms  for  the  caress. 
Made  still  and  silent  with  excess 
Of  love  and  painful  happiness. 


752  YED 

The  Maid  that  lovely  form  survey'd  ; 
Wistful  she  gazed,  aud  knew  her  not, 
But  Mature  to  her  heart  couvey'd 
A  sudden  thrill,  a  startling  thought, 

A  feeling  many  a  year  forgot, 
Now  like  a  dream  anew  recurring, 

As  if  again  in  every  vein 
Her  mother's  milk  was  stirring. 
With  straining  neck  aud  earnest  eye 
She  stretched  her  hands  imploringly, 
As  if  she  fain  would  have  her  nigh. 

Yet  fear'd  to  meet  the  wish'd  embrace. 
At  once  with  love  and  awe  opprest. 
Not  so  Ladurlad  ;  he  could  trace, 

Though  brighten'd  with  angelic  grace. 
His  own  Yedillian's  earthly  face  ; 

He  ran  and  held  her  to  his  breast  ! 
Oh  joy  above  all  joys  of  Heaven, 
By  Death  alone  to  others  given. 

This  moment  hath  to  him  restored 

The  early-lost,  the  long-deplored. 

They  sin  who  tell  us  Love  can  die. 
With  life  all  other  passions  fly, 

All  others  are  but  vanity. 
In  Heaven  Ambition  cannot  dwell, 
Nor  Avarice  in  the  vaults  of  Hell  ; 

Earthly  these  passions  of  the  Earth, 
They  perish  where  they  have  their  birth  ; 
But  Love  is  indestructible. 

Its  holy  flame  for  ever  burueth, 
From  Heaven  it  came,  to  Heaven  returneth  ; 

Too  oft  on  Earth  a  troubled  guest, 

At  times  deceived,  at  times  opprest, 
It  here  is  tried  and  purified. 

Then  hath  in  Heaven  its  perfect  rest  : 
It  soweth  here  with  toil  and  care. 

But  the  harvest  lime  of  Love  i?  tliere. 


YOG  753 

Oh  !  when  a  Mother  meets  on  high 
The  Babe  she  lost  in  infancy, 
ILith  she  not  then,  for  paius  and  fears, 
The  day  of  woe,  the  watchful  night. 
For  all  her  sorrow,  all  her  tears, 
An  over-payment  of  delight  ? 

Yoga — Union,  junction  ;  in  a  spiritual  sense  it  denotes  union  of 
separated  with  universal  soul  ;  and  with  some  latitude  of  expres- 
sion it  comes  to  signify  the  means  by  which  such  union  is  effected. 
In  the  Bhagavat  Giti  it  is  variously  applied,  but  ordinarily 
denotes  the  performance  of  religious  ceremonies  as  a  duty,  and  not 
for  interested  purposes.  The  word  has  accordingly  been  rendered 
*  devotion'  by  Wilkins  [and  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Thomson]  and  *  devotio* 
by  Schlegel,  in  their  translations  of  the  Gita.  In  the  Vishnu  Purana 
it  is  used  in  a  less  genei'al  sense,  and  signifies  reunion  with  spirit, 
through  the  exercises  necessary  to  perfect  abstraction  as  they  ai-e 
taught  and  practised  by  the  followers  of  Patanjali. 

Yoganidra — Personified  delusion  :  the  great  illusory  energy  of 
Vishnu,  by  whom,  as  utter  ignorance,  the  whole  world  is  beguiled. 
Yoganidra  is  the  sleep  of  devotion  or  abstraction,  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  illusion,  personified,  and  also  termed  Maya  and  Maham^ya, 
also  Avidya  or  ignorance.  In  the  Markandeya  Purana  she  appears 
as  Devi  or  Durga,  the  Sakti  or  bride  of  Siva  ;  but  in  the  Vishnu 
Purana  as  Vaishnavi,  or  the  Sakti  of  Vishnu. 

Yogasiddha — The  lovely  and  virtuous  daughter  of  Vachaspati 
who  pervades  the  whole  world  without  being  devoted  to  it,  was 
the  wife  of  Prabhasa,  the  eighth  of  the  Vasus,  and  bore  to  him  the 
patriarch  Visvakarraa,  the  architect  and  mechanist  of  the  gods. 

Yogi-Yogin — A  devotee  seeking  the  attainment  of  Yoga  ;  he 
has  to  pass  through  four  principal  stages  : 

1. — He  learns  the  rules  of  Yoga. 
2.— He  acquires  perfect  knowledge. 

3. — He  employs  this  knowledge  practically  and  overcomes  the 
material  influence  of  the  primary  elements. 

95 


754  YUD 

4. — He  destroys  all  consciousness  of  personality  and  indivi- 
duality,  {ahankdrd) ;  and  the  soul  thus  becomes  free 
from  matter. 
Thus  by  the  prescribed  methods,  he  has  attained  the  state  termed 
Yoga,  the  union  of  the  living  with  the  supreme  soul  ;  the  identity 
of  the  living  with    the   supreme   spirit  ;   of  the   Jivatma,  with 
Brahma  ;  the  identity  of  the  contemplator  with  the  object  contem- 
plated. 

Yudamushti— One  of  the  sons  of  the  Yadava  chief  Ugrasena. 
Yudhajit — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Asvapati,  raja  of  Kekaya, 
and  uncle  of  Bharata. 

Then  Bharat  for  the  road  prepared, 

And  with  Satrughna  forth  he  fared. 

First  to  his  sire  he  bade  adieu. 

Brave  Rama,  and  his  mothers  too. 

Lord  Yudhajit  with  joyful  pride 

Went  forth,  the  brothers  by  his  side, 

And  reached  the  city  where  he  dwelt : 

And  mighty  joy  his  father  felt. 

2,  A  prince,  the  second  son  of  Vrishni,  raja  of  Mrittikavati. 

Yudhishthira — The  eldest  of  the  Pandu  princes.  *'  The 
characters  of  the  five  brothers  in  the  Mahabharata  are  drawn 
with  an  individuality  which  is  very  unusual  in  Oriental  poetry. 
They  each  have  their  distinguishing  traits,  which  are  often  painted 
with  much  discrimination  and  even  delicacy  of  touch  in  the  lighter 
shades  ;  and  yet  there  evidently  runs  a  family  likeness  through 
them  all.  To  the  European  reader,  Arjuna,  the  third  brother  is 
the  most  interesting,  and  approaches  the  nearest  to  our  ideal  of 
chivalry  ;  many  of  his  exploits  remind  us  of  Arthur's  knights,  or 
Charlemagne's  paladins  ;  and  it  is  he  who  wins  Draupadi  as  his 
wife  in  a  tournament,  where  her  father  had  offered  her  hand  as  the 
conqueror's  prize.  With  the  Hindus,  however,  Yudhishthira,  the 
eldest,  is  the  favourite  ;  his  cold  passionless  heroism  is  with  them 
the  beau  ideal  of  humanity  ;  and  he  moves  through  the  poem  in  a 
calm  majesty  of  self-possession,  as  if  far  above  all  the  weaknesses 
of  raaUj  M'hile  the  sorrows  and  joys  which  chequer  his  life. 


YUD  755 

*  Viennent  tonjours  glisser  sur  son  etre  iiif^ensiblc, 
Commes  de  gouttes  dean  sur  un  marbre  poll.'* 

Yudhishthira,  as  we  liave  already  seen,  [Pandavas]  was 
taught  the  use  of  the  spear  by  Drona,  but  became  more  distin- 
guished by  wisdom  and  goodness  than  for  military  exploits. 
His  uncle  the  Maharaja  Dhritarashtra  decided  that  Yudhishthira 
had  the  best  right  to  succeed  him,  and  he  was  installed  as 
Yuvaraja.  This  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  cousin  Duryodhaua, 
who  expostulated  with  the  old  Maharaja  until  he  agreed  to  divide 
the  kingdom  between  them,  when  Yudhishthira  and  his  brethren 
took  leave  of  the  Maharaja,  and  of  all  their  kinsmen,  and  departed 
with  their  mother  Kunti  to  the  city  of  Varanavati.  Before  their 
departure  they  were  cautioned  by  their  uncle  Vidura  to  beware  of 
fire  ;  and  soon  after  their  arrival  they  discovered  a  wicked  plot 
that  had  been  devised  by  Duryodhaua  and  his  friends  for  their 
destruction.  A  trusty  retainer  of  Duryodhana's,  named  Purochana, 
had  been  sent  on  to  prepare  a  handsome  house  in  the  city  of 
Varanavati  for  the  sons  of  Pandu  :  and  Purochana  had  built  the 
walls  of  the  house  with  lac  or  resin,  mingled  with  hemp  ;  so  that 
some  night  when  the  Pandavas  were  asleep,  the  doors  might  be 
fastened  in  the  outside  and  the  house  set  on  fire,  and  all  within  it  be 
consumed  in  the  flames.  Accordingly  Purochana  heartily  welcomed 
the  Pandavas  ;  and  after  having  conducted  them  to  the  college  of 
devotees,  he  led  them  to  the  house  prepared  for  their  reception, 
and  set  before  them  a  collation  of  fruit,  &c.  Shortly  after  a  man 
came  from  their  uncle  saying,  "  Vidura  has  sent  me  to  dig  an 
underground  passage  from  your  house,  to  deliver  you  from  it, 
should  it  be  set  on  fire."  When  the  passage  was  com- 
pleted Bhima  resolved  that  Purochana  should  fall  into  the 
snare  he  had  laid  for  them.  One  day  Kunti  invited  all  the 
poor  people  of  the  city  and  gave  them  a  feast  ;  among  her 
guests  were  a  Bhil  woman  and  her  five  sons,  who  a(!Cording 
to  the  practice  of  their  tribe  drank  a  large  quantity  of  strong 
liquor,  and  then  lay  down  and  slept  heavily.  The  same  night  a 
violent  wind  arose,  and  Bhima  stole  out  through  the  passage,  and 

*  Westminster  Review,  Vol.  T,  p.  r>3. 


756  YUD 

strongly  barricaded  the  house  of  Purochaa  and  set  it  on  fire  ;  and 
the  flames  speedily  destroyed  the  building  and  reached  the  house 
of  the  Pandavas  ;  then  Bhima  conducted  his  mother  and  brethren 
through  the  passage  underground  and  hurried  them  away  into  the 
jungle.  Next  morning  the  people  of  the  city  saw  that  both  houses 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  and  believed  that  all  the  inmates  had 
perished  ;  for  they  discovered  the  blackened  remains  ofPurochaua 
and  his  servants,  and  also  those  of  the  Bhil  woman  and  her  five 
sons,  whom  they  took  to  be  those  of  Kunti  and  the  Pandavas.  The 
tidings  now  reached  the  city  of  Hastiuapur,  and  the  Kauravas 
greatly  rejoiced  at  the  supposed  death  of  their  enemies  the 
Pandavas  ;  but  Bhishma,  Drona,  and  Dritarashtra  were  affected 
even  unto  tears. 

The  Pandavas  having  escaped  into  the  jungle  met  with  many 
adventures  there.  Ouce  when  the  party,  overcome  with  fatigue 
were  all  asleep  except  Bhima,  who  stood  by  to  guard  them,  an 
Asura  named  Hidimba  attacked  him,  but  after  a  severe  fight,  Bhima 
slew  the  cannibal.  The  sister  of  the  Asura  then  set  up  a  terrible 
cry,  but  afterwards  followed  Bhima  and  his  party.  She  was 
ultimately  married  to  him.  They  all  afterwards  dwelt  in  the  city  of 
Ekachakra,  (q.  v.).  The  next  event  of  importance  was  the  marriage 
of  the  five  brothers  to  Draupadi,  the  beautiful  daughter  of 
Drupada,  the  Raja  of  Panchala.  At  her  Sway  am  vara  the  Kauravas 
and  many  distinguished  Rajas  assembled  ;  but  all  failed  to  bend 
the  bow,  when  Arjuna  disguised  as  a  brahman,  accomplished  the 
feat,  and  shot  the  arrow  in  the  eye  of  the  golden  fish,  having  first 
gone  through  the  whirling  Chakra  below  the  fish.  Draupadi  then 
threw  the  garland  round  Arjuna's  neck  and  accompanied  him  to 
the  house  of  his  mother.  Afterwards  by  the  advice  of  the  sage 
Vy^sa  she  was  married  to  all  the  five  brothers.  They  then  returned 
to  Hastin^pur  on  the  invitation  of  Bhishma,  and  were  given  the 
sovereignty  of  Khandava-prastha,  as  their  half  of  the  Raj. 

When  the  Pandavas  were  settled  in  this  new  country,  they  built 
at  first  at  Indra-prastha,  cleared  the  jungle  of  Khandava,  and  drove 
out  the  Scythian  tribe  known  as  the  Nagas.  When  they  had  thu^ 
established  a  supremacy  over  every  bordering  enemy,  and  proved 
to  the  satisfaction  of  their  new  subjects  that  they  could   protect 


YUD 757 

cattle  and  harvests,  they  invited  all  their  kinsmen  and  neiglibours 
to  a  Rajasuya,  and  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people  solemnly 
inaugurated  their  elder  brother  Yudhishthira  as  Raja  of  Khauda- 
prastha.  The  ceremonies  performed  at  the  sacrifice  were  these  :  a 
number  of  priests  marked  out  the  spot,  and  strewed  the  place  with 
the  sacred  kusa  grass,  kindled  the  sacrificial  fire  and  chanted  the 
Vedic  hymns.  The  so-called  Rajas  who  attended,  were  probably 
a  rude  company  of  half-naked  warriors  who  feasted  boisterously 
beneath  the  shade  of  trees.* 

The  Rajasuya  excited  the  jealous  anger  of  Duryodhana,  who 
arranged  for  his  cousin's  visit  to  a  great  gambling  match  at 
Hastinapur.  Yudhishthira  reluctantly  consented  to  go  from  a  sense 
of  obligation  to  obey  the  Maharaja,  and  accept  a  challenge^ 
Through  the  fraudulent  contrivances  of  Duryodhana  he  lost  the 
whole  of  the  Raj  ;  staked  his  brothers  as  slaves  and  lost  them  ; 
lost  himself ;   then  Draupadi  ;  then  went  into  exile. 

After  thirteen  years  of  exile  in  which  they  had  many  adventures, 
negotiations  were  opened  for  the  return  of  the  Pandavas.  These 
all-failing,  preparations  w^ere  made  for  the  great  war  which  forms 
the  chief  event  in  the  Mahabharata,  q.  v.    See  also  Pandavas,  &c. 

The  closing  scene  of  the  Mahabharata,  describing  the  last  days 
of  Yudhishthira,  is  considered  the  very  finest  specimen  of  the 
heroic  poetry  of  India.  "  We  know  of  no  episode  even  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  which  can  surpass  its  mournful  grandeur,  or  raise 
a  more  solemn  dirge  over  the  desolation  of  the  fallen  heart  of  man  ! 
Yudhishthira  has  won  the  throne,  and  his  enemies  are  all  fallen  ; 
and  an  inferior  poet  would  have  concluded  the  story  with  a  p»an 
upon  his  happiness.  But  the  Hindu  bard  had  a  far  deeper  insight 
into  man's  nature,  and  his  genius  would  not  content  itself  with  any 
such  commonplace  catastrophe  ;  he  knew  well  that  the  human 
soul  was  born  for  the  infinite,  and  that  no  finite  line  could  fathom 
the  depths  of  its  longings  !  It  was  no  idle  fiction  in  Grecian 
mythology,  that  Ulysses  after  his  return  to  Ithaca,  wandered  forth 
again  with  his  hungry  heart  into  the  world. 

*  Wheeler,  I,  167. 


758  YUD 

'  For  all  experience  is  an  arch,  where  thro' 
Gleams  that  uutraversed  land,  whose  margin  fades, 
For  ever  and  for  ever  as  we  move.' 

"  And  Ulysses  had  found  that  the  Ithaca,  which  had  lured  him 
on  through  ten  years  of  war,  and  ten  more  of  wandering,  changed, 
upon  his  arrival,  into  a  bleak  barren  rock,  and  his  restless  soul 
stretched  out  her  hands  once  more  to«vards  the  untrodden  beyond. 
Just  in  the  same  way,  and  with  the  same  deep  significance, 
Yudhishthira  learns,  after  his  victory,  that  the  throne  for  which  he 
had  suffered  so  much  leaves  him  unsatisfied  and  hungry  as  before. 
The  friends  of  his  youth  are  fallen,  and  the  excitement  of  contest 
is  over  ;  and  he  learns  in  sorrow  that  kings  are  but  men,  and 
that  the  Fall  has  overshadowed  the  throne  as  much  as  the  poorest 
cottage  !  In  gloomy  disappointment  Yudhishthira  resigns  his 
crown,  and  he  and  his  brothers  and  Draupadi  set  out  in  a  forlorn 
journey  to  Mount  Meru,  where  Indra's  heaven  lies  amongst  the 
wilds  of  the  Himalayas,*  there  to  find  that  rest  which  seemed 
denied  to  their  search  upon  earth.  We  present  a  literal  prose 
version  of  their  pilgrimage  and  with  it  close  our  extracts. 

I. 

Having  heard  Yudhishthira's  resolve,  and  seen  the  destruction  of  Kriehna, 

The  five  brothers  set  forth,  and  Draupadi,  and  the  seventh  was  a  dog  that  followed  them, 

Yudhishthira  himself  was  the  last  that  quitted  Hastin§,pura  ; 

And  all  the  citizens  and  the  court  followed  them  on  their  way. 

But  none  felt  able  to  say  unto  him  '  return  ;' 

And  at  length  they  all  went  back  unto  the  city, 

Then  the  high-souled  sons  of  PS,ndu,  and  far-famed  Draupadi, 

Pursued  their  way,  fasting,  and  with  their  faces  turned  towards  the  east, 

Resolved  upon  separation  from  earth,  and  longing  for  release  from  its  laws  ; 

They  roamed  onward  over  many  regions,  and  to  many  a  river  and  sea. 

Yudhishthira  went  before,  and  Bhima  followed  next  behind  him. 

And  Arjuna  came  after  him,  and  then  the  twin  sons  of  Madri, 

And  sixth,  after  them,  came  Draupadi,  with  her  fair  face  and  lotus  eyes. 

And  last  of  all  followed  the  dog,  as  they  wandered  on  till  they  came  to  the  ocean. 

*  This  is  in  fact  a  precise  counterpart  to  the  legend  of  Ulysses,  as  Tennyson 
describes  it  in  his  poem, — the  most  epicean  fragment  since  Milton's  days. 

For  my  purpose  holds 
'  "  To  sail  unto  the  West  until  I  die. 

It  may  be  that  the  gulfs  will  wash  us  down, 
It  may  be  we  shall  reach  the  blessed  isles  ; 
And  see  the  great  Achilles  whom  we  knew.'  " 


YUD  759 

But  Arjuna  left  not  hold  of  his  heavenly  bow, 

Lured  by  the  splendour  of  its  gems,  nor  of  those  two  heavenly  arrows  ; 

And  suddenly  they  saw  Agni'  standing  like  a  mountain  before  them, 

Standing  in  gigantic  form  and  stopping  up  their  path  ; 

And  thus  to  them  spoke  the  god,— 'O  sons  of  P^ndu,  do  you  know  me  not  V 

0  Yudhishthira,  mighty  hero,  knowest  thou  not  my  voice  ? 

1  am  Agni,  who  gave  that  bow  unto  Arjuna  ; 

Let  him  leave  it  here  and  go,  for  none  other  is  worthy  to  bear  it ; 

For  Arj  Una's  sake  I  stole  tliat  bow  of  Varuna,  the  ocean  god. 

Let  Gandhiva,  that  best  of  bows,  be  given  back  to  ocean  again  !' 

Then  the  brothers  all  besought  Arjuna  to  obey, 

And  he  flung  the  bow  into  the  sea,  and  he  flung  tliose  immortal  arrows  ; 

And  lo  !  as  they  fell  into  the  sea,  Agni  vanished  before  them. 

And  once  more  the  sons  of  Pclndu  set  forth,  with  their  faces  turned  to  the  south. 

And  then  by  the  upper  shore  of  the  briny  sea. 

They  turned  toward  the  south-west,  and  went  on  their  way  ; 

And  as  they  journeyed  onwards,  and  came  unto  the  west. 

There  they  beheld  the  old  city  of  Krishna,  now  washed  over  by  the  ocean  tide. 

Again  they  turned  to  the  north,  and  still  they  went  on  in  their  way. 

Circumambulating  round  the  continent  to  find  separation  from  earth. 

II. 

Then  with  their  senses  subdued,  the  heroes  having  reached  the  north, 

Beheld,  with  their  heaven-desiring  eyes,  the  lofty  mountain  Himavat, 

And  having  crossed  its  height  they  beheld  the  sea  of  sand, 

And  next  they  saw  rocky  Meru,  the  king  of  mountains. 

But  while  they  were  thus  faring  onwards,  in  eager  search  for  separation, 

Draupadi  lost  hold  of  her  hope,  and  fell  on  the  face  of  the  earth  ; 

And  Bhima  the  mighty  having  beheld  her  fall. 

Spoke  to  the  king  of  justice.t  looking  back  to  her  as  there  she  lay, 

'  No  act  of  evil  hath  she  done,  that  faultless  daughter  of  a  king. 

Wherefore  then,  0  conqueror,  hath  she  fallen  thus  low  on  the  ground  ?' 

And  thus  to  him  answered  Yudhishthira  'too  great  was  her  love  for  Arjuna,' 

And  the  fruit  thereof.  Oh  Bhima,  hath  she  gathered  here  this  day. 

Thus  speaking,  Bharata's  glorious  descendant,  went  onwards,  not  looking  back, 

Gathering  up  his  soul  in  himself  in  his  unstooping  wisdom  and  justice. 

Next  the  fair  Sahadeva  fell  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 

And  Bhima,  beholding  him  fall,  thus  spake  to  the  king : 

'  Oh  Yudhishthira,  he  the  greatest,  the  least  froward  and  wilful  of  us  all. 

He  the  son  of  fair  Madri,— wherefore  hath  he  fallen  on  the  ground  ?* 

And  him  thus  answered  Yudhishthira,  '  He  esteemed  none  equal  to  himielf, 

This  was  his  fault,  and  therefore  hath  the  prince  fallen  this  day.' 

Thus  speaking,  he  left  Sahadeva,  and  went  on  ; 

Yudhishthira,  king  of  justice,  and  his  brothers,  and  the  dog. 

But  when  Nakula  saw  the  fall  of  Draupadi  and  his  brother. 

The  hero,  full  of  love  for  his  kindred,  in  his  grief  fell  down  like  them  to  the  earth. 

And  when  Nakula,  the  fair-faced,  had  thus  fallen  like  the  others, 

Once  more,  in  his  wonder,  spoke  Bhima  unto  the  king  :— 

'  What !  he  the  undeviating  in  virtue,  ever  true  to  his  honour  and  faith, 

*  The  god  of  Fire  from  whom  Arjuna  had  obtained  the  bow  Gandhiva. 
t  The  usual  title  of  Yudhishthira. 


760  VED 

Unequalled  for  beauty  in  the  world,  hath  he  too  fallen  on  the  ground  ?' 

And  him  thus  answered  Yudhishthira,  '  Ever  was  the  thought  in  his  heart. 

There  is  none  equal  in  beauty  to  mc,  and  I  am  superior  unto  all !' 

Therefore  hath  Nakula  fallen  ;  come  Bhima,  and  follow  my  steps ; 

•  Whatsoever  each  hath  done,  assuredly  he  eateth  thereof.' 

And  when  Arjuna  beheld  them  thus  fallen  behind  him. 

He  too,  the  great  conqueror,  fell,  with  his  soul  pierced  through  with  sorrow : 

And  when  he,  the  lion-hearted,  was  fallen,  like  Indra  himself  in  majesty, 

When  he,  the  invincible,  was  dead,  once  more  Bhima  spoke  unto  the  king : 

'  No  act  of  evil  do  I  remember  in  all  that  Arjuna  hath  done  ; 

Wherefore  then  is  this  change,  and  why  hath  he  too  fallen  on  the  ground  ?' 

And  him  thus  answered  Yudhishthira,  *  In  one  day  I  could  destroy  all  my  enemies. 

Such  was  Arjuna's  boast,  and  he  falls,  for  he  fulfilled  it  not ! 

And  he  ever  despised  all  warriors  beside  himself, 

This  he  ought  not  to  have  done,  and  therefore  hath  he  fallen  to-day. 

Thus  speaking,  the  king  went  on,  and  then  Bhima  himself  next  fell  to  the  earth. 

And,  as  he  fell,  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice  unto  Yudhishthira, 

'  Oh  king  of  justice  look  back,  I— I  thy  dear  brother  am  fallen. 

What  is  the  cause  of  my  fall.  Oh  tell  it  to  me  if  thou  knowest !' 

Once  more  him  answered  Yudhishthira,  '  When  thou  gazed'st  on  thy  foe, 

Thou  hast  cursed  him  with  thy  breath,  therefore  thou  too  fallest  to-day !' 

Thus  having  spoken,  the  mighty  king,  not  looking  back,  went  on, 

And  still,  as  ever,  behind  him,  went  following  that  dog  alone  ! 

III. 
•  Lo  !  suddenly,  with  a  sound  that  ran  through  heaven  and  earth 
Indra  came  riding  on  his  chariot,  and  he  cried  to  the  king  '  ascend.' 
Then  indeed  did  the  lord  of  justice  look  back  to  his  fallen  brothers. 
And  thus  unto  Indra  he  spoke  with  a  sorrowful  heart, 
'  Let  my  brothers  who  yonder  lie  fallen,  go  with  me, 
Not  even  into  thy  heaven  would  I  enter  if  they  were  not  there  ; 
And  yon  fair-faced  daughter  of  a  king,  Draupadi,  the  all-deserving  ; 
Let  her  too  enter  with  us  ?  Oh  Indra,  approve  my  prayer !' 

Indra. 
In  heaven  thou  shalt  find  thy  brothers,  they  are  already  there  before  thee. 
There  are  they  all  with  Draupadi ;  weep  not  then,  Oh  son  of  Bharata  ! 
Thither  are  they  entered,  prince,  having  thrown  away  their  mortal  weeds. 
But  thou  alone  shalt  enter,  still  wearing  thy  body  of  flesh. 

Yudhishthira. 
Oh  Indra  and  what  of  this  dog?  It  hath  faithfully  followed  me  through  ; 
Let  it  go  with  me  into  heaven,  for  my  soul  is  full  of  compassion. 

Indra. 
Immortality  and  fellowship  with  me,  and  the  height  of  joy  and  felicity. 
All  these  hast  thou  reached  to-day  ;  leave  then  the  dog  behind  thee. 

Yudhishthira. 
The  good  may  oft  act  an  evil  part,  but  never  a  part  like  this  ; 
Away  then  with  that  felicity,  whose  price  is  to  abandon  the  faithful. 

Indra. 
My  heaven  hath  no  place  for  dogs  ;  they  steal  away  our  offerings  on  earth. 
Leave  then  thy  dog  behind  thee,  nor  think  in  thy  heart  that  it  is  cruel. 


YUG  761 

YUDHISHiniRA. 

To  abandon  the  faithful  and  devoted  is  an  endless  crime,  like  the  murder  of  a  Brahman, 

Never  therefore,  come  weal  or  woe,  will  I  abandon  yon  faithful  dog, 

Yon  poor  creature,  in  fear  and  distress,  hath  trusted  in  my  power  to  save  it ; 

Not  therefore,  for  even  life  itself,  will  I  break  my  plighted  word. 

Indka. 
If  a  dog  but  beholds  a  sacrifice,  men  esteem  it  unholy  and  void  ; 
Forsake  then  the  dog,  O  hero,  and  heaven  is  thine  own  as  a  reward. 
Already  thou  hast  borne  to  forsake  thy  fondly-loved  brothers  and  Draupadi, 
Why  tlien  forsakest  thou  not  the  dog  ?  wherefore  now  fails  thy  heart  ? 

YUDHISHTHIRA. 

Mortals,  when  they  are  dead,  are  dead  to  love  or  hate,  so  runs  the  world's  belief, 

I  could  not  bring  them  back  to  life,  but  while  they  lived  I  never  left  them  ; 

To  oppress  the  suppliant,  to  kill  a  wife,  to  spoil  a  Brahman,  and  to  betray  one's  friends, 

These  are  the  four  great  crimes  ;  and  to  forsake  a  dependent,  I  count  equal  unto  them. 

Yudhishthira  then  enters  heaven ;  but  one  more  trial  awaits  hira. 
He  finds  there  Duryodhaua  and  the  other  sons  of  Dhritar^shtra, 
but  he  looks  in  vain  for  his  own  brothers.  He  refuses  to  stay  in 
the  Swerga  without  them,  and  a  mesrsenger  is  sent  to  bring  him 
where  they  are.  He  descends  to  the  Indian  hell  and  finds  them 
there  ;  and  he  proudly  resolves  to  stay  with  them  and  share  their 
sorrows,  rather  than  dwell  in  heaven  without  them.  But  the 
whole  scene  was  only  a  mdyd  or  illusion,  to  prove  his  virtue  ;  the 
sorrows  suddenly  vanish,  the  surrounding  liell  changes  into  heaven 
where  Yudhishthira  and  his  brothers  dwell  with  Indra  in  full 
content  of  heart  for  ever. 

Thus  closes  the  Mahabharata,  the  new  mythic  world,  which  a 
modern  Columbus  has  opened."* 

Yudhishthira  is  also  called  Dharmaraja,  Dharmaputra  and  some- 
times simply  Rajan. 

Yuga — A  cycle  of  five  years.  The  years  are  called  severally 
Samvatsara,  Parivatsara,  Idvatsara,  Auuvatsara,  and  Vatsara. 
There  are  four  kinds  of  mouths  :  1 ,  the  Saura,  or  Solar-sidereal, 
consisting  of  the  sun's  passage  through  a  sign  of  the  zodiac  ;  2, 
the  Saumya  or  Chandra  or  lunar  month,  comprehending  thirty 
lunations  or  Tithis,  and  reckoned  most  usually  from  new  moon  to 
new  moon,  though  sometimes  from  full  moon  to  full  moon  ;  3,  the 
Savana,   or   solar  month,   containing   thirty   days  of  sunrise  and 


■MVestminster  Review.  Vo].  L.  p.  61. 

90 


762  YUG 

sunset ;  and  4,  the  Nakshatra  or  lunar  asterismal  month,  which  is 
the  moon's  revolution  through  the  twenty-eight  lunar  mansions. 
The  five  years  forming  the  Yuga  diifer  only  in  denomination,  being 
composed  of  the  months  just  described,  with  such  Malamdsas  or 
intercalary  months,  as  may  be  necessary  to  complete  the  period, 
according  to  Vriddha  Garga.  The  cycle  comprehends  therefore 
sixty  solar-sidereal  months  of  1,800  days  :  sixty-one  solar  months 
or  1,830  days  ;  sixty-two  lunar  months,  or  1,860  lunations  ;  and 
sixty-seven  luuar-asterismal  months,  or  1,809  such  days. 

Yugas — There  are  four  Yugas  or  ages  ;  the  Krita,  the  Treta, 
the  Dwapara,  and  the  Kali.  To  estimate  the  length  of  each  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  six  months  form  an  Ayana  (the  period 
of  the  sun's  progress  north  or  south  of  the  ecliptic)  ;  and  two 
Ayauas  compose  a  year.  The  southern  Ayana  is  a  night,  and  the 
northern  a  day,  of  the  gods.  Twelve  thousand  divine  years,  each 
composed  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  such  days,  constitute  the 
period  of  the  four  Yugas  or  ages.  They  are  thus  distributed  :  the 
Krita  age  has  four  thousand  divine  years ;  the  Tretd,  three  thousand  ; 
the  Dwapara,  two  thousand  ;  and  the  Kdli  age,  one  thousand.  The 
period  that  precedes  a  Yuga  is  called  a  Sandhya,  and  it  is  of  as 
many  hundred  years  as  there  are  thousands  in  the  Yuga  ;  and  the 
period  that  follows  a  Yuga,  termed  the  Sandhyasana,  is  of  similar 
duration. 

Thus  Krita  Yuga 4,000 

Sandhya 400 

Sandhyasana 400 

4,800 

—  Treta  Yuga 3,000 

Sandhya 300 

Sandhyasana 300 

3,600 

—  Dwapara  Yuga 2,000 

Sandhya 200 

Sandhyasana  200 

2,400 

Carried  over...  10,800 


YUV— YUY  763 


Brought  over...  10,800 

Kali  Yuga 1,000 

Sandhya 100 

Sandhyasana 1 00 

1,200 


12,000 
— See  V.  P.  and  Notes. 

Yuvanaswa — l,  A  prince,  the  son  of  Ardra  ;  2,  the  son  of 
Prasenajit,  and  father  of  Mandhatra,  q.  v. ;  3,  the  son  of  Am- 
barisha. 

Yuyudhana — The  sou  of  Satyaka,  and  grandson  of  Sini. 

YuyutSU — The  youngest  son  of  Dhritarashtra,  by  a  woman  of 
the  Vaisya  caste,  making  altogether  a  hundred    and  two  children. 


APPEjN^DIX. 


A 

Adityas --[Page  lO]— The  sous  of  Aditi.  They  were  first 
reckoned  as  seveu  or  eight.  In  the  hiter  Indian  literature  they 
are  always  said  to  be  twelve.  Contradictory  accounts  of  them  are 
cited  by  Dr.  Muir  (IV,  104).  In  texts  from  the  Mahabharata  the 
Adityas,  though  their  names  are  not  always  uniformly  given,  are 
stated  to  be  twelve  in  number,  except  in  one  case  where  only 
eleven  are  specified.  Vishnu  is  always  named  as  one  of  them,  and 
as  by  the  time  when  these  works  were  written,  his  dignity  had 
become  enhanced  in  general  estimation,  he  is  declared  to  be  the 
greatest  of  the  twelve.  In  the  V.  P.  and  Harivamsha  it  is  stated 
that  those  who  formerly,  in  the  Chakshusha  Manwautara,  were 
called  the  Tushitas,  are  known  as  the  twelve  Adityas  in  the 
Vaivasvata  Manwantara. 

Professor  Roth,  (in  the  Journal  of  the  Germ.  Or.  Soc.  VI,  68) 
has  the  following  observations  on  the  Adityas.  There  (in  the 
highest  heaven)  dwell  and  reign  those  gods  who  bear  in  common 
the  name  of  Adityas.  We  must,  however,  if  we  would  discover 
their  earliest  character,  abandon  the  conceptions  which  in  a  later 
age,  and  even  in  that  of  the  heroic  poems,  were  entertained 
regarding  these  deities.  According  to  this  conception  they  were 
twelve  sun-gods,  bearing  evident  reference  to  the  twelve  months. 
But  for  the  most  ancient  period  we  must  hold  fast  the  primary 
signification  of  their  name.  They  are  the  inviolable,  imperishable, 
eternal  beings.  Aditi,  eternity,  or  the  eternal,  is  the  element 
which  sustains  them,  and  is  sustained  by  them.  The  eternal  and 
inviolable  element  in  which  the  Adityas  dwell,  and  which  forms 


'66  APPENDIX. 


their  essence,  is  the  celestial  light.  The  Adityas,  the  gods  of  this 
light,  do  not  therefore  by  any  means  coincide  Avith  any  of  the 
forms  in  which  light  is  manifested  in  the  universe.  They  are 
neither  snn,  nor  moon,  nor  stars,  nor  dawn,  but  the  eternal  sus- 
tainers  of  this  luminous  life,  which  exists,  as  it  were,  behind  all 
these  phenomena. —  0.  S.  T.,  V,  56. 

Ahi — A  name  of  Vrittra,  the  demon  who  personifies  drought, 
and  is  also  called  Sushna. 

Ajobhaga — The  unborn  part  of  man.  After  death  and  the 
cremation  of  the  body,  Agui  is  supplicated  to  kindle  the  unborn 
part  with  his  heat  and  flame,  and,  assuming  his  most  auspicious 
form,  to  convey  it  to  the  world  of  the  righteous.  Before,  however, 
this  unborn  part  can  complete  its  course  from  earth  to  the  third 
heaven,  it  has  to  traverse  a  vast  gulf  of  darkness.  Leaving  behind 
on  earth  all  that  is  evil  and  imperfect,  and  proceeding  by  the  paths 
which  the  fathers  trod,  the  spirit,  invested  with  a  lustre  like  that 
of  the  gods,  soars  to  the  realms  of  eternal  light,  &c. —  0.  S.  T., 
Vol.  V,  p.  303. 

Akampana — A  kiug  who  lived  in  the  Krita  Yuga,  but  who 
was  so  far  from  enjoying  the  tranquillity  generally  predicated  of 
that  happy  time,  that  he  was  overcome  by  his  enemies  in  a  battle, 
in  which  he  lost  his  son,  and  suffered  in  consequence  severe  afflic- 
tion.—O.  S.  T.,  Vol.  /,  p.  505. 

Anakadundubhi — A  name  of  Vasudeva,  q.  v. 

Aranyani — The  goddess  of  forest  solitude.  Several  hymns  in 
the  Rig-  and  Atharva-vedas  are  addressed  to  this  goddess.  See 
O.  S.  T.,  V,  423. 

Arhat — A  perfect  saint,  amongst  the  Jains  or  Buddhists  ;  one 
in  whom  evil  desire  is  entirely  destroyed  ;  one  entitled  to  the 
homage  of  gods  and  men. 

Aruna — The  ruddy.  The  son  of  the  patriarch  Kasyapa  and 
his  wife  Vinata  ;  the  younger  brother  of  Garuda,  the  bird  vehicle 
of  Vishnu.  This  deity  has  in  the  classical  period  taken  the  place 
of  Ushas,  the  personification  of  dawn  in  the  Vedic  creed. 

Arushi — The  daughter  of  Mann  and  wife  of  the  great  sage 
Chyavana.— 0.  S.  T,,  Vol.  Z  p.  124. 


APPENDIX.  767 


Arvalan — The  son  and  heir  of  Raja  Kehama,  who  offered 
violence  to  Kaliyal,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  a  peasant  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  palace,  and  was  felled  to  the  earth  and  slain 
by  the  avengiog  arm  of  her  fiuher. 

Aryabhata— At  page  48  this  name  was  spelt  after  Colebrooke 
as  Aryahhatta  ;  but  in  old  Sanskrit  works  recently  discovered 
it  is  written  almost  invariably  with  one  t  Aryabhata  ;  and  this  is 
therefore  the  spelling  now  adopted.  It  is  ascertained  on  his  own 
authority  that  he  was  born  at  Kusumapura,  near  the  modern 
Patna.  The  date  which  he  assigns  for  his  birth  corresponds  with 
A.  D.  476.  Aryabhata  was  evidently  a  great  man  and  is  recognised 
as  such  by  all  Orientalists.  Lassen  calls  him  '  the  founder  of 
mathematical  and  astronomical  science  in  India.'  His  chief  work 
is  the  Arabhatiya  Sutra,  which  includes  two  other  works,  the 
Dasagiti  Sutra,  and  the  Aryashtasata. — Mrs.  Manniiig,  A.  S)-  M. 
/.,  Vol.  I,  p.  365-6. 

Asruvindumati — The  daughter  of  Kamadeva,  who  was  sent 
by  Indra,  along  with  her  father,  to  endeavour  to  excite  passion  in 
the  breast  of  Yayati.  In  this  they  succeeded,  and  in  order  to 
become  a  fit  husband  for  his  young  bride,  the  aged  king  applied  to 
his  sons  to  give  him  their  youth  in  exchange  for  his  decrepitude. 
As  elsewhere  related  they  all  refused,  except  Puru,  the  youngest. 
After  a  time,  however,  Yayati  was  prevailed  upon  by  the  persua- 
sion of  his  young  bride,  at  the  instigation  of  Indra,  to  go  to 
heaven,  on  which  he  restored  his  youth  to  Puru,  and  proceeded 
with  his  subjects  to  Indra,  who  sent  them  to  Siva,  and  he  directed 
them  to  Vishnu,  in  whose  sphere  they  obtained  a  final  abode. — 
Wilson's  Works,  III,  37. 

Atikaya — One  of  the  sons  of  the  giant  Ravana,  who  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Lanka. 

Atit — From  Atita,  passed  away  ;  a  religious  mendicant  liberated 
from  worldly  cares  and  feelings. 

Atyarati — The  unwise  man  mentioned  in  the  Aitareya  Brah- 
mana,  who  by  means  of  aRajasuya  sacrifice  or  religious  ceremony, 
subdued  the  whole  earth  ;  but  when  the  brahman  who  had  offi- 
ciated asked  for  hi?  rewai'd,  Atyarati  replied  :  "  When  I  conquer 


768  APPENDIX. 


Uttara  Kuru,  thou  shalt  be  king  of  the  earth,  holy  mau,  aud  I  will 
be  merely  thy  general."  The  brahman  replied :  "  Uttara  Kuru 
is  the  laud  of  the  gods  ;  no  mortal  can  conquer  it.  Thou  hast 
cheated  me,  therefore  I  take  all  from  thee.  And  Atyarati,  thus 
deprived  of  vigour,  was  slain  by  king  Sushimna.  For  Atyarati 
had  not  kept  his  oath. — A.  ^  iV.  /.,  Vol.  I,  p.  104. 


B 

Badarikasrama — The  part  of  the  Himalaya  known  as 
Badarinath.     It  is  a  shrine  of  ancient  celebrity. —  Wilson. 

Bahu — A  king  of  Ayodhya,  the  seventh  iu  descent  from 
Harischandra.  He  was  overcome  by  the  Haihayas  and  Talajangas, 
and  compelled  to  fly  with  his  queens  to  the  forest,  where  he  died. 
After  his  death  one  of  his  wives  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  received 
the  name  of  Sagara  (q.  v.)  When  he  had  grown  up  the  youth 
learnt  from  his  mother  all  that  had  befallen  his  father,  and  vowed 
to  exterminate  the  enemies  who  had  conquered  his  paternal  king- 
dom. He  acquired  great  celebrity,  and  takes  a  conspicuous  place 
in  Hindu  history. 

Bahusalin — A  name  of  Bhima. 

Bhima — Page  95.  "  Bhima  is  the  Hercules  or  Orlando  of  the 
mythological  poetry  of  the  Hindus  ;  his  uncommon  strength  was 
a  supernatural  endowment.  In  his  youth  he  was  the  great  plague 
of  the  Kuru  princes,  beating  them  in  every  sport  and  contest. 
They  therefore  plotted  to  get  rid  of  him,  and  at  a  juvenile  party  at 
one  of  the  water  palaces  of  the  king,  administered  a  poisonous 
drug  to  him,  and  took  advantage  of  his  slumber  to  push  him  into 
the  Ganges.  He  fell  into  the  region  of  the  sub-terrene  snakes,  by 
whom  he  was  bitten  ;  one  poison  was  the  antidote  of  the  other,  and 
Bhima,  recovericg  from  his  sleep,  soon  beat  off  his  antagonists; 
they  fled  to  their  king  Vasuki  who  was  induced  by  their  report  to 
see  the  wonderful  boy,  and  went  to  meet  him.  In  his  train  was 
Aryaka,  the  maternal  great  great  grandfather  of  Bhima,  who 
rccoguiscd,  and  welcomed  his  descendant.     Aryaka  being  a  great 


APPENDIX.  769 


favourite  with  the  king  of  the  Nagas,  Vasuki  offered  to  give  his 
relation  auy  treasure  or  gems  he  could  desire,  but  Aryaka  asked 
permission  for  him  to  quaff  the  invigorating  beverage,  of  which  one 
bowl  contained  the  strength  of  a  thousand  Nagas  ;  permission  being 
granted,  Bhiraa  drained  this  bowl  eight  times  at  as  many  draughts, 
and  then  went  quietly  to  sleep  for  eight  days  :  on  his  waking  he 
was  feasted  by  the  Nagas  and  then  restored  to  his  sorrowing 
mother  and  brethren.  From  this  period,  dates  his  miraculous 
strength.  IMauy  of  these  incidents  find  parallels  in  Western 
Romance.  The  lady  of  the  Lake  inhabits  the  depths  of  the  water, 
and  is  called  by  Merlin  the  "  wliite  serpent  ;"  the  Fata  Morgana 
resided  beneath  a  lake  while  caressing  one  of  her  lovers  as  a 
serpent.  She  is  also  styled  the  Fairy  of  Riches  :  her  treasures 
■were  spread  over  a  plain  to  which  Orlando  arrived  by  falling  in  a 
conflict  with  Arridano  to  the  bottom  of  an  enchanted  lake  :  Manto, 
the  protecting  fairy  of  Mantua  [Orl.  Fur.  43,  74.]  being  saved  by 
Adonis  when  pursued  in  the  form  of  a  snake,  proffers  him  anything 
he  may  desire.  The  account  she  gives  of  herself  makes  her  to  be 
a  regular  Naga  Kanya,  or  Ophite  Maiden.  The  feat  of  Bhima  may 
be  paralleled  by  a  similar  one  of  Orlando,  and  many  others  of  the 
preux  chevaliers  of  chivalry." — Wilson's  Works,  III,  337- 

Bhimasena — A  name  of  Bhima. 

Bhujyu — The  son  of  Tugra,  who  was  abandoned  by  his 
malevolent  companions  in  the  middle  of  the  sea,  and  rescued  by  the 
Asvins,  who  are  said  to  have  conveyed  Bhujyu  out  of  the  liquid 
ocean  with  their  headlong  flying  horses.  Another  account  states 
"  Tugra  abandoned  Bhujyu  on  the  water-cloud,  as  any  dead  man 
leaves  his  property.  Ye,  Asvins,  bore  him  in  animated  water-tight 
ships,  Avhich  traversed  the  air.  Three  nights  and  three  days  did 
ye  convey  him  in  three  flying  cars,  with  a  hundred  feet  and  six 
horses,  which  crossed  over  to  the  dry  land  beyond  the  liquid  ocean." 
—  0.  S.  T.,  V,p.  244. 

BibhatSU — A  name  of  Arjuna. 

Bindumati — The  daughter  of  Sasabindu,  who  was  married  to 
the  celebrated  king  Mandhatri,  and  became  the  mother  of  three 
sons  and  fifty  daughters. 

97 


770  APPENDIX. 


BrahmaketU — A  prince,  the  son  of  Visvaketu,  king  of  Di4- 
vida,  who  was  doomed  to  die  in  his  sixteenth  year,  but  who,  by 
advice  of  Angiras,  went  to  Benares,  and  lay  down  in  the  path  of 
Yama,  w^hen  on  a  visit  to  Siva.  Yama  who  never  deviates  from  a 
straight  path,  and  even  an  equal  step,  and  could  therefore  neither 
walk  round  Brahmaketu  nor  stride  over  him,  at  last,  to  induce 
him  to  rise,  promised  to  allow  him  to  live  a  century,  which 
accordingly  happened.  There  is  an  underplot  of  Brahmaketu's 
marrying  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Kampilya,  in  lieu  of  the 
hunchbacked  son  of  the  king  of  Kekaya,  which  has  some  resem- 
blance to  a   story   in  the    Arabian  Nights. — Wilson's  Works, 

in,  44. 

Bura  Pennou — The  deity  worshipped  by  the  KLonds  ;  he  is 
called  the  god  of  light  and  source  of  good  ;  while  his  consort  Tari- 
Pennou  is  the  source  of  evil  in  the  world. 

Byroba — A  demi-god  of  the  herdsmen  ;  worshipped  wherever  a 
few  of  the  pastoral  tribes  are  settled. 


c 

Chanda — A  demon  servant  of  the  demon  chief  Sumbha,  who 
was  killed  by  the  goddess  Uma,  who  ultimately  slew  his  master 
also.  The  Kalipuja  festival  is  in  commemoration  of  the  victory 
of  Umd  over  Chanda  and  Munda. 

Chandrakanta — The  moon-gem,  which  is  supposed  to  absorb 
the  rays  of  the  moon,  and  emit  them  again  in  the  form  of  pure 
and  cool  moisture. 

Cobra — "  Next  to  the  Rakshasas  the  Cobra,  or  deadly-hooded 
snake,  plays  the  most  important  part  in  the  legends,  as  a  super- 
natural personage.     This  is  only  one  of  the  many  traces  still  extant 

of  that  serpent-worship  formerly  so  general  in  western  India 

Serpent-worship,  as  it  still  exists  is  something  more  active  than 
a  mere  popular  superstition.  The  Cobra,  unless  disturbed,  rarely 
goes  far  from  home,  and  is  supposed  to  watch  jealously  over  a 
hidden  treasure.  He  is,  in  the  estimation  of  the  lower  classes, 
invested  with  supernatural  powers,  and  according  to  the  treatment 


APPENDIX.  771 


he  receives,  he  builds  up  or  destroys  the  fortunes  of  the  house  to 
which  he  belougs.  No  native  will  willingly  kill  him  if  he  cun  get 
rid  of  him  in  any  other  way  ;  and  the  poorer  classes  always  after 
he  is  killed,  give  him  all  the  honours  of  a  regular  cremation, 
assuring  him,  with  many  protestations,  as  the  pile  burns,  *  that 
they  are  guiltless  of  his  blood  ;  that  they  slew  him  by  order  of 
their  master  ;'  or  *  that  they  had  no  other  way  to  prevent  his 
biting  the  children  or  the  chickens.'  "     Sir  B.  Frere.* 


D 

Dadhicha — One  of  the  nineteen  Bhrigus,  composers  of  hymns. 
-  O.  S.  7\,  Vol.  I  p  279. 

Dadhyauch — One  of  the  ancient  great  sages,  the  sou  of 
Atharvan. 

Damins — The  name  of  brahmans  in  Kusa-dwipa. 

Danayja— A  name  of  Arjuna. 

Dasagriva — A  name  of  the  giant  Ravana. 

Devadatta — One  of  the  five  sons  of  a  brahman  named  Govinda- 
datta  who  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges.  The  sons  were  of  goodly 
persons,  but  rude  manners  and  uncultivated  minds.  A  brahman  of 
great  learning  having  on  one  occasion,  when  the  father  was  abroad, 
demanded  the  rites  of  hospitality,  was  treated  with  disrespect  by 
the  youths,  and  was  about  to  depart  in  wrath  when  the  father 
arrived.  The  severity  with  which  he  rebuked  the  lads  pacified  the 
brahman  and  he  was  induced  to  remain.  The  anger  of  his  parent 
produced  a  favourable  impression  on  Devadatta,  who,  repenting  of 
his  idle  habits,  set  ofi*  to  Badarikasrama  to  propitiate  Siva.  The 
rigour  of  his  austerities  engaged  the  approbation  of  the  god.  Siva 
appeared  to  him  and  promised  that  he  should  become  possessed  of 
learning,  for  which  purpose  he  directed  him  to  go  to  Pataliputra, 
and  study  under  Vedakhumba.  He  afterwards  repaired  to  Pra- 
tishth^na,  where  he  studied  with  diligence  and  success  under 
another  teacher  of  repute. 

*  Introduction  to  Old  Deccan  Days. 


772  APPENDIX. 


He  there  beheld  the  daughter  of  the  king  Susarma  at  a  balcony 
of  the  palace.  She  also  noticed  him,  and  the  attraction  was 
mutual.  After  they  had  interchanged  glances  she  beckoned  to 
him  to  approach.  He  obeyed  ;  on  which  she  took  a  flower,  and 
having  touched  her  teeth  with  it,  threw  it  to  him,  and  then  disap- 
peared. Devadatta  taking  the  flower  returned  home.  The  flame 
that  preyed  on  his  heart  soon  betrayed  itself  to  the  experience  of 
his  preceptor,  and  he  quickly  drew  from  him  the  secret  of  his 
passion.  He  explained  the  story  of  the  flower  to  signify  an  assign- 
ation on  the  part  of  the  princess  to  meet  Devadatta  at  a  temple 
called  Pushpa,  (a  flower.)  The  youth  was  charmed  with  this 
explanation,  and  set  off*  to  the  temple  to  await  the  coming  of  the 
princess.  On  her  arrival  in  due  course  she  enquired  how  he  had 
so  readily  apprehended  her  meaning  ;  but  when  he  confessed  he 
was  indebted  to  his  preceptor's  sagacity,  rather  than  to  his  own, 
she  was  highly  oiFended  with  his  lack  of  discernment  and  left  him 
in  displeasure. 

Devadatta  was  now  more  wretched  than  ever,  when  Sambhu, 
commisserating  his  condition,  sent  one  of  his  attendants,  Panchi- 
sikha,  to  console  and  assist  him.  Panchisikha  made  the  youth  put 
on  a  female  garb,  whilst  he  assumed  the  appearance  of  an  aged 
brahman.  Thus  changed,  they  repaired  to  the  palace,  when  the 
supposed  brahman  thus  addressed  the  monarch  :  "  King,  I  am  an 
old  man,  without  connections  in  your  capital.  I  sent  my  only  son 
on  family  affairs  some  time  ago  to  a  distant  country,  and  he  does 
not  return.  I  am  weary  of  expecting  him,  and  fear  some  evil  may 
have  befallen  him.  I  will  therefore  go  forth  in  quest  of  him  ;  but 
how  can  I  dispose  of  my  daughter-in-law  in  the  mean  time  ?  I 
leave  her,  king,  as  a  sacred  deposit  in  your  charge."  The  monarch, 
afraid  of  the  brahman's  malediction,  reluctantly  accepted  the  trust, 
and  the  supposed  brahman  departed.  The  daughter  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  interior  of  the  palace,  where,  revealing  himself  to  the 
princess,  Devadatta  succeeded  in  pacifying  her  indignation,  and 
recovering  her  regard.  She  listened  to  his  suit  with  complacency, 
and  they  pledged  their  troth  to  each  other  by  the  ritual  that  unites 
in  wedlock  the  inferior  spirits  of  heaven. 

When  it  became  no  longer  possible  to  conceal  their  secret  inter- 


ArPENDix.  773 


course,  the  friendly  spirit  was  summoned  by  a  wish  to  their  assist- 
ance— he  appeared,  and  conveyed  Devadatta  out  of  the  palace  by 
nicrht.  The  next  morning  he  made  the  youth  discard  liis  female 
habiliments,  and  accompany  him,  again  metamorphosed  to  a 
venerable  brahman,  to  the  palace,  in  the  character  of  the  son  of 
whom  he  had  been  in  search.  He  came,  he  said,  to  claim  his 
daughter-in-law,  and  the  king  ordered  her  to  be  sent  for  ;  but  all 
parties  were  struck  with  real,  or  seeming  consternation,  when  it 
Avas  announced  that  she  was  nowhere  to  be  found.  The  kiujj,  at 
a  loss  to  comprehend  tlie  possibility  of  her  evasion,  and  recol- 
lecting old  legends,  suspected  that  the  brahman  was  not  what  he 
seemed  to  be,  and,  apprehensive  of  incurring  his  displeasure, 
professed  himself  willing  to  submit  to  any  conditions  he  should 
impose.  These  were  readily  arranged,  and  the  princess  was  given 
to  the  brahman's  supposed  sou,  in  exchange  for  the  bride  that  he 
pretended  to  have  lost.  The  princess  bore  a  son,  who  was  named 
Mahidhara.  When  the  king  was  advanced  in  years,  he  retired  to 
the  forests,  resigning  his  sovereignty  to  his  grandson  ;  and  after 
witnessing  the  glory  of  Mahidhara,  his  parents  also  withdrew 
from  the  world  to  the  silence  of  the  hermitage  :  devoting  all  their 
thoughts  to  Sambhu,  they  obtained  his  favour  ;  and  when  released 
from  this  mortal  coil,  they  were  elevated  to  the  rank  of  spirits, 
attendant  on  the  god  and  his  celestial  consort,  as  Pushpadanta  and 
his  wife  Jaya,  the  same  whose  indiscreet  curiosity  had  lately  been 
punished  by  their  temporary  return  to  the  infirmities  of  human 
nature. — Wilson's  Works,  III,  18o. 

Devantaka — One  of  the  sons  of  the  giant  Havana,  who  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Lanka. 

Dhananjaya — "  The  conqueror  of  wealth  ;"  a  name  of  Arj una, 
the  third  of  the  P^-ndava  princes,  eminent  for  his  valour,  and  the 
2)articular  friend  of  Krishna. 

DhanyaS'-The  designation  of  Vaisyas  in  Krauncha  Dwipa. 

Dhumraksha — One  of  Ravana's  generals  who  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Lanka. 

Dipakarni— An  ancient  monarch,  whose  wife,  named  Sakti- 
mati,  more  dear  to  him  than  his  existence,   whilst   reposing  in  a 


774  APPENDIX. 


bower  in  the  garden,  was  bitten  by  a  snake,  and  died.  The  king, 
overcome  with  grief  for  her  loss,  made  a  vow  to  observe  perpetual 
continence — a  vow  to  which  he  rigidly  adhered,  although  the 
want  of  a  son  to  succeed  him  in  the  kingdom  was  a  subject  of 
profound  affliction  to  him.  Whilst  thus  distressed,  he  was  directed 
by  Siva,  in  a  dream,  in  what  manner  to  obtain  a  son  and  successor, 
without  violating  his  faith  to  his  departed  wife.  For  the  remainder 
of  the  legend,  see  Satavahana. 

Dyutirnan — The  king  of  Krauncha  Dwipa. 

E 

Ekashtaka — The  mother  of  Indi-a.  Ekashtaka,  practising 
austere  fervou'r,  bore  as  a  child  the  glorious  ludra.  In  the  next 
verse  Ekashtaka  is  called  the  mother  of  Soma  as  well  as  of  Indra, 
and  the  daughter  of  Prajapati."— 0.  S.  T.,  Vol.  V,  p.  80. 

Ereenia — The  benevolent  Glendoveer  (Gandharba)  in  Southey's 
poem  "  the  curse  of  Kehama." 


G 

Garuda~[Page  224]— A  wundervogul,  or  wonderful  bird,  is 
the  property  of  all  people  ;  and  the  Gar u da  of  the  Hindus  is 
represented  by  the  Eorosh  of  the  Zend,  Simoorgh  of  the  Persians, 
the  Anka  of  the  Arabs,  the  Kerkes  of  the  Turks,  the  Kirni  of  the 
Japanese,  the  sacred  dragon  of  the  Chinese,  the  Griffin  of  Chivalry, 
the  Phoenix  of  classical  fable,  the  wise  and  ancient  bird  that  sits 
upon  the  ash  Yggdrasit  of  the  Edda,  and  according  to  Faber,  in 
common  with  all  the  rest,  is  a  misrepresentation  of  the  holy  cheru- 
bim that  guarded  the  gate  of  paradise.  Some  writers  have  even 
traced  the  twelve  knights  of  the  round  Table  to  the  twelve 
Rocs  of  Persian  story. — Wilson's  Works,  III,  193. 

Gonika — The  mother  of  Patanjali  the  grammarian. 

Govindadatta — A  brahman  who  lived  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges  ;  he  had  five  sons,  one  of  whom  was  Devadatta,  (q,  v.) 
whose  subsequent  celebrity  conferred  distinction  on  the  father  = 


APPENDIX.  775 


Gritsamada — A  uame  given  by  Inclra  to  the  Muni  Saiinaliotni, 
because  he  delighted  in  praising.  His  hymn  was  termed  hi- 
drasya  indriyam,  the  might  of  Indra.  He  was  born  again  as 
Saunaka,  in  the  race  of  Bhrigu,  and  saw  the  second  Mandahi 
of  the  Rig  Veda  as  it  was  revealed  to  him  together  with  the  hymn 
Sajaniya,  &c. — A,  S.  L.,  231. 

Gudakesa — A  name  of  Arjuna. 

Gunadhya — The  human  uame  of  Malyavau,  when  he  was  con- 
demned  to  return  to  the  infirmities  of  human  nature.  He  was 
born  at  Pratishthana,  the  capital  of  Salivahaua,  supposed  to  be 
the  same  as  Pattan  or  Pyetan  on  the  Godaveri. — Wilson. 


I 

Ida — The  wnfe  of  Manu,  and  mother  of  the  human  race  after 
the  deluge. 

Indrasena— The  charioteer  of  Yudhishthira. 

J 

Jrimbhaka — A  celestial  or  magical  weapon,  which  causes 
drowsiness.  These  weapons  are  of  a  very  unintelligilde  character. 
Some  of  them  are  occasionally  wielded  as  missiles,  but  in  general 
they  appear  to  be  mystical  powers  exercised  by  the  individual ; 
such  as  those  of  paralysing  an  enemy,  or  locking  his  senses  fast 
in  sleep,  or  bringing  down  storm  and  rain  and  fire  from  heaven. 
There  is  a  list  of  one  hunderd  of  these  weapons  given  in  the  first 
book  of  the  Ramayana. — Wilson,  XI,  297. 


E 

Ealiyal — The  beautiful  daughter  of  the  peasant  Ladurlad 
whose  violation  was  attempted  by  Arvalan,  the  son  of  Raja 
Kehama.  Arvalan  was  slain  in  consequence  by  Ladurlad,  upon 
whom  was  afterwards  pronounced  the  doom  which  gives  the  title 


776  APPENDIX. 


to  Southey's  poem.  Kaliyal  afterwards  joined  her  father,  and  often 
soothed  him  under  the  Avitheriug  effects  of  Kehama's  curse,  and 
Ladurlad  is  often  able  to  extricate  his  daughter  from  great  dangers 
of  fire  and  flood. 

Kamadhenu— The  sacred  cow  of  the  Muni  Jamadagni,  which 
was  stolen  by  Raja  Kartavirya,  and  afterwards  recovered  by  the 
Muni's  son  Parasarama,  who  slew  the  robber  king. 

Kamalasna — A  name  of  Brahma,  as  the  soul  of  the  universe, 
contained  in  the  Egg  of  the  world. 

Kanakhala — A  place  of  pilgrimage  celebrated  in  Hindu 
fiction  ;  it  is  near  Gangadwara,  the  modern  Haridwar. 

Katyayana — A  name  of  great  celebrity  in  the  literary  history 
of  India.  It  belongs  in  all  probability,  to  several  personages 
renowned  for  their  contributions  to  the  grammatical  and  ritual 
literature  of  the  Brahmanical  Hindus  ;  but  it  is  met  with  also 
amongst  the  names  of  the  chief  disciples  of  the  Buddha,  Sakya- 
muui.  The  most  celebrated  personage  of  this  name,  however,  is 
Katyayana,  the  critic  of  the  great  grammarian  Panini  ;  and  he  is 
most  likely  the  same  with  the  Katyayana  who  wrote  the  gramma- 
tical treatise  called  the  Pratisakhya  of  the  white  Yajurveda, 
(q.  V.)  Professor  Goldstiicker,  in  his  Panini,  &c.,  his  Place  in 
Sanscrit  Literature  (London,  1861,)  has  shewn  that  he  cannot 
have  been  a  contemporary  of  Panini,  as  was  generally  assumed  ; 
and  in  a  paper  recently  read  by  him  before  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  (February,  1863,)  he  has  proved  that  this  Katyayana 
lived  at  the  same  time  as  the  great  grammarian  Patanjali,  whose 
date  he  had  previously  fixed  between  140  and  120  before  the 
Christian  era.     See  Patanjali. —  Chambers''  EncyclopfEdia, 

Kehama — The  name  of  the  mythical  Raja  who  is  the  principal 
figure  in  Southey's  poem  "The  Curse  of  Kehama."  By  along 
course  of  penances  and  austerities  he  acquired  supreme  power  over 
the  world,  and  caused  the  gods  themselves  to  tremble  for  their  inde- 
pendence. His  son  Arvalan,  the  heir  apparent  to  all  his  power  and 
wickedness,  was  slain  with  a  stake  by  a  peasant  whose  daughter  he 
was  attempting  to  violate.  The  incensed  Raja  pronounced  on  the 
peasant,  Ladurlad,  the  doom  which  gives  name  to  the  poem. 


APPENDIX.  777 


Kuhu — The  goddess  of  the  day,  when  the  moon  is  iu  the  first 
and  second  quarters. 

Kundoba — A  deified  hero  of  the  shepherds,  who,  amongst  the 
pastoral  tribes  supersedes  all  other  popular  idols. 

Kunjara— An  old  parrot  mentioned  in  the  Pudraa  Purina. 
When  the  sage  Chyavaua  was  wandering  over  the  world  in  pilgri- 
mage, he  came  to  the  south  bank  of  the  Narmada,  where  a  linga 
called  Omkara  was  erected  ;  and  having  worshipped  it,  he  sat 
under  an  Indian  fig  tree  where  he  overheard  a  conversation 
between  Kunjara  and  his  four  sons,  in  which  the  latter  related  to 
the  former  what  they  had  beheld  in  their  flight  during  the  day. 
Several  stories  were  related  the  moral  of  which  was  the  same,  the 
good  effects  of  venerating  holy  men,  and  meditating  upon  Vishnu. 
Kunjara  then  related  toChyavana  an  account  of  the  preceding  births 
of  his  sons  and  himself. — Wilson's  Works,  Vol,  III,  p.  37. 

Kusadhvaja — A  rishi,  the  father  of  Vedavati.  He  was  slain 
by  Sambhu,  king  of  the  Daityas. 


L 

Ladurlad — The  name  of  the  peasant  in  Southey's  poem,  on 
whom  the  curse  of  Kehama  is  pronounced.  See  Yedillian, 
Kehama,  &c. 

M 

Mada — A  demon,  created  by  the  sage  Chyavana,  intoxication 
personified  ;  in  terror  of  whom  and  of  the  power  of  the  saint,  the 
gods  acceded  to  the  participation  of  the  Asvini  Kumdras  iu  divine 
honours.  Mada  was  afterwards  divided,  and  distributed  amongst 
dice,  women,  and  wine.— Wilson,  XI,  263. 

Mahatmya— A  legendary  and  local  description  of  the  greatness 
or  holiness  of  particular  temple;?,  or  individual  divinities.  A 
chapter  taken  from  some  Purana,  descriptive  of  the  virtues  of  some 
place  or  person,  is  termed  a  Mahatmya.— Wilson. 

Mahidhara— The  son  of  Devadattn,  (q.  v.) 

98 


778  APPENDIX. 


Mandakini — A  river  near  the  hill  Chitrakuta  in  Bundelkund  ; 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  sacred  stream  on  account  of  Rama,  Laksh- 
mana,  and  Sita,  having  resided  in  its  neighbourhood,  Rama  thus 
points  out  to  Sita,  some  of  the  beauties  of  the  river. 
"  My  life  in  fair  Ayodhya's  town 
Was  not  so  sweet  to  me, 
As  gazing  on  this  lovely  flood, 
That  glorious  hill  and  thee. 

Bathe  in  the  gentle  stream,  to  her 

With  friendly  love  repair, 
And  pluck  her  lilies  in  thy  play, 

And  twine  them  in  thy  hair. 

This  mount,  with  all  its  savage  life, 

Ayodhya'a  city  deem. 
And  on  this  beauteous  river  look 

As  our  own  Sarju's  stream. 
O  Sita,  I  am  wild  with  joy, 

So  rare  a  lot  is  mine, 
Cheered  by  a  duteous  brother's  care, 

And  loved  with  love  like  thine." 

Griffith.     Scenes  from  the  Rdmayana. 

Maruty— A  name  of  Hanuman,  the  offspring  of  Marut,  a  name 
of  Pavana  or  Vayu,  all  meaning  wind. 

Mrigavati— The  wife  of  Sahasranika,  (q,  v.) 

Munda — A  demon  servant  of  the  demon  ruler  Nisumbha,  who 
was  killed  by  Um^.  The  goddess  ultimately  slew  his  master  also. 
The  Kalipuja  festival  in  Bengal  is  held  annually  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  victory  of  Uma  over  Chanda  and  Munda. 


N 

Namuchi — One  of  the  demons  who  personify  drought ;  they 
are  represented  in  the  Rig  Veda  as  hostile  powers  in  the  atmos- 
phere, who  malevolently  shut  up  the  watery  treasures  in  the 
clouds. 


APPENDIX.  779 


Nandaka — One  of  the  huudred  sons  of  Dhritai-ashtra.  Duryod- 
liaua  was  the  eldest,  but  as  the  legend  of  their  birth  was  not  given 
in  the  article  under  his  name,  it  may  be  recited  here.  One  day 
the  sage  Vyasa  was  hospitably  entertained  by  the  queen  Gandhari, 
and  in  return  he  granted  her  a  boon.  She  choose  to  be  the  mother 
of  a  hundred  sons,  and  soon  afterwards  became  pregnant.  After 
two  years  gestation  she  produced  a  mass  of  flesh  which  was  divided 
t>y  Vyasa  into  a  hundred  and  one  pieces,  (as  big  as  the  joint  of  a 
thumb)  and  placed  in  jars.  In  due  time  the  eldest  sou  Duryodhana 
was  born,  but  not  till  after  the  birth  of  Pritha's  son  Yudhishthira. 
In  another  month  the  remaining  ninety-nine  sons  were  born  from 
the  remaining  jars,  and  one  daughter,  called  Duhsala  (afterwards 
married  to  Jayadratha.)  The  hundred  names  are  all  given  in  the 
Mahabharata  ;  it  will  be  sufficient  here  to  mention  the  principal 
ones  : — Duryodhana,  Durvishaha,  Durmukha,  Dushpradarsaua, 
Vivinsati,  Vikarna,  Duhsasana,  Virochana,  Kundaka,  Nandaka,  &c. 
—Williams.  I.  E.  P. 

Nishada — The  progenitor  of  the  wild  races,  extracted  from  the 
left  thigh  of  king  Vena.— Wilson. 

Nisumbha— A  demon  ruler  of  prodigious  strength  and  power 
who  was  destroyed  by  the  goddess  Uma.  The  Devimahatmya 
narrates  this  as  one  of  her  chief  martial  exploits. 


P 

Panchasikha— One  of  Siva's  attendants  who  was  sent  down  to 
earth  to  console  and  assist  Devadatta,  when  his  course  of  true  love 
did  not  seem  likely  to  run  smooth. 

Paramarthika— Being,  in  its  highest  sense. 

Pataliputra— The  f\imous  and  much  disputed  city  of  Palibo- 
thra  ;  an  ancient  place  of  great  sanctity,  being  the  favoured  shrine 
of  Lakshmi  and  Sarasvati.  Its  origin  is  thus  narrated.  A  Brah- 
man from  the  south,  whilst  engaged  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Kanakhala, 
near  Gangadwara,  died,  and  left  three  sons.  They  subsequently 
repaired  to  Rajagriha   for    instruction,   and   thence   removed   to 


780  APPENDIX. 


Chinchiui,  a  city  on  the  seashore,  south  from  the  shrine  of  Kumara 
Swami.  They  were  kindly  entertained  by  Bhojika,  a  Brahman, 
who  gave  them  his  three  daughters  in  marriage.  After  a  time, 
the  country  was  afflicted  by  famine  ;  and  the  three  husbands, 
deserting  their  wives,  set  off  to  seek  their  fortunes  elsewhere. 
Talents  and  relationship  touch  not  the  hearts  of  the  wicked.  The 
wife  of  the  second  brother  proved  pregnant,  and  was  delivered  of 
a  son,  whose  helpless  situation  attracted  the  pity,  and  propitiated 
the  guardian  care  of  Devi  and  Siva.  The  first  effect  of  this 
powerful  patronage  was  the  discovery,  by  the  women,  of  an 
immense  treasure,  which  being  judiciously  expended,  elevated  the 
boy  to  princely  possessions.  By  the  advice  of  his  grandfather's 
friend,  and  his  own  guardian  Yajnadatta,  Putraka,  as  the  lad  had 
been  named,  distributed  publicly  splendid  gifts,  at  various  seasons, 
to  the  Brahmans,  in  the  hope  of  attracting  and  discovering  his 
father.  The  scheme  succeeded,  and  the  three  brothers  returned 
to  claim  their  wives,  and  interest  in  the  young  Raja.  The  claim 
was  joyfully  recognized  ;  but  the  evil  propensities  of  the  fraternity 
prevailing  over  natural  affection,  they  conspired  the  death  of  the 
prince,  and  his  own  father  led  him  into  a  temple,  where  he  left 
him  to  be  murdered  by  assassins,  covertly  stationed  for  the  purpose. 
The  murderers  were,  however,  induced,  by  the  intreaties  and 
presents  of  Putraka,  to  let  him  escape,  and  he  fled  into  the  forests. 
His  father  and  uncles  met  the  fate  that  ever  attends  the  ungrateful : 
the  officers  of  the  young  Raja  accused  them  of  having  killed  him, 
and  falling  upon  the  culprits,  sacrificed  them  to  his  memory. 

In  the  meantime,  Putraka,  whilst  wandering  in  the  woods,  beheld 
two  men  struggling  with  each  other.  He  enquired  who  they  were. 
They  replied,  that  they  were  the  sons  of  Mayasur,  and  were 
contending  for  a  magic  cup,  staff,  and  pair  of  slippers  :  the  first  of 
which  yielded  inexhaustible  viands,  the  second  generated  any 
object  which  it  delineated,  and  the  third  transported  a  person 
through  the  air.  The  strongest  of  the  two  was  to  possess  these 
articles.  Putraka  then  observed  to  them,  that  violence  was  a  very 
improper  mode  of  settling  their  pretensions,  and  that  it  would  be 
better  they  should  adjust  the  dispute  by  less  objectionable  means. 
He  therefore  proposed  that  they  should  run  a  race  for  the  contested 


APPENDIX.  781 


articles,  and  the  fleetest  win  them.  They  agreed,  and  set  off. 
They  were  no  sooner  at  a  little  distance,  than  Putraka,  putting  his 
feet  into  the  sleepers,  and  seizing  the  cup  and  staff,  mounted  into 
the  air,  and  left  the  racers  to  lament  in  vain  their  being  outwitted. 

Putraka  alighted  at  a  city  called  Akarshika,  and  took  up  his 
residence  with  an  old  woman,  from  whom  he  received  accounts  of 
the  beauty  of  the  king's  daughter,  whose  name  was  Patali.  Having 
in  consequence  formed  an  intimacy  with  the  princess,  he  carried 
her  off,  and  alighted  on  the  bank  of  the  Ganges,  where  tracing  the 
walls  and  buildings  of  a  city  with  his  staff,  a  stately  town  imme- 
diately arose.  The  people  attracted  to  this  place  he  maintained  by 
the  stores  of  his  cup  ;  and  the  place  named  after  his  bride  and 
himself  Pataliputraka,  became  the  capital  of  a  mighty  empire. — 
Wilson,  III,  \^o. 

Patanjali — Is  the  name  of  two  celebrated  authors  of  ancient 
India,  who  are  generally  looked  upon  as  the  same  personage,  but 
apparently  for  no  other  reason  than  that  they  bear  the  same  name. 
The  one  is  the  author  of  the  system  of  philosophy  called  Yo^^a, 
the  other  the  great  critic  of  Katyayaua  and  Paniui.  Of  the  former 
nothing  is  known  beyond  his  work — see  Yoga.  The  few  histori- 
cal facts  relating  to  the  latter,  as  at  present  ascertained,  may  be 
gathered  from  his  great  work  the  Mahabhashya,  or  the  great 
Commentary.  The  name  of  his  mother  was  Gonika  ;  his  birth- 
place was  Gouarda,  situated  in  the  east  of  India,  and  he  resided 
temporarily  in  Kashmir,  where  his  work  was  especially  patronised. 
From  circumstantial  evidence  Professor  Goldstiicker  has,  more- 
over, proved  that  he  wrote  between  140  and  120  b,  c.  {Panim^  his 
place  in  Sanskrit  Literature.)  The  Mahabhashya  of  Patanjali  is 
not  a  full  commentary  on  Panini,  but  with  a  few  exceptions,  only 
a  commentary  on  the  Varttikas,  or  critical  remarks  of  Katyayana 
on  Panini.  Patanjali  being  the  third  of  the  grammatical  triad  of 
India,  and  his  work  therefore  having  the  advantage  of  profiting  by 
the  scholarship  of  his  predecessors,  he  is  looked  upon  as  a  para- 
mount authority  in  all  matters  relating  to  classical  Sanskrit  Gram- 
mar ;  and  very  justly  so,  for  as  to  learning,  ingenuity,  and  con- 
scientiousness, there  is  no  grammatical  author  of  India  who  can 
be  held  superior  to  him. —  Chambers*  Encyclopcedia. 


782  APPENDIX. 


Pavana — The  god  of  the  wind,  Vayu,  (q.  v.) 

Pitamaha — A  name  of  Brahma. 

Pratibhasika— Being,  merely  seeming— that  belonging  to  what 
presents  itself  in^dreams,  &c.,  illusions  rather  than  realities. 

Pururavas — See  pages  486-90.  In  a  recent  paper  read  before 
the  Philological  Society,  "  On  Nomina  Numina  in  its  Two  Phases." 
Professor  Goldstiicker  said  its  object  was  to  illustrate  the  influence 
which  in  ancient  times,  the  mistaken  etymology  of  words  exercised 
on  the  formation  of  religious  ideas  and  myths,  and  in  modern  times 
the  mistaken  interpretation  of  myths  on  the  formation  of  wrong 
etymologies.  In  adverting  to  Max  Miiller's  view  of  the  supposed 
original  import  of  Daphne  in  Greek,  and  of  Urvasi  in  Hindu 
mythology.  Professor  Goldstiicker  observed  that  the  common 
feature  of  the  Greek  and  Hindu  legends  of  Daphne  and  Urvasi, 
was  the  transformation  of  these  beings — of  Urvasi  into  a  bird  or 
vine,  and  of  Daphne  into  a  laurel  tree.  Moreover  in  the  Hindu 
legend,  Urvasi  disappears  in  the  lightning  of  the  Gandharbas  who 
steal  her  rams,  and  Pururavas  establishes  a  new  ceremony,  which 
consists  in  producing  fire  by  means  of  the  attrition  of  two  pieces 
of  wood.  And  finally  in  all  legendary  accounts  Urvasi  is  repre- 
sented as  an  Apsarasas,  or  as  the  name  indicates  (from  ap  water, 
and  saras,  arising,)  from  a  water-born  being  ;  while  Daphne  as  we 
are  told  by  the  Greek  mythonomists,  is  the  daughter  of  a  river. 
Not  any  one  of  these  essential  features  of  the  legend  receives  any 
light  from  the  assumption  that  Daphne  or  Urvasi  is  the  Dawn. 
Professor  Goldstiicker  therefore  proposed  to  read  the  legend  thus  : 
the  sky  is  clouded  (the  ram  being  the  symbol  of  the  cloud)  and  the 
atmosphere  charged  with  electricity.  Lightning  flashing  through 
the  cloud  disperses  them  (the  Gandharbas,)  under  lightning,  steal 
the  rams  of  Urvasi ;  the  sun  comes  forth  and  absorbs  the  vapours 
which  had  enveloped  the  scene,  when  the  objects  hidden  until  then 
become  visible.  Again  the  effect  of  the  tropical  sun  may  be  a 
conflagration  of  the  dry  forest  wood  ;  or  as  the  legend  says,  Puru- 
ravas is  the  institution  of  the  ceremony  by  which  fire  is  produced 
through  natural  heat. 


APPENDIX.  783 


Pushpotkata— One  of  the  wives  of  the  patriarch  Pulastya  aud 
the  mother  of  the  great  giant  Ravana. 

Putraka — The  founder    aud    sovereign    of  Pataliputra  ;   his 
history  will  be  found  under  that  heading. 


R 

Raktavija — A  powerful  demon  possessed  of  a  charmed  life, 
each  drop  of  his  blood  when  shed  producing  hundreds  of  demons 
like  himself  ;  he  was  slain  by  Uma,  and  his  destruction  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  great  martial  feats  of  the  goddess. 

Rudra — In  the  Vedic  period,  Rudra  was  the  god  of  the  tempest. 
The  Maruts  are  called  the  sons  of  Rudra.  As  their  father  he  is 
very  often  mentioned  ;  as  a  divinity  with  independent  attributes 
he  is  of  much  rarer  occurrence  ;  hymns  addressed  to  him  alone 
are  but  few.  He  is,  as  might  be  expected,  a  terrible  god  :  he 
carries  a  great  bow  from  which  he  hurls  a  sharp  missile  at  the 
earth  ;  he  is  called  the  slayer  of  men  ;  his  wrath  is  deprecated, 
and  he  is  besought  not  to  harm  his  worshipper  ;  if  not  in  the  Rik, 
at  least  in  the  Atharva  and  Brahmanas,  he  is  styled  '  lord  of  the 
animals,'  as  the  unhoused  beasts  of  the  field  are  especially  at  the 
mercy  of  the  pitiless  storm.  At  the  same  time,  he  is  to  propitiate 
him,  addressed  as  master  of  a  thousand  remedies,  best  of  physicians, 
protector  from  harm  ;  this  may  have  its  ground,  too,  partly  in  the 
beneficial  effects  of  the  tempest  in  freshening  the  atmosphere  of 
that  sultry  clime.  Rudra's  chief  interest  consists  in  the  circum- 
stance that  he  forms  the  point  of  connection  between  the  Vedic 
religion  and  the  later  Siva  worship.  Siva  is  a  god  unknown  to 
the  Vedas  ;  his  name  is  a  word  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence  in 
the  hymns,  but  means  simply  propitious  ;  not  even  in  the  Atharva 
is  it  the  epithet  of  a  particular  divinity,  or  distinguished  by  its 
usage  from  any  other  adjective.  As  given  to  him,  whose  title  it 
has  since  become,  it  seems  one  of  those  euphemisms  so  frequent  in 
the  Indian  religion,  applied  as  a  soothing  and  flattering  address  to 
the  most  terrible  god  in  the  whole  pantheon.     The  precipe  relation 


784  APPENDIX. 


between  Siva  and  Ruclra  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  traced  out.  The 
introduction  of  an  entirely  new  divinity  from  the  mountains  of  the 
north  has  been  supposed,  who  was  grafted  in  upon  the  ancient 
religion  by  being  identified  with  Rudra  ;  or  again,  a  blending  of 
some  of  Agni's  attributes  with  those  of  Rudra  to  originate  a  new 
development  :  perhaps  neither  of  these  may  be  necessary  :  Siva 
may  be  a  local  form  of  Rudra,  arisen  under  the  influence  of  peculiar 
climatic  relations  in  the  districts  from  which  he  made  his  way  into 
Hindustan  proper  ;  introduced  among,  and  readily  accepted  by,  a 
people  which,  as  the  Atharva  shows,  was  strongly  tending  towards 
a  terrorism  in  its  religion." — Professor  Whitney,  as  quoted  in 
O.  S.  T,,  IV,  337. 


s 

Sabhika — A  person  who  presides  at  houses  where  assemblies 
are  held  for  purposes  of  gambling,  and  who  provides  the  dice  and 
all  other  materials. 

Saganka — "Fawn-spotted,"  a  name  of  the  god  Soma  or 
Chandra.  He  is  also  called  Sasi?t;  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
of  the  spots  of  the  moon  to  a  leveret. 

Sahasranika — The  son  of  Satanika,  (q.  v.)  The  fate  of  his 
father  naturally  interested  Indra  for  the  young  prince,  and  he  not 
unfrequently  conveyed  him  to  visit  the  regions  of  the  skies.  On 
one  of  these  occasions  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Tilottami,  a 
nymph  of  paradise,  and  she  denounced  an  imprecation  on  his 
future  fortune,  sentencing  him  to  the  pangs  of  separation  from 
his  beloved.  Sahasranika  was  married  to  Mrigavati,  daughter  of 
Kripavarma,  king  of  Oude.  During  her  pregnancy  she  was 
seized  with  a  strange  fancy,  inspired,  in  fact,  by  the  influence  of 
the  imprecation,  to  bathe  in  human  blood.  When  the  king  found 
compliance  with  her  longing  was  unavoidable,  he  deceived  her  by 
substituting  an  infusion  of  the  lac-dye,  in  which  the  queen  con- 
tentedly performed  her  ablutions.  The  crimson  tint  left  upon  her 
person  by  the  effect  of  the  immersion,  deceived  one  of  the  gigantic 
brood  of  Garuda,  as  he  pursued  his  flight  through  the  air.  Think- 


APPENDIX.  785 


ing  her  to  be  a  lump  of  flesh,  he  pounced  upon  the  queen,  and 
carried  her  off  to  the  mountain  Udya,  where,  finding  lier  alive,  he 
abandoned  her  to  her  destiny,  having  thus  been  the  uucouscious 
instrument  of  separating  Sahasrauika  from  his  bride. 

In  this  helpless  condition  the  queen,  overcome  with  terror  and 
affliction,  sought  alone  for  death  to  terminate  her  distress.  With 
this  view  she  threw  herself  in  the  way  of  the  wild  elephants  and 
the  vast  serpents,  with  which  the  thickets  were  peopled  ;  but  in 
vain — an  unseen  spirit  of  the  air  protected  her,  and  guided  her 
unharmed  amidst  the  ferocious  monsters  of  the  forest,  until  she 
was  encountered  by  a  holy  hermit,  Jamadagni,  who  resided  on  the 
mountain,  and  wdio  led  her  to  his  cell,  where  he  consoled  her 
with  assurances,  that  she  would  in  time  be  re-united  to  her  lord. 
Mrigdvati  was  here  delivered  of  a  son,  whom,  in  allusion  to  the 
place  of  his  nativity,  she  named  Udayaua,  and  who  was  trained  in 
letters  and  arms,  and  in  the  duties  of  his  regal  birth,  by  his 
venerable  guardian. — Wilson,  III,  192.     [Vatsa.] 

Salivahana — A  Hindu  king  who  reigned  in  Magadha.  He 
instituted  an  era  which  bears  his  name  and  is  still  commonly  used 
in  the  Deckan.  It  commenced  when  3179  years  of  the  Kali-Yuga, 
or  the  present  mundane  age,  had  expired  ;  that  is  78  years  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  This  era  is  called  Siilivahana 
Saka,  or  simply  Saka.  Thus  1871  of  the  Christian  era  would  be 
tantamount  to  1 793  of  the  Saka  era.  The  Saka  year  is  the  same 
as  and  begins  with  the  common  solar  year. 
Sambhu — A  name  of  Siva. 

Thy  journey  next  o'er  Kauakhala  bends. 

Where  Jahnu's'daughter  from  the  hills  descends  ; 

Whose  sacred  waters  to  Bhagirath  given, 

Conveyed  the  sons  of  Sagara  to  heaven. 

She  who  with  smiling  waves  disportive  strayed 
Through  Sambha's  locks,  and  with  his  tresses  played  ; 
Unheeding,  as  she  flowed  delighted  down. 
The  gathering  storm  of  Gauri's  jealous  frown. 

Sambhu — 2,  The  king  of  the  Daityas,  who  slew  the  rishi 
Kusadhvaja,  the  father  of  Vedavati. 


786  APPENDIX. 


Sammada — The  name  of  the  fish  that  lived  in  the  pond  where 
the  sage  Saubhari  was  immersed  for  twelve  years. 

Sanmukha — A  name  of  Kartikeya,  the  war-god. 

Satabali — One  of  the  generals  of  the  monkey  king  Sugriva, 

Satanika — The  son  of  Janamejaya  and  grandson  of  Parikshit. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  with  the  Titans,  having  gone  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Indra,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  throne  by  Sahasranika. 

Satva-devi — l,  A  name  of  Parvati  ;  2,  The  name  of  a  nurse 
to  the  children  of  the  giant  Havana. 

Satavahana — The  sou  and  successor  of  Dipakarni,  (q.  v.) 
Dipakarui,  iu  obedience  to  Siva's  commands,  repaired  to  a  certain 
forest  to  hunt ;  and  whilst  thus  employed,  met,  as  he  had  been 
forewarned,  a  lovely  boy  riding  upon  a  monstrous  lion.  Still 
acting  as  he  had  been  enjoined,  the  king  aimed  an  arrow  at  the 
beast,  and  he  fell  as  dead.  Immediately,  however,  up  rose  from 
the  carcase  a  celestial  form,  who  thus  addressed  the  astonished 
monarch.  *  Dismiss  your  apprehension  ;  I  am  a  Yaksha,  Sata  by 
name.  It  was  my  chance  to  see  and  love  the  beautiful  daughter 
of  a  holy  sage  ;  my  passion  was  returned  ;  and  this  boy  whom  you 
behold,  is  our  son.  When  the  secret  of  our  union  was  discovered, 
the  angry  sire  condemned  us  both  to  wear  the  forms  of  brutes 
during  the  remainder  of  our  earthly  career.  My  bride  was  liberated 
from  the  effects  of  the  curse  in  giving  birth  to  her  son  ;  and  your 
shaft  has  rendered  me  the  same  kind  office.  I  am  now  at  liberty  ; 
but  ere  I  depart  to  the  region  of  the  gods,  I  bequeath  to  you 
this  child,  to  be  cherished  by  you  as  your  own.'  So  saying,  he 
vanished,  leaving  the  boy  with  the  king,  who  gladly  received  him, 
and  gave  him  the  name  Satavahana,  iu  reference  to  the  appellation 
of  his  father  and  the  vahana,  or  vehicle,  on  which  the  king  had 
first  beheld  the  infant  mounted.  Upon  the  death  of  his  adoptive 
father  Satavahana  succeeded  to  the  throne  and  became  a  mighty 
monarch. — Wilson's  Works,  III,  183. 

Satyavama — One  of  the  wives  of  Krishna.  She  is  also  known 
as  one  of  the  wives  of  Vishnu  ;  in  his  avatar  of  Krishna  she  was 
with  him,  and  Lakshmi  is  said  to  have  been  also  incarnate  as 
Bukmiui. 


APPENDIX.  787 


Satyavrata — The  original  uamc  of  Trisanku,  (([.  v.) 

Savitri^Oue  of  the  twelve  Adityas.  Surya  and  Savitri  aro 
exact  personifications  of  the  sun.  It  is  under  these  two  different 
appellations  that  the  sun  is  chiefly  celebrated  in  the  Rig  Veda. 
Savitri  is  permanently  the  golden  deity  ;  being  hiranyiksha,  golden- 
eyed  ;  hiranya-hasta,  golden-handed,  &c.  Luminous  in  his 
aspect,  he  ascends  a  golden  car,  drawn  by  radiant,  brown,  white- 
footed  horses  ;  and  beholding  all  creatures  he  pursues  an  ascending 
and  descending  path.  Surrounded  by  a  golden  lustre,  he  illumi- 
nates the  atmosphere  and  all  the  regions  of  the  earth.  His  robust 
and  golden  arms,  which  he  stretches  out  to  bless,  and  infuse  energy 
into  all  creatures,  reach  to  the  utmost  ends  of  heaven.  In  one 
place,  however,  he  is  called  ayolianu^  the  iron-jawed,  though  eveu 
there  the  commentator  says  that  ayas^  which  ordinarily  means 
iron,  is  to  be  rendered  by  gold.  His  ancient  paths  in  the  sky  are 
said  to  be  free  from  dust.  He  is  called  (like  Varuna  and  others  of 
the  gods)  asura,  a  divine  spirit.  His  will  and  independent  autho- 
rity cannot  be  resisted  by  Indra,  Varuna,  Mitra,  Aryamau,  Rudra, 
or  by  any  other  being.  The  other  gods  follow  his  lead.  The 
waters  and  the  wind  obey  his  ordinance.  His  praises  are  celebrated 
bytheVasus,  by  Aditi,  by  the  royal  Varuna,  by  Mitra,  and  by 
Aryaman.  He  is  lord  of  all  desirable  things,  and  sends  blessings 
from  the  sky,  from  the  atmosphere,  and  from  the  earth.  Ho 
impels  the  car  of  the  Asvins  before  the  dawn.  He  is  Frajdpati, 
the  lord  of  all  creatures,  the  supporter  of  the  sky  and  of  the  world, 
and  is  supplicated  to  hasten  to  his  worshippers  with  the  same 
eagerness  as  cattle  to  a  village,  as  warriors  to  their  horses,  as  a 
cow  to  give  milk  to  a  calf,  as  a  husband  to  his  wife.  He  is  called 
visvadeva,  "  in  all  attributes  a  god."  He  measured  (or  fashioned) 
the  terrestrial  regions.  He  bestows  immortality  on  the  gods,  as 
he  did  on  the  Ribhus,  who  by  the  greatness  of  their  merits  attained 
to  his  abode.  He  is  prayed  to  convey  the  departed  spirit  to  the 
abode  of  the  righteous.  He  is  supplicated  to  deliver  his  worship- 
pers from  sin. 

Savitri  is  sometimes  called  apam  napat,  son  of  the  waters,  au 
epithet  which  is  more  commonly  applied  to  Agui. 


788  APPENDIX. 


The  word  Savitri  is  not  always  a  proper  name  ;  but  is  some- 
times used  as  an  epitliet. —  0.  S.  T.,  V,  164. 

Sena  or  Sein — Sometimes  written  Gandliarba-Sena,  or  Gun- 
drusein,  a  Gandharba  who  was  condemned  for  an  affront  to  Indra, 
to  be  born  on  eartli  in  the  shape  of  an  ass,  but  on  entreaty  the 
sentence  was  mitigated,  and  he  was  allowed  at  night  to  re-assume 
the  form  and  functions  of  a  man.  This  incarnation  took  place  at 
Ujeiu,  in  the  reign  of  Eaja  Sunderseiu,  whose  daughter  was 
demanded  in  marriage  by  the  ass  ;  and  his  consent  was  obtained  on 
learning  the  divine  origin  of  his  intended  son-in-law,  confirmed,  as 
he  witnessed,  by  certain  prodigies.  All  day  he  lived  in  the  stables 
like  an  ass  ;  at  night,  secretly  slipping  out  of  his  skin,  and  assum- 
ing the  appearance  of  a  handsome  and  accomplished  young  prince, 
he  repaired  to  the  palace  and  enjoyed  the  conversation  of  his 
beauteous  bride. 

In  due  time  the  princess  became  pregnant  ;  and  her  chastity 
being  suspected,  she  revealed  to  her  father  the  mystery  of  her 
husband's  happy  nocturnal  metamorphosis  ;  which  the  Raja,  being 
conveniently  concealed,  himself  beheld  ;  and  unwilling  that  his  son 
should  return  to  his  uncouth  disguise,  set  fire  to,  and  consumed, 
the  vacant  ass's  skin. 

Although  rejoiced  at  his  release,  the  Gandharba  foresaw  the 
resentment  of  Indra,  disappointed  of  his  vengeance  ;  and  warned 
his  wife  to  quit  the  city,  about  to  be  overwhelmed  with  a  shower 
of  earth.  She  fled  to  a  village  at  a  safe  distance,  and  brought 
forth  a  son,  the  celebrated  Vikramaditya ;  and  a  shower  of  cold 
earth,  poured  down  by  Indra,  buried  the  city  and  its  inhabitants. 
—^5.  Bes.,  Vol,  VL     [Ujein.] 

This  legend  gives  a  date  to  the  catastrophe  ;  for  the  prince,  so 
renowned  in  his  origin  and  birth,  was  not  less  so  as  a  monarch  and 
an  astronomer  ;  and  his  name  marks  an  era  much  used  all  over 
India,  commencing  fifty-six  years  before  our  era. — Moor,  H.  P., 
p.  262. 

This  story  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  form  of  the  *  Golden 
Ass'  of  Apuleius,  which  is  in  fact  the  story  of  Beauty  and  the 
Beast. 

Sr^manaka--A  Buddhist  mendicant. 


APPENDIX.  789 


T 

Tunda— A  powerful  demon,  that  was  destroyed  by  Nalmslia, 
the  sou  of  Ayus  ;  the  Padma  Furaua  contains  a  long  narrative  of 
the  event. 


U 

Ujein — The  ancient  Avanti  ;  a  city  of  great  antiquity,  that  is 
considered  the  first  meridian  by  Hindu  geographers  and  astrono- 
mers. The  ancient  city  was  about  a  mile  further  south,  and  now 
lies  buried  in  the  earth,  to  the  depth  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
feet  :  on  digging,  its  walls  are  said  to  be  found  entire,  pillars 
unbroken,  &c.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  real  cause  of  this 
catastrophe,  Hindu  fancy  has  attributed  it  to  the  intervention  of 
the  gods,  and  dressed  it  up  in  a  mythological  allegory  which  is 
believed  to  be  the  original  form  of  the  "  Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius." 
See  Sena. 

Upakosa — The  wife  of  Vararuchi,  (q.  v.)  Duriug  her  hus- 
band's absence  she  attracted  the  notice  and  desires  of  several 
suitors,  whom  she  succeeded  in  exposing  and  punishing  in  a  very 
ludicrous  manner.     See  Wilson's  Works,  IH,  170. 

Upayaja — A  brahman  of  eminent  learning  and  sanctity,  to 
whom  king  Drupada  applied  in  his  anxiety  to  procure  a  sou, 
promising  a  million  of  cows  if  he  enabled  him  to  obtain  the  son  he 
desired.  Upayaja  however  declined  the  task,  and  referred  him  to 
his  elder  brother  Yaja,  (q.  v.) 


V 

Vaitalika— A  sort  of  poetical  warder  or  bard,  who  announces 
fixed  periods  of  the  day,  as  dawn  and  evening,  &c.,  in  measured 
lines,  and  occasionally  pours  forth  strains  arising  from  any  incidental 
occurrence. —  fVilson,  XI,  209. 

Vatsa— A  celebrated  character  in  Hindu  fiction.  He  was  the 
sou  of  Sahasranika,  (q,  v.)  and  king  of  Kuusambi.     Vatsa  was 


790  APPENDIX. 


named  Udayana,  from  being  educated  on  the  Udj-a  mountain, 
by  the  sage  Jamadagni.  AYhen  arrived  at  maturity  he  was  decoyed 
into  captivity  by  the  king  of  Ujein.  On  his  escape  he  carried  off 
Vasavadatta,  the  daughter  of  his  captor.  Vatsa  is  the  hero  of  the 
Ratnavali.— See  Wilson,  XU,  264. 

Vigneswara— A  name  of  Ganesa,  (q.  v.) 

•  Vina — The  Hindu  lute  ;  an  instrument  of  much  sweetness  and 
compass,  but  little  power. 

Vittora — The  name  of  Vishnu  in  one  of  his  minor  Avatars,  as 
related  in  some  of  the  Puranas.  He  is  represented  as  retaining 
on  his  breast  an  indelible  mark  of  Bhrigu's  foot,  with  which  the 
following  legend  is  connected.  In  a  divine  assembly  Ehrigu  was 
asked  who,  of  the  gods,  was  the  most  mighty  ;  he  said  he  would 
proceed  to  inquire,  and  first  went  to  Brahma,  in  approaching  whom 
it  was  usual  to  pay  very  respectful  obeisance,  which  on  this 
occasion,  Bhrigu  purposely  omitted,  and  experienced  in  consequence 
severe  reprehension,  including  copious  abuse,  (for  the  Hindu  gods, 
like  Homer's,  are  very  abusive,)  from  Brahma,  who  however 
became  pacified  by  seasonal)le  apologies.  Bhrigu  next  proceeded 
to  Siva,  and  omitted,  as  before,  the  usual  tokens  of  adoration  on 
entering  the  divine  presence  ;  Siva  was  still  more  enraged  than 
Brahma,  but  was  in  like  manner  pacified  by  Bhrigu's  apologies. 
He  then  repaired  to  Vaikuutha,  the  celestial  residence  of  Vishnu, 
whom  he  found  asleep,  with  Lakshmi  shampooing  his  feet.  Bhrigu 
knew  that  the  mere  omission  of  respect  would  not  be  sufficient  to 
move  the  gentle  god  to  anger,  and  to  make  a  trial  of  his  temper  he 
boldly  gave  the  recumbent  deity  a  severe  kick  on  his  breast. 
Vishnu  awoke,  and  seeing  Bhrigu  arose,  and  in  place  of  anger, 
expressed  apprehensions  that  he  must  have  hurt  his  foot  by  striking 
it  against  his  (Vishnu's)  breast,  and  proceeded  to  lament  it  and  to 
rub   and  chafe  Bhrigu's   foot   to   remove  any   consequent   pain. 

*  This,  said  Bhrigu,  is  the  mightiest  god  ;  he  overpowers  by  the 
most  potent  of  all  arms,  affability  and  generosity  ?'  See  Moor's 
Hindu  Pantheon,  p.  418. — This  is  a  favourite  story  amongst 
the  Brahmans  of  the  south. 

Vithoba — A  deified  sage,  very  popular,  and  extensively  wor- 
shipped in  the  Poona  Deccan. 


APPENDIX.  791 


Vetal — Tlie  demon-god  of  the  outcaste  helot  races  ;  the  circle 
of  large  stones,  which  may  be  observed  outside  almost  every 
village,  is  sacred  to  this  god  ;  the  superstition  has  for  ages  held, 
and  still  holds,  its  ground  against  all  Brahmauical  innovations. 
The  stones  remind  the  traveller  of  the  Dj'uid  circles  of  the 
northern  nations.     Sir  B.  Frere.* 


Y 

Yaja — A  brahman  of  distinguished  attainments  to  whom  king 
Drupada  was  referred  when  he  was  seeking  to  obtain  a  son.  The 
king  promised  Yaja  ten  million  of  kine  ;  and  with  much  reluctance 
Yaja  undertook  to  direct  a  sacrificial  ceremony  by  which  the  king 
should  obtain  offspring  and  called  his  younger  brother  to  his  assist- 
ance. When  the  rite  had  reached  the  proper  period,  the  queen  was 
invited  to  partake  of  it,  but  she  had  not  completed  her  toilet  and 
begged  the  brahmans  to  delay  the  ceremony.  It  was  too  late,  and 
the  sacrifice  proceeding  without  her,  the  children  were  born  inde- 
pendent of  her  participation. —Wilson,  III,  326. 

Yajur  Veda—"  The  history  of  the  Yajur  Veda  differs  in  so  far 
from  that  of  the  other  Vedas,  as  it  is  marked  by  a  dissension 
between  its  own  schools,  far  more  important  than  the  differences 
which  separated  the  schools  of  each  other  Veda.  It  is  known  by 
the  distinction  between  a  YajurVeda,  called  the  Black-,  and  another, 
called  the  JVhite-Yajur  Veda.  Tradition,  especially  that  of  the 
Puranas,  records  a  legend  to  account  for  it.  Vaisampayaua,  it 
says,  the  disciple  of  Vyasa,  who  had  received  from  him  the 
Yajur  Veda,  once  having  committed  an  offence,  desired  his  disciples 
to  assist  him  in  the  performing  of  some  expiatory  act.  One  of 
these,  however,  Ydjvavalhya,  proposed  that  he  should  alone  per- 
form the  whole  rite  ;  upon  which,  Vaisampayaua,  enraged' at  what 
he  considered  to  be  the  arrogance  of  Yajuavalkya,  uttered  a  curse 
on  him,  the  effect  of  which  was,  that  Yajuavalkya  disgorged  all 
the  Yajus  texts  he  had  learned  from  Vaisampayaua.     The  other 

*  Introduction  to  Old  Deccau  Days, 


792  APPENDIX. 


disciples,  having  meanwhile  been  transformed  into  partridges 
(tittiri),  picked  up  these  tainted  texts,  and  retained  them.  Hence 
these  texts  are  called  Taittir-iyas.  But  Yajuavalkya,  desirous  of 
obtaining  other  Yajus  texts,  devoutly  prayed  to  the  Sun,  and  had 
granted  to  him  his  wish — *  to  possess  such  texts  as  were  not  known 
to  his  teacher.'  And  because  the  Sun  on  that  occasion  appeared 
^to  Yajuavalkya  in  the  shape  of  a  horse  (vdja),  those  who  studied 
these  texts  were  called  Vajhis.  That  part  of  this  legend  was 
invented  merely  to  account  for  the  name  of  the  Taittiriyas,  after 
whom  a  Sanhita  and  Brahmana  of  the  Black  Yajur  Veda,  and  for 
that  of  the  Vdjasaneyins,  after  whom  the  Sanhita  of  the  White 
Yajur  Veda  is  named,  is  clear  enough.  Nor  is  greater  faith  to  be 
placed  on  it  when  it  implies  that  the  origin  of  this  dissension 
ascended  to  the  very  oldest  period  of  the  Yajur  Veda  ;  for  there  is 
strong  reason  to  assume  that  the  division  took  place  even  after  the 
time  of  the  grammarian  Panini,  (q.  v.).  But  so  much  in  it  is 
consistent  with  truth — that  the  Black  Yajur  Veda  is  the  older  of 
the  two  ;  that  the  White  Yajur  Veda  contains  texts  which  are  not 
in  the  Black  ;  and  that,  compared  to  the  motley  character  of  the 
former,  it  looks  *  white,'  or  orderly.  This  motley  character  of  the 
Black  Yajur  Veda,  however,  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  the 
distinction  between  a  Mantra  and  Brahmana  portion,  is  not  so 
clearly  established  in  it  as  the  other  Vedas  ;  hymns  and  matter 
properly  belonging  to  the  Brahmanas  there  being  intermixed. 
This  defect  is  remedied  in  the  White  Yajur  Veda  ;  and  it  points, 
therefore,  to  a  period  when  the  material  of  the  old  Yajus  was 
brought  into  a  system  consonant  with  prevalent  theories,  literary 
and  ritual. 

The  contents  of  both  divisions  of  the  Yajur  Veda  are  similar  in 
many  respects.  Two  of  the  principal  sacrifices  of  which  they 
treat  are  the  Darsapurnamasa,  or  the  sacrifice  to  be  performed  at 
new  and  full  moon,  and  the  Aswamedha,  or  the  horse-sacrifice,  at 
the  performance  of  which  609  animals  of  various  descriptions, 
domestic  and  wild,  were  tied  to  21  sacrificial  posts.  A  Purusha- 
medha,  or  man-sacrifice,  unknown  to  the  other  Vedas,  is  also 
mentioned  in  it  ;  its  character,  however,  is  symbolical. 


APPENDIX.  793 


The  text  of  the  Black  Yajur  Veda  is  extant  iu  the  recension  of 
two  schools — that  of  Apastawba,  to  which  the  Taittiriya  Smihitci 
belongs,  and  that  of  Charaka.  The  former,  which  is  in  course  of 
publication — the  first  volume  and  part  of  the  second  havinf^  been 
already  published,  with  the  commentary  of  Madhavachdrya 
(Say ana),  by  Dr.  E.  Roer  and  E.  B.  Cowell  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Indica  (Calcutta,  1860 — 1864) — consists  of  seven  Kiinda,  or 
books,  which  comprise  44  Prapathaka,  or  chapters  sub-divided  into 
651  Anuvaka,  or  sections,  and  containing  2,198  Kdndikas,  or 
portions. 

The  Vajasaneyi-Sanhitdy  or  the  Sanhita  of  the  White  Yajur 
Veda,  exists  in  the  recension  of  the  Mddhyandina  and  Kanva 
school.  In  the  former — the  text  of  which,  apparently  also  with 
the  commentary  of  MaMdk'o.ra,  has  been  edited  by  Professor  A. 
Weber  (Berlin,  1852) — this  Sanhita  has  40  Adhijdyas,  or  books, 
sub-divided  into  303  Amivdhas,  with  1,975  Kandikas. 

The  principal  Brahmana  of  the  Black  Yajur  Veda  is  the  Tait- 
^zVJyrt-Brahmana,  which,  with  the  commentary  of  (Madhava) 
Sayana,  is  in  the  course  of  publication  by  Baboo  Rajendralala 
Mitra — the  first  volume  and  part  of  the  second  having  already 
appeared  iu  print  (Calcutta,  1860 — 1865)  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Indica.  That  of  the  White  Yajur  Veda  is  the  Satapatha- 
Brahmana,  the  most  complete  and  systematic  of  all  Brahmanas. 
Its  text,  with  a  semblance  of  the  commentary  of  Sayana,  has  been 
edited  by  Professor  A.  Weber  (Berlin,  ISoo).^ Chambers* 
JEncyclopcedia,  Vol.  IX,  p.  727.  c 


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BL1105  .G23  1871 
Garrett,  John,  fl. 
1845-1873. 

Classical  dictionary  of 
India  :  illustrative  of 
the  mythology,  philosophy, 
literature,  antiquities, 
arts,  manners,  customs  &c . 
of  the  Hindus.